Aesthetics Final Study Guide

Beardsley

- aestheticism --> isolate art from morality, art for arts sake - Beardsley disagrees with this - moralism --> moral standards create and judge art - a person could accept both aestheticism and moralism - innocuous --> harmful art can be disregarded - moralism from reduction --> an art's value is solely dependent on its moral value, and artistic properties are irrelevant - moralism from correlation --> if an object has high moral value, it will inherently have high aesthetic value

Danto (The Artworld)

- agrees with Weitz what is art - art isn't merely mimesis (representation) - a predicate (something that recognizes something else) recognized due to a certain theory of art - when you break the mold of whats been done in art, you create a new category of art - immediately changes the past and history of art, which lacks this new feature - you enrich every category of art by trying to break it - what makes something art is not found by looking at its manifest features - emphasis on the role of art theory/artworld in making art - recognized as art due to legitimate theories - artworks must be taken as irreducible to parts of themselves artworld - to see something as art requires something the eye can't comprehend --> the artworld and it's theories, knowledge and history - the owner of the art must be aware of the history and artworld - cant have art without a theory of it - fundamental contrast between artworks and real objects - though things can coexist in the 2 worlds theory - theories of art are not unchangeable - revisions can be made to celebrate and accept new features

Caplan and Matheson

tokens and types - there are many types of the same thing - all versions, proceeding works or continuations of the first original instrumentation - the musician's choice of instruments creates differentiation among the same songs - each version of the song is individual whole theorists - in a whole performance, you're seeing two things: someone's take on the work, and the thing itself context - creates different tokens - original version of works has excitement created by new sounds --> original context instrumentation - each version of a song is individual based on instrumentation - can present different aesthetic qualities

McKee (China)

traditional understanding - the 'lofty scholars' achieved their status only in advanced age symbols - bridges and boats show transitions to new perspectives - mountains as detachments from stressful midlife agendas - pagodas and bells are philosophical or spiritual wisdom - natural environment reflects reconciliation with contending opposites - permanence and change

Dewey

- art cannot be interpreted any further once it is classified as a work of art and put within a museum - it becomes deprived of the aesthetic experience it was created from (the source) - we must take a detour in order to discover the esthetic quality that an experience has - by doing so, one can distinguish between works of art and the everyday life and possible restore the continuity between them - we must understand every component and factor that goes into an experience - even a stupid experience can shed light on the esthetic nature of such experience compared to an experience already set apart (work of art in museum) HAVING AN EXPERIENCE Experience vs. an experience - an experience has its own plot, inception, rhythm and harmony - there exists a logical and sequential organization to fulfill the experience - it is intentional, done with will and purpose - both intellectual and emotional - there are pauses, but no breaks or distractions - it has an aesthetic quality - an experience isn't confined to art Art - done with interest of completion, differing it from craft - creativity isnt harmed by restrictions, but rather it is enabled by limits, building a framework - for craft to be art, the work but be aesthetic, framed for enjoyed receptive perception - the artist is also the perceiver - art is an imaginative image that can move a culture forward Morality - artists create idealized worlds that reflect their culture and address problems within a culture, without the intent of questioning Undergoing and Doing - relevant in daily life - everything you do begins with an undergoing of effort, creating change - delicate balance and constant relationship

japanese aesthetics (Keene)

- art has personality, essence in the work four main features, all essential and beneficial to art: -perishability -- necessary elements of beauty, expresses fragility of beauty and love - irregularity -- avoidance of symmetry and regularity - suggestion - simplicity -- use of economical means to obtain desired effects

Indian and Hindu Philosophy

- art meets spiritual and aesthetic human needs - the purpose of art can be to meet these profound human functions - when you have this experience, its that of divine reality - must eliminate 'the self'

Heidegger NO

- dismissive of aesthetics, treating art as objects of our feelings the world is social and cultural, not just physical - art reveals and constitutes our unarticulated senses of the interpersonal world and material earth - the nature of art is the truth of beings setting itself to work - art unconceals the true nature of things - the work lets the earth be the earth, sets forth the earth, bringing it into the open as self-secluding - view art beyond its physical existence value of art - helps to establish truth and struggle - provides a sense of context about our world - distinguish culture and idea artist's role - the artist remains inconsequential as compared to the work - artists are trying to get at essences, not representations representation - art cannot be understood as a representation of anything distinction between a world and an earth - art provides a sense of context about the world in which we live - the earth is closed off, and we must set the earth in the context of being open greek temples - not representations, but rich with meaning in themselves - eternal essential nature - a thing becomes itself as it becomes part of a work of art the equipment - falls between thing and artwork - van gogh's painting of shoes does not represent merely equipment, but a whole world - the 'equipmentness' of the equipment - world is the synthesized essence and experience of equipment obtained through human social constructs and interactions

Virginia Woolf

- people (women) need a physical space as well as a culture that allows freedom for creativity - women are constantly interrupted within their spaces, not allowing them to write good poetry (women also need money to do good work) - her inheritance was a gift that gave her time and capacity to explore art and the true nature of men - gives a recommendation --> -women genius artists should kill themselves - individual solution --> every woman should be given the task of making women artists possible - reality is not even objective (it is based upon an individuals world) - history is subjective

Beardsley (Dance)

- understand the author's action by examining their generating conditions - the purpose of dance is to shape human activity by exaggeration of stylization movings - actions that have the character of a dance - expressive in virtue of their fairly intense volitional qualities - absence of practical intent - can be a working, a striving, distinct from 'actual' workings, reality and the practical realm - represents actions of other types in the mode of suggestion dance - sortally generating movings by bodily motions and posings by bodily pauses - moving is voluntary and intentional, in sequence with rhythmic order - posings - the stopping of motion - can be dance - not every motion is dancing --? its a surplus of expression that defines the motion as dance

Coomarawswamy (the dance of siva) non-western

Aesthetic emotion - this relates/agrees with Bell - art must instill an aesthetic emotion - there is only 1 form of beauty and rasa, no degrees Rasa - the essential element in poetry - translates to flavor - the equivalent of beauty or aesthetic emotion - must have the competencies to enjoy it - aesthetic emotion results in the spectator, depends on the effort of their own imagination Art and beauty - beauty is absolutely independent from the sympathetic (agreeable) - instruction is not the purpose of art - beauty cannot be known objectively - it is a state, and the ideal human type example - beauty can be discovered anywhere, not everywhere - beauty is absolute and spontaneous --> no degrees of beauty Siva and Gods - interpretation of a Hindu god - originated from activity of god --> the gods are the dancers - cosmic activity is the central motif of the dance - all and omnipresent ---> the dance is the god's dance, thus is divine Siva and Meaning/Audience - manifestation of primal rhythmic energy - the meaning is specific, and something you'll either get or not get - must surrender yourself --> loss of ego - everything you do is from the heart - the dance is a form of play, but also incredibly profound - there exist different variations

