African American's Quest for Civil Rights (1917-80)

Martin Luther King's involvement in the March on Washington (1963)

- 'I Have a Dream' speech evoked words of Lincoln + his promises of freedom + equality made in the Declaration of Independence - Inspiring, spine-tingling, uplifting

Evidence that Martin Luther King was unsuccessful in Chicago (1966)

- 'Operation Bread basket' *headed by young SCLC recruit Jackson* succeeded in putting consumer pressure on businesses to employ more blacks - Mayor Daley + city authorities did not live up to their promises after MLK left Chicago - Federal gov did not intervene because no pictures of police brutality

Martin Luther King and Black Power

- 'Psychological call to manhood' - Helped to overcome feelings of insecurity + inferiority - Did not agree with its call for violence + exclusion of whites - Would do more harm to blacks than whites - isolate black community

Court's Chief Justice, Earl Warren's, ruling

- 'Separate but equal was inherently unequal' - Psychological effect of segregated schooling leads to feelings of inferiority in the hearts/minds of young blacks - Called for desegregation of schools

Background to W.E.B Du Bois and the NAACP

- (Mostly) N. blacks met at Niagra and founded NAACP in 1909 - Criticized W policy of submission - Praised Reconstruction and the work of the 'Freedmen's Bureau'

Reasons why the sit-ins began

- (see why the SNCC was founded after the sit-ins) - Growing national movement/greater unity (1st few months of 1960: 1/4 of Americans joined 'Don't Buy Where You Can't Work boycotts)

Differences and similarities between Malcom X and Martin Luther King

- *Differences*: MLK saw himself as American/Malcom saw himself as a black man, MLK showed blacks were prepared to protest non-violently (and die) to realize American ideals/Malcom claimed that the oppressed had a natural right to armed self-defense - *Similarities*: powerful speakers + gifted debaters / fearless, despite death threats, in championing rights of black people / believed blacks should be proud of their identity, assert themselves + confront white racism

What were some of the NAACP's lawyers early victories?

- 1915: S/C knocked out Oklahoma's 'grandfather clause' - 1917: S/C ruled out Kentucky's laws on residential zoning was unconstitutional = showed the NAACP could take the battle for CR to the center of gov - S/C possible ally

W.E.B Du Bois's successes

- 1919: Crisis circulated over 100,000 copies - Employed the best lawyers and took cases to the S/C - SOME SUCCESSES - NAACP's campaign to ban 'The Birth Birth of a Nation' created controversy - leading to debate in Congress on lynching - NAACP membership increased = first branches set up in the S

How did NAACP lawyers took an increasing number of legal cases to the Supreme Court (more receptive - more liberal judges) in terms of VOTING IN THE SOUTH?

- 1944: S/C outlawed the all-white Demo primary election in Texas = black voters could not legally be excluded/more could register to vote - Black in S on electoral register rose from 3% (1940) - 12% (1950)

Evidence that Johnson ACHIEVED THE MOST for civil rights

- 1964 CRBill stronger than Kennedy's (banned segregation in all public places - Made deals in order to get his bill passed through Congress e.g. Republican leader in Congress promised federal money for project in Ohio - Supported S/C ruling in the Brown case (1954) - One of only S. politicians who had not signed 'Southern Manifesto' even if it meant alienating S. Demos (unlike JFK) - significant because he was S - 'War on poverty' would help poor blacks anyway - Used federal funding to speed up school desegregation in S - Kerner Commission (set up to investigate causes or urban riots) because he acknowledged white racism + police causing much of the violence) - Higher Education Act (1965) provided extra funding for poor black colleges = no. of black college students increased fourfold in 1960s - VRBill ensured 15th amendment was finally enforced + blacks could vote in any state

The third attempt at a march from Selma to Montgomery

- 3000 marchers (led by MLK + other CR leaders) - Different church leaders marched together - Marchers covered approx 16m p/day - singing, clapping + sleeping in camps on road side - Triumphant return to where protest M began - MLK made uplifting, optimistic speech to 25,000 in centre of Montgomery

Other effects of WW1 on African American's lives

- 370,000 AA called up to fight - Faced bitter treatment in the army (menial jobs, segregated regiments) - Huge increase in support for the NAACP e.g. 1919: 300 branches, 130 in the S (3 in region before) - 1st mass movement led by Garvey emerged - Returning AA soldiers returned to hostility + inequality e.g. black men in uniform angered some white racists = increase in lynchings in 1919

What happened during the 1960 sit-ins?

- 4 smartly dressed black students entered Woolworth's store in Greenboro - Bought several items + sat down at whites-only lunch counter, asking to be served (refused) - Remained sitting, reading Bible, studying until closing time - NEXT DAY: 29 students followed - 3rd DAY: all but 2/65 seats were occupied - Police arrested them for trespass + disorderly conduct

Impact/Significance of Birmingham Campaign (1963) + Martin Luther King's actions on promoting the Civil Rights Movement

- 50 other cities in S. agreed to desegregation in order to avoid chaos in Birmingham - R.Kennedy hosted meeting of black intellectuals who heavily criticized him for his inaction (MLK: black were at 'breaking point') - MLK + SCLC leaders had skillfully manipulated news media - Led to an upsurge in support for CR: donations poured into SCLC, opinion poll found 42% thought race was most pressing problem (only 4% yr earlier) - Kennedy stated on TV segregation was a 'moral crisis' that required action by federal gov + prepared a CRBill banning segregation in public places (had finally committed himself to cause) - MAJOR TURNING POINT IN CAMPAIGN FOR CR - Summer of 1963: 100,000 demonstrated across USA against segregation, job discrimination + police brutality (biggest N cities e.g. Philly = 1000s injured/imprisoned, 10 killed

Background to the Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

- 8 y/o black girl Linda Brown lived near an all-white school - Father sues the Topeka BoE; arguing Linda should be able to attend the local school rather than travel across town to an all-black school

Background to Little Rock, Arkansas 1957

- 9 black students enrolled at Central High were met on arrival by a white mob shouting abuse + threatening to lynch - Students expected to be protected + escorted into school by state troops were instead, blocked by them - P. Eisen eventually ordered troops to escort Nine into CHS/from class to class when crisis reached its peak

Poor People's Campaign, 1968

- AIM: to pressurize Congress into giving $30b of federal funds to economically depressed areas (unity for education + regeneration) - Incorporated the poor, both B&W, urban + rural - Despite the broad coalition of CR groups falling apart - MLK joined them in planning a massive demo in D.C, *only CR leader capable of attracting wide range of support needed to carry non-violent campaign of civil disobedience forward*

Reasons for the success of the boycott: Parks

- Active member of the NAACP who had campaigned against the injustice of segregated public transport + insulting behaviour of M bus drivers - Respectable, dignified married woman that would stir anger - HOWEVER: before her arrest, series of civil disobedient acts by several AA women occurred

Strengths of the Civil Rights Act (1964)

- Addressed all critical areas of CR - States compelled to stop discrimination in their own facilities (*not in the case of Younge, Alabama, 1966*) - Increasingly replaced J/C traditions over time - Federal funds could be denies to any gov agency that discriminated under VR section of act/any discriminatory programme - Outlawed practice of unequal voting requirements (all voters subject to same qualifying exam + qualifying standard) - Authorized the Office of Education to assist with school desegregation

Effect of WW1 in the North

- After: factory production contracted - Returning white soldiers wanted their jobs back - Competition for housing = INCREASED RESENTMENT + RETENTION

Why did Martin Luther King go to Selma in 1965?

- Alabama highly segregated society (CRAct made little difference) - Dallas County (Selma situated) only 1% of blacks registered to vote - Registration office only open on 2 Mondays p/month with irregular hrs - Applicants subject to long delays, lengthy questionnaires (on the Constitution) where slightest mistake mean disqualification - Fear of losing job (intimidation) kept people away - Sheriff Clark was hot-tempered racist who would act violently + attract media - Already had large, well-organised local campaign - 100s attended meetings

What did the atrocities after WW2 lead Truman to do?