Hume

An OBJECTIVIST - only subjective in the trivial sense, in that every personal experience is subjective - the moral and aesthetic are banished from objective reality --> subjective, expressions of feelings - believes beauty is ascribed by man, not inherent in objects - variety of taste among individuals and entire cultures - all art has a pre-determined end --> the merit of the work depends on how well this end is achieved Sentiment and Judgment - distinction between sentiment and judgment --> all sentiment is right, but also not fully representative Standard of taste -objective principles of determination - delicacy of the imagination - the true critic is free from prejudice - some aesthetic judgments are better than others, due to the standard of taste Criteria for a person with superior taste 1. strong senses 2. delicacy of the imagination 3. free from all prejudice 4. improved by practice 5. perfected by comparison

Barthes (the death of the author) NO

Anti-Intentionalist and scrutinizer no such thing as an Author - idea of the author must necessarily be detached from the work - the mere idea of an author imposes a limit on the text - there is no explanation or meaning to be found in the text - there is a scriptor, no author The reader - the birth of the reader is the death of the author - their role isn't personal, they're not a unique individual, but rather a someone, a means to hold together the text writing is simply the language and words - there exists only the writing, and its interpretation is open to many meanings - things are to be disentangled, not deciphered - language is what performs the acts - inherently cultural, as there is no originality or predetermined meanings to writing - enunciation, the speaking of words, is an empty process --> independent from the person who writes the words

Benjamin (Photography)

Aura - there exists a certain aura to photos and environments - only present in the original, the unique - reproductions have no aura - not everyone will 'get' the aura liquidation - the destruction of auratic qualities - mechanical reproduction removes art from its cultural context, which is positive in Benjamin's mind Photos - nothing unique about any photographs - photography has no long history of tradition - by divorcing the art from its contextual surroundings, art can become universal mass production - worries about mechanical reproduction - it lacks something that old works had, a uniqueness - creates change in perception

Can art transcend culture? Is there something genuinely universal in art? Kant, for example, believes there is; so, in many respects, do Tolstoy, Nietzsche, Wordsworth, Schiller, Schopenhauer, and others. Present some examples and discuss some reasons why art might be able, at least sometimes, to transcend culture. Discuss some examples and carefully choose three specific essays that we read that tend to show that art is culture-bound and cannot be separated from a culture's social and historical traditions and circumstances. One (but only one) of these three may be one of the feminist essays we read. Discuss either Danto or Dickie. What evidence do we have from non-Western cultures? So far in your thinking, explain how you would answer the main question and why that seems correct to you.

Can art transcend culture? Kant - judgment of taste is universally valid - subjective universality --> every individual has the ability to see and delight in beauty Neitzsche - deep down, we are one. calls for self-forgetfulness and union between men --> primortial unity - individual identities are forgotten with Dionysian art, rather it unites men - Brings comfort through community, shared experiences - without this force, we don't have complete truth Schiller: According to Schiller art can transcend culture if semblance is used when viewing art. By using semblance we can get past the barriers of our imagination. Semblance does not require any special intelligence, it is a part of being a human. In this way we can transcend culture, everyone has the power of semblance no matter where they are, or where they come from. Tolstoy Conditions for art 1. content - new and important to society - morally good - response to a personal doubt 2. form - must be clear, concise, and definite - beauty results from these 3 conditions 3. sincerity - the most important feature - must be true and infectious - creation is due to personal motivation, not external factors Universality - creation is common to all men, a condition to human life - form of communication, expressing universal emotions - creates a unity and harmony among men, forming relationships and harming society Feminist Essay - Battersby Misogyny and Art - women don't share the same capacity to create art that men do (history has so thought) - women are deemed incapable of artistic creativity - genius has been understood as a male characteristic, gendering the word to reinforce perception of the artist as inherently male - women faced internal and external barriers to artistic expression, struggling with identities and the psyche, internalizing the oppressive culture Renaissance view - art requires distance from emotions, and women are inherently over-emotional - women lack reason Romantic View - accepted emotion and individualism in artistic creation - women deemed too judgmental, not emotional enough - male artists stress their masculinity to compensate for emotions Dickie - a work of art is an artifact of a kind, created to be presented to an artworld public - being a work of art isn't a conferred status, but is achieved as a result of creating an artifact within the art world, within a context and framework artworld - it is crucial --> you know that there is such a thing as art, you believe in art, appreciate it and engage w it - members of artworld public know how to fulfill a role that requires knowledge similar to an artist - consists of a set of individual artworld systems Non-Western View - Navajo Aesthetics art and life - certain ceremonies are reserved only for men, some only for women - no need for preservation, as fleeting beauty is ok - more value in process of creation - art is not separate from everyday life, but incorporated into everyday life Personal opinion - yes it can, due to universality of emotions and primortial unity - not to say that all art can, but only certain types that are not dependent on cultural or societal understandings to comprehened the work - rather, when its a matter of aesthetic emotion, i think art can transcend culture - this is why the mona lisa or monets water lilies are world-renowned, attracting people and cultures from all corners of the world who hold these pieces in similar regards

Caroll and Banes dance

Center their argument as a critique of Beardsley's points (particularly expressiveness) - some of his claims may not be needed to constitute art, nor sufficient enough to define all types of dance - it's not expressive at all --> doesn't involve movements more exaggerated or extra than practical movement - but also not practical at all - the arts interconnect and push the boundaries - if it's intended for the artworld, for the domain of art dancing proper, then it can be art

Tolstoy

Conditions for art 1. content - new and important to society - morally good - response to a personal doubt 2. form - must be clear, concise, and definite - beauty results from these 3 conditions 3. sincerity - the most important feature - must be true and infectious - creation is due to personal motivation, not external factors Universality - creation is common to all men, a condition to human life - form of communication, expressing universal emotions - creates a unity and harmony among men, forming relationships and harming society Non-art - contemporary art is too focused on beauty as the sole criteria - replications and imitations bereft of emotion and knowledge are bad, even harmful art Productive and Progressive - good art brings insight to the unknown - transfers emotions, thus an experience or knowledge - entails both thoughts and emotions

Leibowitz (Photography)

Hubble photographs come with different expectations from most others, due to scientific purposes - would be criticized for innacuracy if treated as family/news photos aesthetics - the non-aesthetic features require specialized knowledge to understand - have aesthetic qualities designed to make them appealing and engaging , made to inspire awe within audiences intentionalist - creator's intention is of no regard to the feelings evoked by the photos - without these photos, there would likely be much less interest among public in celestial bodies

What should count as art? How can you tell? Explain why having an answer to this question is important. Using a broad range of theorists from our course, develop your own response. [Note that this question contains freedom, excitement, and danger; the answer must be specific and detailed, and must demonstrate both a broad a deep understanding of this issue.]

In deciding what should count as art suggests that there is a distinct definition of art, which, I don't think there is a single sufficient or comprehensive definition, as the scope of art is so vast and multifaceted a single definition could not possibly encapsulate all that are does. - similar to the standard of taste, there is no specific or explicit conditions that must be met to constitute art - however, like the person with superior taste, there are people who are able to discern what is art due to their developed competencies - it must evoke some aesthetic emotion, this is crucial. it is communicative in this respect, instilling something in the perceiver, creating a connection between the perceiver and the art's aesthetic properties, thus infecting them with a certain quality, as Tolstoy's account posits agree with Dickie - being a work of art isn't a conferred status, but is achieved as a result of creating an artifact within an art world - this artworld I believe to be important, for it is what fosters and encourages the production and appreciation of art, influencing the development and perceptions of art, both individual pieces and larger styles agree with Weitz - there is no specific pre-determined conditions for what constitutes as art - it is a more open concept, there exist similarities among art forms, and parallels for what gets accepted as art agree with heidegger the world is social and cultural, not just physical - art reveals and constitutes our unarticulated senses of the interpersonal world and material earth Why an answer to this question is important - what is decidedly art has social, cultural and economic repercussions, as the status of 'art' grants pieces, and their artists, special roles of prestige or attention in society - gets put in museums, has exhibitions - creates traditions and history, creates standards of taste

Wollheim NO

Intentionalist - the meaning, feeling, intention is inherent within the work - reject scrutiny as the correct approach to appreciate and understand art criticism - the way we study and understand art - it is retrieval and reconstructing the creative process, which terminates the work of art itself - retrieving the creative process which culminated in the work - when this process is retrieved, the work is then open to understanding - allows us to see art as intentional, not accidental radical historicism (Eliot's work) - works of art change their meaning over time - critics must extract new meaning from the work - Wollheim objects to this, as changing culture will erase the context necessary to reconstruct the creative process retrieval of meaning - retrieval is legitimate because it contributes to perception - in recording the artist's intention the critic must state it from the artist's POV, or in terms to which the artist could give (un)conscious recognition - the critic must concur with the artist's intentionality perfect forgery - IF such a thing as the perfect forgery is possible, and IF your experience of the work is altered by understanding it to be a forgery, THEN scrutiny theory isn't adequate - for in a case of perfect forgery, any difference in your judgment or appreciation must come from outside the work - still, he's very uncomfortable admitting there's such a thing as the perfect forgery

Hirsch NO

Intentionalist - In defense of the author Semantic Autonomy - a work's meaning is self-governed, without regard to the author's intention (rejects this??) Meaning - the text has to represent someone's meaning - meaning is an affair of consciousness, not of words - it's not the meaning of the text that changes, but its significance to the author--> meaning vs. significance - if a text means what it says, then it means nothing in particular - meaning is not of physical signs of things, but an affair of persons - when you write something, it captures a moment --> the meaning remains forever - you cannot change the specific meaning, but rather can change your opinion on the meaning - all you need is a high-degree of probability to know the meaning - it doesn't matter what the author means, only what the text says - the author's full meaning is inaccessible, as its private Consciousness - there are usually components of an author's intended meaning that they're not conscious of Author - banishing the author thus banishes the affair of consciousness, and the possibility of finding meaning in a text - when critics banish the author, they usurp the role of author - authors must show consideration for their readers - often the author doesn't even know what they mean

What is the proper role and function of an art critic? Begin with Kant and Hume, then discuss Bullough, Sibley, Cavell, and Isenberg. Why does Sontag object so much to criticism? Who else does or would object to it? Why? Try to respond to her criticism and any other relevant criticism of criticism. (Yes, I meant that.) Defend the existence of art criticism. Did you do a decent job of it? Why or why not?

Kant - aesthetic judgments make a universal claim, such that when a critic deems something to be beautiful, they require agreement from all others - disinterested taste. must be removed from the object in relation to your own life, and from morality, or desires of possession - no such thing as 'beautiful for me' - must be in the presence of the object to make a judgment, cannot do so based solely on description - critic cannot identify the purpose of the art, created 'as if' with a purpose Hume - there exists a standard of taste against which the critic holds their judgments - these judgments reconcile variations in taste with better and worse judgments - proper role of the art critic is to have these 5 criteria, to make for a person with superior judgment 1. strong senses 2. delicacy of the imagination 3. free from all prejudice 4. improved by practice 5. perfected by comparison Bullough - must attain proper psychical distance, like the ship captain in fog - critic must be careful not not overdistance themselves from the work by overanalyzing the pieces rather than seeing the whole. movie critics tends to do this, seeing the technical aspects rather than the whole movie Sibley - any aged person can see or perceive the objective aesthetic qualities of art --> they are in the art itself - must recognize the non-aesthetic to see the aesthetic, they are interdependent and give context to each other Cavell - the critic can help others have a better experience - must be objective, because you give reasons for your judgments - these reasons can then act as a guide for others, to attain aesthetic experiences Isenberg - critics should be doing their work in the presence of an actual example - the critic communicates in a way that is universally understandable - they're educational, helping others to see better, educate and encourage aesthetic experiences Sontag - the urge to interpret reflects and urge to replace the work with something else, a meaning - evades the difficult and disturbing nature inherent in the work - finds contemporary interpretation to be particularly troublesome - thinks that it violates art, and makes it an article for use - criticism today often exhibits a lack of attention to form, thus a muting of the senses - she wants criticism to be possible, just not interpretation. this stresses the distinction between form and content Who else would condemn criticism? - I think that Small would similarly condemn criticism, seeing it as both unnecessary and perhaps even destructive to art, specifically dance. - his account, which focuses on african dance, posits the process of creation as the integral or valuable feature, rather than the finished product - due to this, there should not be a preservation of music - as such, I think he would argue that criticism is irrelevant, as it function to analyze the finished product, which Small argues to be merely the outcome of something else that is of greater importance, being the process of creation Response to criticism of criticism - criticism, i believe, is crucial, and interpretation is part of that - interpretation helps audience to contextualize the work in their own life, to make sense of it - it does not suggest an urge to replace the meaning of the work, but rather an urge to understand the work Defense of criticism - criticism is vital for the evolution of art - humans, as rational beings, are naturally inclined to critically reflect on and analyze works of art, utilizing their capacity for rational inquiry - it helps to create the artworld, engaging people in communication about works

Referring at least to Kant, Hume, Wimsatt and Beardsley, and Bell, present and assess the strongest supports for this anti-intentionalist or scrutiny view. [For this topic do not get distracted by Bell's formalism, which is a distinct position.] What are its greatest weaknesses? Choose two distinct philosophers [such as Hirsch, Wollheim, feminists, or other intentionalists] who oppose this view and present their objections, plus independent objections of your own. Use examples. Which view, so far, seems strongest to you? Why?