- Appoint a Committee on Civil Rights to investigate the causes of violence - Committee led Truman to propose a Civil Rights Bill (segregation on public transport and lynching illegal) - Proclaimed 1st Feb National Freedom Day to commemorate the outlawing of slavery - HOWEVER: Repubs + S. Demos killed his Civil Rights Bill in Congress

What did the MFDP's selected delegate Fannie Lou Hamer do?

- Argued forcefully that MFDP delegated should be seated instead of MDP - Described shooting + beatings endured by herself + other women by police/prison guards for attempting to register to vote - Filmed (despite LBJ) + shown letter = POWERFUL CONCLUSION

W..E.B Du Bois's aims

- B/W set out to publicize injustice - Sent out white members to investigate lynching - reported atrocities in Crisis (Du Bois editor) to reach the masses/appeal to hearts and minds - Fearlessly published photographs of lynching - Advocated armed self-defense in the face of lynch mobs

Criticisms of Martin Luther King after the March on Washington (1963)

- Baker complained: 'the M made MLK, he didn't make the M' - Local leaders felt they did not need him - Many SNCC members mocked him as 'De Lawd' - SCLC had only been involved in few campaigns - Many black militants were critical e.g. Malcom X: 'subsided by white liberals and stage-managed by P Kennedy'

Political effects of WW2 on African Americans

- Became determined to exploit the fact that USA was fighting to defeat racist Nazi Germany (win a double victory conquering racism abroad and at home) - Contributed to the development of black activism e.g. Randolph organised 1000s of blacks to march on Washington in 1941 to pressurize the federal gov into banning job discrimination in war industries

Civil Rights Movement Fracture: Carmichael (SNCC)

- Became increasingly disillusioned + radical - Led voter registration drive in Lowndes County, Alabama (1965): majority of pop black, discrimination + white terror widespread, recent CR legislation made little difference - Persuaded local LC leaders to set up Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) - determined to meet violence with armed resistance (all members black, symbol was black panther)

Why was the SNCC founded after the sit-ins?

- Beginning of 1960s: CRM seemed to have lost momentum - Brown decision had not led to widespread desegregation - Church organisation only made modest changed in S through rallies, training people art of non-violent, direct action - Educated students in S growing impatient (esp. when learnt blacks in African countries were gaining independence)

How did WW1 lead to the 'Great Migration?'

- Better, well-paid jobs in fast-expanding industries - Labour needed in factories as US kept Britain + France supplied with weapons and goods

Significance/Impact of the third attempt at a march from Selma to Montgomery

- Biggest CR gathering in S. history - Success of march + speed with which VRAct was passed can be credited to MLK - HOWEVER: still white backlash (white mother shot dead at wheel of her car as she gave lift to some of marchers back to Selma)

Limitations to Marcus Garvey

- Black Star shipping line badly run - Found guilty of fraud, jailed in 1923 and deported - Mocked by other black leaders (e.g. Du Bois: "most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America") - Insists reform is not possible, endorses the racism - Not take seriously (flamboyant costumes, Jamaican) - AA want to be equal in their OWN COUNTRY

Impact of Black Power

- Black businesses catered for new market of African clothes, soul music + African literature - Many AA leaders adopted 'Afro' hairstyles (cultural icons) - Legal quality had already been achieved - this was an opportunity to unite + organise themselves to exploit their political/economic power - Violence + separatism was threatening to most whites and alienated many blacks ("father of hatred, mother of violence - Wilkins, NAACP) - Media focused on violent, not peaceful image of black power - Accused of encouraging violence/rioting that erupted in so many cities - New local organisations set up demanding 'community control' (ghettos schools, police forces) - 1968 Olympic Games: US medal winners Smith + Carlos raised their black-gloved fists to show black unity - Little influence in S (CRM had already achieved its aims) - Continuation of tradition of CRM (boycotts, demos etc.) - *Helped to banish belief, born of slavery + maintained by years of white supremacy, that blacks were inferior*