Kant - art is created 'as if' it had an intent, but you cannot actually tell what the intent is - you have to pay attention to what appears objectively within the art Hume - Wimsatt and Beardsley: - every creative work is always made with an intention, but it is almost impossible to judge a work by these standards. - Unless the intention is clearly written onto the page, one cannot know for certain what the intention behind a creative work is. - - Intentions are external to the creative work itself, so they are difficult to track down - internal is also public: it is discovered through the semantics and syntax of a poem... - external is private or idiosyncratic; not a part of the work as a linguistic fact: it consists of revelations... about how or why the poet wrote the poem" (380.2). - To incorrectly read into intentions can distort the overall view that one has of a creative work. - there is a high risk in attempting to assess this quality. - Once a creative work is released, "The poem is not the critic's own and not the author's (it is detached from the author at birth and goes about the world beyond his power to intend about it or control it). The poem belongs to the public" (376.7). Bell - must focus on the significant form of the work, rather than any non-aesthetic features - the content and represented matter are irrelevant Wollheim - rejects the anti-intentionalist scrutiny as being integral to aesthetic experience. - proposes the concept of the "perfect forgery"--> If a perfect forgery existed, and your experience of the work of art was altered by learning that the work is a forgery, then the scrutiny theory is not adequate. If your experience would be affected by this, then the intentions of the work of art hold significant weight. -He believes that scrutiny is problematic because it divides aesthetic experience into the realm of accessible and inaccessible knowledge. This takes away from the overall meaning of the work. One must fully understand a work of art if they're going to have a complete experience. Hirsch - a text cannot be meaningful and deep if it differs to each reader - when an author changes his mind, the work's intentions still holds, the original meaning is engrained in the work - the opinion on the meaning can change, and does, but this doesn't significantly alter the true meaning of the work My opinion - I agree most strongly with Wimsatt and Beardsely - there exists an intention for every work, but that intention in inaccessible - sometimes even the artist him or herself is not aware of their full intentions

Battersby

Misogyny and Art - women don't share the same capacity to create art that men do (history has so thought) - women are deemed incapable of artistic creativity - genius has been understood as a male characteristic, gendering the word to reinforce perception of the artist as inherently male - women faced internal and external barriers to artistic expression, struggling with identities and the psyche, internalizing the oppressive culture Renaissance view - art requires distance from emotions, and women are inherently over-emotional - women lack reason Romantic View - accepted emotion and individualism in artistic creation - women deemed too judgmental, not emotional enough - male artists stress their masculinity to compensate for emotions Anais Nin - modernist writer who finds herself conflicted between her creative identity and the perception that only men are capable of such - struggles to have a 'male' career Christianity - Church interpreted God to be male, thus the idea of creation was thought to be only male - attached genius to god, thus genius to male - the Gnostic Gospels could have welcomed women into the role of power and divinity, but chose to solely make it a male's role

Berleant (Environmental) nature

NEM isn't the only acceptable model - think that Carlson skims over the ability to immerse yourself in nature appreciation - emotions are critical - supports arousal theory, and being moved by nature with emotions - involves knowledge of the category the work of consideration falls into - you can have an objective response to nature without knowledge of science and context - aesthetic responses are natural due to one's genes, as well as the properties of landscapes - western aesthetics has quarantined art from the everyday - daily activities can be aesthetic experiences - wants to get away from tradition --> don't overanalyze the work, just get the full experience environment - no separation with humans, they're inextricably bound together - no such thing as THE environment, just environment - attentive to lots of kinds of features of the earth - perceptual awareness with distinct sensory engagement perception - all perception is colored by individual natures, memories and experiences - you're not purely getting at the world - mediated and filtered through individual's culture and society judgment - there is NO objective judgment of art

Bullough

Psychical Distance - must be properly distanced from an object in order to recognize its aesthetic value - the beautiful is distinct from the agreeable - distance is obtained by separating the object and its appeal from one's own self, reality, and daily life - distance is variable both according to the distancing power of the individual, and according to the character of the object - no self-expression in artistic creations, but rather art is the product of distanced mental content - provides the necessary distinction between the beautiful and agreeable --> the agreeable is a non-distanced pleasure Personal and Emotional - the proper distance is still personal and emotional, but in a sense uninfluenced by one's biases and personal life - the emotional aspects are encouraged through the work itself - distance is filtered, yet intensely emotional underdistancing - when we confuse art with life - pulling the art too far into the context of practical matters overdistancing - occurs when one notices the technical features - pushing the art as a whole, and the aesthetic, away from you, not allowing it to communicate with you directly and wholeheartedly

Caroll (Movies)

Response to films - it's like mastering a language; involves becoming fluent in arbitrary conventions and culturally specific symbols Power of films - due to the idea that viewers use their normal and everyday cognitive processes while watching films - cinematic techniques imitate cognitive processes - films can be accessed by larger audiences because viewers don't have to learn specific languages to interpret the narrative - power comes from native responses to images, variable framing, and erotetic narrative Erotetic Narrative Model - films set up a question in the audiences mind, and eventually answer it - audience is pushed to come up with questions and problem solve to understand the narrative - problem-solving films can be pleasurable once viewers reach the narrative resolution

Bell (form, aesthetic judgement, true art/morals)

Significant Form - the distinctive and definitive feature of art - the subject matter and represented content of a work of art is aesthetically irrelevant - the one quality common to all works of visual art - the forms arranged and combined according to certain unknown laws, that move us in a particular and emotional way - its the business of the artist to combine and arrange the forms - form is not an object of emotion, not a means to suggest emotion or communicate information aesthetic judgments - all are subjective - must have sensibility for an aesthetic experience - delicate sensibility and aesthetic emotion - special aesthetic emotions particular to the type of art - representation is irrelevant to art - great art is universal and eternal, remains stable and unobscure - the feelings art provokes are independent of the time and place true art - primitive art is the finest forms, as it concentrates only on the creation of form - art is objects that provoke aesthetic emotion - art is above morals, and all art is moral --> they're an immediate means to good - to appreciate art, you only need a sense of form and color, and a knowledge of 3D space

Walton (Photography)

Transparency - you see the world through photos - a photo shows you the actual object in the picture - they assist our vision, similar to a microscope or mirror - not an illusion nor realism - viewer must have the proper psychical distance ---> the 'jolt' Meaning of photos - not conditional to the beliefs of the photographer - mechanical and causal because the subjects directly cause their photos

Kant

Two most important conditions for judgement of taste: subjectivity - judgment of taste is based on a feeling of pleasure or displeasure universality - we think that others ought to share our judgment. That is why we blame them if they don't. It is because the judgment of taste has such an aspiration to universal validity that it seems "as if [beauty] were a property of things" - we demand or require agreement from other human beings - pleasure in beauty is "disinterested" (pleasure that doesn't involve desire) Questions whether art criticism fits within philosophy - the good vs. the beautiful - the good may have moral properties - the beautiful is based purely on aesthetic properties the sublime - overwhelming and incredible - dynamically --> limitless power (like Niagra falls or thunderstorms) - mathematically --> limitless magnitude (starry night) - the sublime is subjective - mind is both attracted and repelled by the sublime - sublime experience would not be possible if humans had not received a moral training that taught them to recognize the importance of their own faculty of reason. - what is properly sublime are ideas of reason: namely, the ideas of absolute totality (large building is small in grand scheme of things) or absolute freedom (big storms give feelings of freedom) - sublime is a back and forth of being overwhelmed and scared and feeling pleasure Beauty is universal - claiming something is beautiful demands that others agree - subjective universality --> every individual has the ability to see and delight in beauty - believes subjectivism-NT (beauty for ME) is FALSE --> subjective universal validity

Is art best understood in terms of expression? What is it expressing? Explain and assess three "expression-ist" theories of art: Wordsworth, Tolstoy, Collingwood. Use examples in your discussion. Then consider several possible critiques of this position, including that of Clive Bell's formalism and Susan Sontag's arguments for a formalist approach, plus anti-intentionalists Wimsatt and Beardsley and Roland Barthes. Is an expressionist theory of art the most appealing? Why or why not?

Wordsworth - the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings - the poet feels and gives expression to feelings - must nourish your emotions for intellectual and cognitive skills - you don't get truth in your heart without passion Language and Emotions - the language for poetry is the language for everyday life - the poet feels and gives expression to feelings - feelings are connected with important subjects, so everyday language reveals what's important to men and society - must nourish your emotions for intellectual and cognitive skills - you don't get truth in your heart without passion Tolstoy Conditions for art 1. content - new and important to society - morally good - response to a personal doubt 2. form - must be clear, concise, and definite - beauty results from these 3 conditions 3. sincerity - the most important feature - must be true and infectious - creation is due to personal motivation, not external factors Productive and Progressive - good art brings insight to the unknown - transfers emotions, thus an experience or knowledge - entails both thoughts and emotions - form of communication, expressing universal emotions - creates a unity and harmony among men, forming relationships and uniting society Collingwood expressionist theorist - art is the activity and expression of emotion - the purpose and distinctive feature of art - comes from an idea in the artist's head - works of art are the outward manifestation of this idea - the reader is an artist as well as the author - if a composer has a song, composed but kept to themselves, it is still art --> they're still expressing something to themselves - even our experience of visual art is a total bodily experience, not only visual but also imaginative art proper - expresses, rather than arouses, emotions - description damages art, generalizes it - no selection of emotions, just a candid expression - the artist is an ordinary man - the expression of emotion doesn't exhibit symptoms of it, never rants - can be an imaginary thing --> completely created when its only place is within the artists mind - from looking at a picture we get the imaginary experience of certain complicated muscular movements - two parts to the value of work: 1) specializes sensuous experience 2) non-specialized imaginative experience - true art is an imagines experience of total activity Bell's formalism critique - form is not an object of emotion, not a means to suggest emotion or communicate information - the forms arranged and combined according to certain unknown laws, that move us in a particular and emotional way - primitive art is the finest forms, as it concentrates only on the creation of form - art is objects that provoke aesthetic emotion, separate from regular emotions Sontag's formalist critique - focus on form, rather than content - scrutiny emphasizes the importance of form - calls to stop interpreting - sometimes interpretation can be helpful or useful, but modern times have abused interpretation - must guide viewer to a more complete experience by looking at the object itself Wimsatt & Beardsley anti-intentionalists anti-intentionalists! and scrutinizers - poetry doesn't require intentions, it's relevance is understood in relation to itself - design and intention of the author is neither available nor desirable as a standard for judging the success of a work of literary art - poems have a personal meaning, which comes from the dramatic speaker of the work, not the author Barthes anti-intentionalist no such thing as an Author - idea of the author must necessarily be detached from the work - the mere idea of an author imposes a limit on the text - there is no explanation or meaning to be found in the text - there is a scriptor, no author Is expressionist theory the most appealing? - no, i think that anti-expressionist is more appealing, as it's more plausible - i agree with Wordsworth and Collingwood, in that poetry and art is an overflow of emotions and feelings, yet I don't think that art's value is dependent on these expressions. - I find myself siding with Wimsatt and Beardsley, in that the true and full extent of the intentions is often inaccessible, and at times not even the artist is cognizant of their intentions. - i think that works have objective properties, separate from the artists intentions, that speak to the audience

Broad statement of this question: Is there a logic of taste? Consider the theories and claims of Hume and Kant, with brief reference also to Cavell and Isenberg. Specific questions: What is the difference between a subjectivist view (our term "subjectivist-NT") of art and of aesthetic experience and what we have described roughly as an objectivist view? Does Hume negotiate this territory successfully? Does Kant? Argue as forcefully as you can against the subjectivist-NT claim that "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder." Begin by explaining what that quotation means and, very briefly, explain why someone might support it. Barthes, for example, can be understood as a subjectivist. Then focus on supports for objectivism. Explain in a sentence or two why Plato is an objectivisit (use his theory of Forms), then discuss both Hume and Kant in detail, plus Bullough and Sibley. Are you closer to subjectivism or objectivism? Why?