Significance of black churches during the Great Depression

- Black church organisations set up support systems for black citizens during the Depression - Restaurants and shops to sell food and supplies to black people at a lower cost in Harlem - Women's organisations: Housewives Leagues 'Don't Buy Where You Can't Work' campaigns to boycott stores in black districts until they hired them - HOWEVER: mostly in cities because more churches and people to donate relief work

NEGATIVE aspects about African Americans lives during the period of reconstruction

- Black codes - Jim Crow laws - Sharecropping - Ku Klux Klan - Poverty (AA had few job offerings) - Pig laws - N abandoned commitment to protect the rights of former slaves = reconstruction ends + white supremacy restored to S

Booker T Washington's failures

- Black critics: did not bring equality any nearer (endured J/C) - Lynching regularly reported - Same city (Atlanta) he claimed was improving saw tensions spark race riots in 1906 = weakened his moral authority - Washington betrayed by FDR ("greatest cause of lynching is the perpetration, especially by black men, of hideous crime and rape")

Booker T Washington's aims

- Black schools and colleges should teach practical skills = become economically independent - Best way to achieve equality was to work hard, save money and practice Christian values to prove they were not inferior - Policy: 'accommadationism'

Evidence that Martin Luther King DID NOT ACHIEVE THE MOST for civil rights

- Black struggle would have developed with or without him - Achieved far less in last 3yrs of his life than he had previously - Thousands at grass-roots level who risked their lives remain nameless - SNCC workers also remained committed to non-violence - breakthrough legislation of 1964-5 could not have been achieved without activists campaigning at local + regional levels (constituted nationwide core support for CR - without which, MLK could not have exerted such force on federal gov) - Little success in desegregating N/alleviating the misery of the impoverished) - NAACP successfully continued to bring cases to S/C - its leaders regularly had access to officials in WH + lobbied Congress (other black politicians pushed for legislation with in Congress)

What happened when the military and factories needed more people during WW2? (1942: 3% defense workers black / 1944: 8%)

- Blacks could push for equality - Led several towns to set up race relations committees to investigate improvements because strikes + riots damaging war efforts - Shortage of workers > black people had to receive training in certain skills + allowed some whites to see they could work together/be friends = affected their reaction to post-war civil rights efforts

Evidence that the Civil Rights Act DID NOT transform the political status of African Americans

- Blacks in N had been free to vote for many yrs - Voting requirements still allowed = many blacks still weren't registered to vote - Freedom Summer - Bloody Sunday - Reception Demo Party leaders gave MFDP at DNC

Evidence that Voting Rights Act DID NOT transform the political status of African Americans

- Blacks in N. cities free to vote for many years - Doesn't suddenly completely transform - have to register to vote first/next presidential elections in 1968 *(greater long-term effect)* - Recent CR legislation made little difference in Lowndes County - Bombings + lynchings continued in S

Implications of the Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56 on black citizens of Montgomery

- Bombs thrown into black churches and cars - MLK's house bombed - Parks fired from white-owned store she worked for

How was Freedom Summer a fully integrated project?

- Brought in middle + upper-class white student volunteers from across the nation - If these whites threatened/victims of violence = federal gov would provide protection of WH - Pressure from their well-connected families on local congressmen + senators was a means of PENETRATING THE WHITE POWER STRUCTURE - Press would give more coverage to deaths of white Americans

Limitations of the Civil Rights Act (1964)

- Businesses engaged in interstate commerce (only served customers + purchased all supplies from from within the state) = subject to law BECAUSE business between states was harder to regulate - Transition not immediate - some areas resisted the law - Powers to enforce initially weak - VR section of the act not up to the task of ensuring equal VR and access to political participation (as evidenced by FS + reception Demo Party gave MFDP at DNC)