Yes, there is indeed a logic of taste. Taste is an objective property, inherent within works of art. The individual or collective community must acquire the competencies to distinguish and discern tastes. Isenberg - criticism is analytic, discriminating --> regards qualities, not whether the work is good or bad - critical communication, the critic relays information in a way that is universally understandable, thus gives reasoning Cavell supports objectivism - provides reason through words --> inherently logical - can help others have a better experience - thinks it's absurd to say "beautiful to me" - there are objective facts about things that can't be refuted - it can help others have a better experience Hume - Hume's essay on the standard of taste is intended to show that the subjectivist view is false - argues that is it possible that there are some objective truths about an art work's beauty or excellence - objective judgments are sometimes possible, and reasons can be given for these claims Subjectivisit - believe that there is no such standard of taste, and no objective judgment for any work of art - thus there is no disputing about taste, everyone is entitled to and equally correct in their own perceptions of art and beauty - no art work itself can be decidedly better or worse than any other work Hume and Kant's degree of success - There's nothing about Hume or Kant's account that creates a problem with their propounding of objectivism, as they're perfectly consistent with the fact that all of our aesthetic experiences are subjective in the sense that an individual is an experiencing, sensing being - they still allow for individual differences and unique personal responses, and do not condemn the diversity of individual differences Argue against subjectivism barthes and subjectivism - the birth of the reader is the death of the author - there exists only the writing, and its interpretation is open to many meanings - the reader puts these meanings, rather than trying to find the singular meaning of the work, as there is no singular meaning why is plato objectivist - presents an argument for the forms, in that in the intellectual realm there exists one true form of everything bullough and sibley -psychical distance --> must remove your personal reality from perception - if you're underdistanced, you cannot perceive the objective features of the art, but rather instill your own attachments to the work, creating in a sense illusions or misguided perceptions of the art can distinguish between aesthetic and non-aesthetic concepts - must recognize the non-aesthetic properties to see the aesthetic -- the aesthetic properties depend on the non-aesthetic - objectivist! --> aesthetic properties are in the art itself, universally accessible to any age or person - taste is necessary to recognize aesthetic features - exercising judgment vs. exercising taste personal opinion - agree with objectivism - there are inherent features to certain works, and at times judgments can be made on an objective basis, granting some are better than others

Carlson nature

aesthetic appreciation of natural environment - there IS an objective judgment of art - nature isn't art, it's not our creation, but our whole natural environment - environment of creation is aesthetically relevant - agrees with Dewey and notion of consummatory experience - ideal appreciation requires (scientific) knowledge - argues for the Natural Environment Model (NEM) - interactions with nature must be a consummatory experience --> knowledge and intelligence transform experience into an experience Landscape Scenery Model (LSM) - representing an object as if it were a painting - not looking at 'it', but you're taken out of context and environment to see it as an image - appreciative emphasis on qualities that play an essential role in representing a prospect - rejects this theory object of art model (OAM) - looking at objects and details rather than the entire landscape - allows for an aesthetic appreciation of objects of nature, without seeing them as art - problematic in removing natural object from its surroundings and context - rejects this theory Aesthetics of Engagement model (AOE) - Burliant's position - carlson rejects this --> provides too many possibilities, accepts everything - a landscape must be composed, which AOE is not

Sontag (interpretation, form/senses)

anti-intentionalist and scrutinizer (what must be avoided) - scrutiny emphasizes the importance of form - calls to stop interpreting - sometimes interpretation can be helpful or useful, but modern times have abused interpretation - urge to interpret reflects the urge to replace the work with something else, a meaning - interpretation poisons our senses - interpretation violates art, makes it an article for use attention to form and the senses (what should be done) - this is needed in art - criticism that applied an accurate, sharp, laving description of the appearance of a work of art - transparence is the highest, most liberating value in art - need to recover the senses --> see, hear and feel more - must guide viewer to a more complete experience by looking at the object itself

Wimsatt & Beardsley (poetry, intention, internal)

anti-intentionalists! and scrutinizers - poetry doesn't require intentions - design and intention of the author not desirable as a standard for judging the success of a work of art - intention is not within the poetry either, so critics must look outside to find it - poetry is not the authors nor the critics but belongs to the public perceiver - there is a valuable democratic process for the perceiver to look at the work - the perceived cannot try to figure out the artists intention as that would ruin the process of being a perceived meaning - the words of the poem itself give meaning, not the author - personal meaning is UNIVERSAL Effects of Aesthetic objects - relieves tension and quiets destructive impulses - refines perception and discrimination - develops the imagination - fosters mutual sympathy and understanding - offers an ideal for human life internal vs external meaning of a poem - internal is also public: discovered through the semantics and syntax of the poem (this is HOW you find the MEANING) - external is private, consisting of revelations, but not a part of the linguistic facts - REJECTS the external features of art --> all facets that exist outside of the work's inherent properties allusions - make it difficult to avoid the intentional fallacy - as humans, its impossible to be free of allusions, buts its through these allusions that human connections are made

Scruton (representation in music)

architecture is public, functional, and location specific - if it's not all of these three, it cannot be architecture - changes accordingly with its environment - architecture as a means to and end --> does the architecture fulfill its function? what is architecture - is not solely art or solely craft, but not a mixture of both, but a synthesis of both - cannot be expressive as other forms of art are - value of a building is intrinsically tied to its functionality - what is possible is determined by human competence --> architecture evolves as engineering skill does, not as culture, etc beauty in architecture - cannot be viewed in abstraction

Venturi

architecture is shelters with decoration - functionalism is independent from decoration try to learn from 'low' art, and add it to the understanding of 'high' art - mcdonals building is equally architecture as roman ruins are - there is room in high architecture for pop art symbols - function in part to advertise - symbols in las vegas will make you realize you missed the symbols in rome

chinese aesthetics (Wu and McKee) non-western

art as a part of the universe -divine energy flowing through everything, an attitude - everything we do can be art, because we are part of the universe, have cosmic unity - unity and harmony of opposites --> everything contributes to each other similar to the aztec - sing the world into existence meaning in art - use of metaphors and symbols to portray broader/deeper meaning - paintings can teach, make you aware art as a mindfulness practice - become selfless, depersonalize - involve oneself in art in an impersonal way, as part of a bigger picture calligraphy - itself, this is an art - can be added on top of paintings

Wu (Chinese)

beauty - less of a subject to be independently discussed than a pervasive attitude - can't define it because it depends on one's attitude yin and yang - reciprocals, counterparts and counterpoints aesthetics as cosmic attitude - two attitudes in aesthetics: objective analysis and pervasive concord - every human activity is cosmic --> in everything we do, we utter a cosmic language

Sibley

can distinguish between aesthetic and non-aesthetic concepts - must recognize the non-aesthetic properties to see the aesthetic -- the aesthetic properties depend on the non-aesthetic - objectivist! --> aesthetic properties are in the art itself, universally acceptable and accessible to any age or person - taste is necessary to recognize aesthetic features - exercising judgment vs. exercising taste in certain ways aesthetic concepts are not/cannot be conditioned or rule-governed - aesthetic concepts are governed only negatively by conditions --> certain non-aesthetic features can make it impossible to ascribe aesthetic features - aesthetic concepts describe what is actually in the object distinction b/w aesthetic and perceptual qualities - yet the aesthetic is not esoteric - aesthetic terms are learned through natural responses