Initial opposition to the integration of 9 students into Central High School

- CCC: formed to build support against segregation by organizing rallies, guest speakers to promote white supremacy - MLCHS: provided "feminine" slant to effort - Both employed racial mixing, emotional + physical health of vulnerable white children to stir up resistance

Civil Rights Movement Fracture: More militant SNCC + CORE

- CORE active in camapaigning for voter registration in Louisianna (meetings/demos patrolled + protected by Deacons for Defense and Justice - mostly made up of black veterans - FIRST ORGANISED, ARMED BLACK GROUP IN S) - By Watts riots: SNCC + CORE were becoming less committed to non-violence and integration with whites - Bombings/lynchings continued in S - Days of singing freedom songs + combating violence with love over - Both LCFO + Deacons linked rural S to militant black nationalism emerging in N - NAACP + SCLC felt federal gov finally delivering on its promises - SNCC distancing itself from Demo gov + mainstream CR groups - Increasing opposition to US involvement in Viet War caused more divisions in CR movement: SNCC declared that blacks couldn't fight in Viet till they were completely free in Mississippi

Why was there a Freedom Summer?

- CR organisations/leaders wanted to expand activities into Deep South to create greater pressure on federal gov (new LBJ admin) + gain more publicity - To target political power, specifically voting rights + political representation - CRAct had done little to remove obstacles that prevented blacks from voting

What did Malcom X do after his departure from the NOI?

- Called for all-black community schools in urban areas + Rifle Clubs so blacks could defend themselves/families - Set up Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) - Advocated voter registration drives + election of black candidates for public office - After pilgrimage: praised actions of MLK+SCLC in Selma, tried to establish deeper ties with CR leaders voiced support for any group that worked

Why was Martin Luther King unsuccessful during the Poor People's Campaign, 1968

- Campaign came to an end when MLK assassinated - CRM already achieved aims - White campaigners preoccupied with other issues (draft cards, student movements, counter cultures etc.) - From S, N's did not appreciate his interference

Impact of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-6)

- Catalyzed the creation of the SCLC > led significant protests + demos over next decade - Trial + conviction of King brought national attention to cause (funds/strong support) - Acts of intimidation through violence (5 white men attack 15 y/o at bus stop, gunshots fired at buses wounding passenger in legs, 4 churches bombed) - Buses desegregated + passengers became used to new norm - Spawned movements in numerous other cities

Civil Rights Movement Fracture: Disillusionment + Freedom Summer (1964)

- Caused some divisions among CR workers - Involvement of N. white student volunteers was resented by some SNCC field workers (privileged whites who were only there for the summer) - Whites took over many jobs local blacks had done - undermining self-confidence, stereotype of black inferiority - Some SNCC workers began to criticize integrationist approach - FBI not doing enough to protect CR workers/black pop - As white violence continued, some SNCC workers decided to carry guns (began to lose faith in non-violent protest)

Communists in Northern cities during the Great Depression and New Deal

- Championed the cause of all workers and demanded relief funds be allocated equally = black press followed these campaigns/applauded them - HOWEVER: this association gave opponents of the CRM another stick with which to beat it

Examples of resentment and retention in the North after WW1

- Chicago (1919): racial violence led to 38 deaths = authorities privately enforced a policy of residential segregation to maintain peace/white owners prohibited from reselling, renting property to blacks - Black children increasingly taught in segregated classrooms

White Citizens Council (reaction)

- Claimed to be non-violent (suits not sheets) - Attracted widespread support - Doctors, lawyers, farmers, businessmen, politicians - Economic threats to deter intergrationists e.g. fired/evicted from homes if black parents tried to admit children to white schools - Received state funding (whereas state laws required NAACP to reveal lists of members and addresses = exposing them to intimidation + violence)