Isenberg (critical communication)

critics must communicate in a way that is universally understandable - critics should be doing their work in the presence of an actual example - helping others to see better, educate and encourage new values, perceptions and experiences - communal aspect --> understanding through mutual engagement - role of teacher --> sharing insight art criticism - the reasons a critic offers to support their evaluative judgments are never logically compelling - criticism allows a person to make their own educational judgments - critical process is divided into three parts: verdict, reason, norm - distinction between exploring and justifying a critical response - it's analytic, discriminating --> regards qualities, not whether the work is good or bad critical communication vs. ordinary - ordinary symbols require relatively independent self-perception - critical is the idea of a quality, not the quality itself --> enables a person to make their own educated guess

Walton NO

disagrees with Sibley - argues aesthetic properties of a work depend upon the non-aesthetic properties critical role of background and context - art cannot correctly be viewed in and of itself - aesthetic judgments rely not only on the senses, but also on categorizations made from this background three types of features, or perceptually distinguishable aesthetic properties - standard --> the commonplace, regular features; similarities. people don't notice the standard features, as they've become so overused. contribute to a sense of correctness about the work - variable --> the elements that can change within a work of art - contra-standard --> what makes something truly creative, making up a new art form. Once something CS has been done, it cannot be done again as a form of CS aesthetic perception requires certain knowledge - aesthetic judgments aren't all subjective - criteria exists for deciding which category a work is correctly seen in - the correct way to perceive a work is determined by historical facts about the artist's intention and society --> these determine and make coherent aesthetic properties, rather than merely hinting at them

Davies (expression of emotion in music) music

expression and emotions - in purely instrumental music, its not clear that anyone's emotion is expressed, yet we experience the music as emotionally expressive - emotion is inherent in the music - the expressive uniqueness of individual works isn't the specificity of the emotion expressed, but the particularity of the musical means used to achieve its expression objective property of music's expressiveness - yet it can be associative, invoking former contexts in which it was heard - there's an expressive character to the sound music presents, without regard to what anyone feels - movement of music is experienced parallel to how bodily bearings are indicative of a person's emotions arousal theory - if music arouses certain emotions in you, its because the emotions are in the music - he refutes this, arguing that emotional reactions are subjective

Le Corbusier

focuses on use of light in architecture - showing off as much surface area of regular shapes is the most attractive condemns gothic architecture - as it doesn't give an aesthetic response - is not harmonious prefers simplicity, geometric shapes - big fan of silos

Africa and African Music

instruments are vital to music - represent more than just a mere instrument - close connection to one's own instrument, a bond and ownership what is art - a manifestation of bodily functions and biology - not improvised, but also never static, written down or repeated - there's no way to preserve the performances, as there are constant, little changes and adaptations argument against documenting art - the appropriateness to the contemporary lives of the people is greater than western traditions of recording

Greenberg (Modernist Painting) NO

modernism - encompassed more than just the arts, but most of what is in our culture - a product of self-criticism and self-reflection - identification of limitations specific to a medium through self-criticism - creates an illusion you can travel through, destroys virtual flatness - self-criticism of this art is spontaneous and subliminal - a question of practice, not theory - truth and success of their work is individual - has never meant a break with the past --> devolution but continuation tradition - art as moving along and never a break with tradition - search for new methods - art does not have to justify its existence, it has intrinsic value - limits are the essence of painting, and greatness and value is found in the formal qualities of the painting - agrees with Bell - the correct way is to perceive as a complete picture, not what in them

Small non-wetsern

music is an integral part of everyday life - very interactive, very few barriers between performers and perceivers - african music breaks the fourth wall in performance, which makes it more enjoyable african music - created for communal benefit - voice is the dominating factor, sounding almost like speech - voice doesn't require beautiful melody or training -- beautiful voice doesn't make a good singer - always lively and upbeat, despite theme of song - made to dance and sing to - don't seek to evoke reflective emotions instruments - not mere tools, but colleagues in creation preservation - don't preserve music - process of creation is more important than the final product - the completed song is just the outcome of the train of important components

aztec aesthetics (Clendinnen)

no contrast between natural world and the god-made artistic world - it's all art - worldview is fundamentally tied to aesthetics, life is a fictional painted book by the gods -humans are merely representations - artists are creators, and all life is a dream perfection should be strived for and achieved - realism in sculpture, accuracy of representation - objects of art become religious symbols

Is the position of the objectivists or that of the subjectivists closer to being correct? Discuss a variety of objectivist views; these include (1) Kant and Hume (also supported in Cavell's, Isenberg's, and Walton's essays), (2) the "scrutinizers" (such as Wimsatt & Beardsley and Barthes) and (3) formalists (Bell, Sontag, Greenberg). (Discuss either Kant or Hume and choose at least one scrutinizer and one formalist.) Each of these theories proposes criteria for good aesthetic judgment. Can one or more of these theories respond success-fully to the subjectivist?

objectivist is closer to being correct Kant - subjective nature of aesthetic tastes doesn't imply skepticism about aesthetic judgments - aesthetic judgments make a universal claim - beauty is universal - claiming something is beautiful demands that others agree - subjective universality --> every individual has the ability to see and delight in beauty - believes subjectivism-NT (beauty for ME) is FALSE --> subjective universal validity Hume - objective principles of determination - delicacy of the imagination - the true critic is free from prejudice - some aesthetic judgments are better than others, due to the standard of taste Wimsatt & Beardsley - the intentional fallacy --> artist's intention should not affect the critic's analysis of the piece -- the artwork should be judged within itself - poems have a personal meaning, which comes from the dramatic speaker fo the work, not the author - personal meaning is universal Bell - significant form --> its about the formal properties of the art - art is not a means of communication, but a means of evoking aesthetic emotions Hume's successful response to subjectivism - he accepts that individuals have their own personal preferences about the agreeable - but this is distinct from the objectivity of aesthetic judgmemts - a true critic is free from prejudices that taint judgments, as well as the proper experiences to educate and develop their senses

Cavell

supports objectivism - provides reason through words - can help others have a better experience - thinks it's absurd to say "beautiful to me" - there are objective facts about things that can't be refuted - it can help others have a better experience - inconclusiveness of arguments about aesthetic qualities illustrate the rationality it entails and necessitates - pattern and agreement are the distinct features of the notion of logic

Schopenhauer

posits a hierarchy of the fine arts - holds music in the highest regard - architecture at the bottom powers of music - it can alleviate suffering - communicates ultimate truth and reality - Kantian view, focusing on form of music, an abstract account - transcends the phenomenal world - affords opportunities for disinterested contemplation - enhances human condition and provides direct knowledge of reality - is the work of genius, an inspiration -makes everything appear in enhanced significance --> inexpressible depth of all music - it is a universal language --> of feeling and passion, of the created form the will - music is mimetic, a copy of the will itself - expresses the many different forms of the will's effort - music is basic, real, in a platonic way --> its an expression of the will as the world is - man is entirely distinct from the artist melody and sound - has significant and intentional connection from beginning to end - harmony produces a gradation of ideas - within melody exists the highest grade of the will's objectification reality - sharp distinction between reality 'in itself', and the world as were bound to - the 'thing in itself' is will, observed in one's own activities - everything is governed by a blind will to live art is not representational - music is more serious than referring to a depiction of a thing being depicted - doesn't even depict a platonic form, but is an expression of the will itself, of the striving towards resolution - an immediate objectification and copy of the whole will

Collingwood (expresses emotions)

presents the narrowest conception of art expressionist theorist - art is the activity and expression of emotion - the purpose and distinctive feature of art - comes from an idea in the artist's head - works of art are the outward manifestation of this idea - the reader is an artist as well as the author - if a composer has a song, composed but kept to themselves, it is still art --> they're still expressing something to themselves - even our experience of visual art is a total bodily experience, not only visual but also imaginative craft vs. art - craft is pseudo-art - 'art' is a word in common use, and is used equivocally - craft is distinct from proper art - craft involves a distinction between means and ends - craft involves preconceived thoughts, and a distinction between means and ends - means and ends are related in one way in planning, and inversely in execution - craft sees a distinction between form and matter - there exists a hierarchical relation between crafts art as a psychological stimulus (arousal) - arousal entails an exterior motive, thus cannot be real and proper art - to arouse a certain kind of emotion, stimulate certain intellectual activites or a certain kind of action - this is NOT a proper classification of art - what makes a work of art isn't the same as what makes it useful art proper - expresses, rather than arouses, emotions - description damages art, generalizes it - no selection of emotions, just a candid expression - the artist is an ordinary man - the expression of emotion doesn't exhibit symptoms of it, never rants - can be an imaginary thing --> completely created when its only place is within the artists mind - from looking at a picture we get the imaginary experience of certain complicated muscular movements - two parts to the value of work: 1) specializes sensuous experience 2) non-specialized imaginative experience - true art is an imagines experience of total activity

Dickie (The new institutional theory of art)

properties and conditions of art - essential property of art is non-exhibited - a work of art is an artifact of a kind, created to be presented to an artworld public - no restrictions on the kind of object/event suitable for art - property of having been created to be presented to public - artifactuality is a necessary condition of art - being a work of art isn't a conferred status, but is achieved as a result of creating an artifact within the art world, within a context and framework - the framework must include a role for a public artworld - it is crucial --> you know that there is such a thing as art, you believe in art, appreciate it and engage w it - members of artworld public know how to fulfill a role that requires knowledge similar to an artist - consists of a set of individual artworld systems - the institution of art involves rules of very different kinds --> conventional (subject to change) and non-conventional context and background against which we understand and appreciate works of art says little about the work, or what it is to understand and appreciate it presents a classification theory - concerned with mediocre, bad, worthless art as well as the good and masterpieces

Goswamy non western

the audience - important in classical indian music - an interaction between artist and audience, providing feedback to the artist, who then responds - even if the work/performance is imperfect, the audience's imagination can make it perfect - surprised to see audience shaking their heads, expressing emotions and sobbing - shocked to see how engaged and immersed the audience was beauty - spontaneous, natural and unique character of beauty Rasa - rasa leads to a melting of the heart, and deep emotional feelings - mysterious, can't depict how one attains it - is infectious, communicates something between artist and audience - audience has the experience of rasa, enabled by the artist - strong spiritual dimension to rasa and the aesthetic - one way of showing why art is so important to humanity - rasa is objective, you see the ultimate truth, beauty and love - the experience of rasa is akin to the experience of ultimate reality - art must result in the experience of rasa, it must yield delight - 9 routes or sentiments to rasa

Goldblatt

the dislocation of the architectural self - when designing and creating architecture, must be removed from the self, which is driven by the tradition of architecture - use strategy of the 'arbitrary text' to greatly lessen influence of the self

Cohen (Photography)

the relationship between a photograph and the origin of the photo is like a natural child and parents - resemblance of direct causation - the efforts of the photographer create this connection to the photo's origin The photographer's intentions matter - must address factors such as structure an atmosphere, similar to the painter - they need to construct the photo before taking it, to help illustrate expression Doubts Walton and transparency - what the photo shows is a fact Photo to world - camera is not automatic, thus unartistic or uncreative - every musical instrument is similarly a machine, but can still make beautiful things

Levinson music

tries to define music - experience taken as sound - sounds temporally organized for the purpose of enriching experiences - its a human artifact, not natural - intended to be worth listening to - not defined in relation to emotional life, nor in terms of communication something may be music that lacks all types of features of music - there are conditions which aren't hearable, or cognized for their recognition - no intrinsic properties of sound required for something to be music effects of music - intended to intensify and deepen experiences - to heighten life and consciousness - doesn't necessitate a musical experience lister's role - involves active engagement, not passive listening - the analysis of music is creator-oriented or creator-driven

Langer (virtual space and architecture)

virtual space - sculpture is intentional, symbolic and representational - the context and environment around the work is crucial --> how does the work react to its environment? - there's a kinesthetic element (vibe) to the context and the work culture - architecture is closely related to its culture - environmental factors manipulate human behavior - the way that people interact with architecture will create an ethnic domain or a culture around it, adding to the architecture itself

Navajo Aesthetics (Witherspoon) non-western

wealth is measured by music - how much music do you know, and how much is your own? art and life - certain ceremonies are reserved only for men, some only for women - no need for preservation, as fleeting beauty is ok - more value in process of creation - art is not separate from everyday life, but incorporated into everyday life

Langer (dance)

what is NOT art/dance - musical rhythm nor physical movement aren't enough to engender a dance --> these are dance motifs - gesticulation alone is not art --> too close to reality gesture - the primary illusion of dance --> spontaneous gestures of dance motions express illusory vital forces - all dance motion is gesture, a vital movement - imagined gesticulation that conveys emotions, imagined feeling governs the dance - actual movement, virtual self-expression - communication through motion, intentional messages - seen and understood as vital movements dance - is a virtual realm of power - there is an energy and intentional expression to dance

Nochlin

white western male viewpoint accepted as the viewpoint - inadequate on moral, ethical, and intellectual grounds - we shouldn't accept whatever is commonplace as "natural" (ex: the white men are better than women, especially in art) - western male white viewpoint is accepted as THE viewpoint everyone should accept problem with feminists' misconception of what art is, and to think of arts as having a 'feminine style' - naive idea that it's a direct, personal expression of individual emotional experience - art is not this emotional product, but rather materially bodied in the works' ingredients - male and female art may entail the same features, but women have been subjected to menial work and domesticity, excluded from artistic opportunity claims there have been no supremely great female artists - mad at art history - due to institutions and educations structural nature - patriarchal society engrains and perpetuates unequal gender relations