Other reasons for the lack of support for the Freedom Rides of 1961

- Cold War: time of great fear + overreaction in US (McCarthyism) - Age of affluence: emerging middle class (mostly white Americans) wanted to live suburban dream, most did not want to see racial and economic disparities that existed throughout the country

Main reason for the success of the boycott

- Community's leaders were no longer afraid to stand up for their rights - Activism was sustained by strong, well-organised, disciplined black community in M

Discrimination in the North during WW2

- Competition for urban housing led to overcrowding e.g. black pop doubled in 1940s Chicago = unsafe, insanitary housing, 10 to a room - Outbreaks of violence e.g. Detroit: rumors of a white woman raped by a black man triggered a race riot = 34 people killed (25 black)

Aftermath of WW2 on African Americans

- Congress passed a law offering returning soldiers financial aid to attend college and gain qualification (many black veterans benefited from this law) - Racial violence less extensive (mostly in N) - South: blacks thrown of buses, shot for trying to vote, black veterans in uniform often killed

What was the impact of Martin Luther King's death in April 1968?

- Congress passed an act to promote more integrated housing (only had limited impact) - CRM had lost its voice + most charismatic leader - CRM split further apart, had already achieved its main aims of ending legal segregation + discrimination (most prominent white supremacist had left office or died = lost main targets + unity of purpose) - Led to wave of violence - ghettos set on fire in numerous American cities

What was the Council of Federated Organisations (COFO)?

- Coordinated NAACP, SCLC, CORE + SNCC so they could administer + carry out newly funded Voter Education Project (VEP) - VEP modestly successful in several S. cities (approx. 500,000 AA registered to vote by 1964) - BUT obstacles by segregationist groups meant Mississippi not part of this success

Economic effects of the Great Depression

- Cotton plantations were decimated by a collapse in the market for cotton - Huge no. of black laborers lost their jobs - At the bottom already, so didn't "fall" as much - Unemployment rose above 50% in some parts of the country (twice that of whites)

Malcom X's views

- Criticized policy of working with whites in order to persuade federal gov to pass reform - White Americans were the enemy/corrupt - Claimed CRAct made no practical difference, especially to blacks in ghettos - Critical of mainstream CRM: "so called Negro leaders + their policy of non-violent integration with white people" / described the March on Washington as an event taken over by the Kennedy gov to keep blacks compliant - Black separation, not integration - Predicted racial warfare - "Churches should be bombed + preachers killed" - AA should take control of their own lives (education/economy), rely on self-help + defend their own communities (self-defense) and stop "begging" the system - Black nationalism - Disagreed with NOI's non political stance = left NOI in 1964

Civil Rights Movement Fracture: Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

- Deepened disillusionment of many SNCC workers - MFDP was pressured into agreeing that MDP should be given official delegation + 2 members of MFDP would be given non-speaking voting seats at DNC - MLK + other SCLC leaders agreed to compromise (wanted to continue non-violent campaign + work with Demo gov in D.C to bring reform) = betrayal for many SNCC activists - Many in the organisation lost faith in Demo Party, white liberal + MLK - Not possible to provide adequate education in one summer

Nationwide outcry after Bloody Sunday (March 1963)

- Demonstration took place in more than 80 cities across America - 1000s of petitions sent to P, demanding action - Over 100 senators + congressmen were in favour of voting rights

Impact of the voter registration in Selma in 1963?

- Demonstrations continued + by Feb, 3000 protestors were in Selma jail - Even black teachers (v.conservative) were persuaded to march = encouraging many more (esp. students) - Federal judge intervened - barred registrar from using complicated registration tests + ordering him to enrol 100 p/day when office open - Campaign extended to neighbouring county where state trippers smashed heads/ribs + shot dead black army veteran trying to protect mother from beating = outrage led to the decision to organise march from Selma to Montgomery

Martin Luther King's involvement in the Campaign in Birmingham (1963)

- Devised 'Project Confrontation': to desegregate businesses, forcing them to employ blacks + integrate facilities for customers - Marched to City Hall as saw it as his duty as an American Christian despite pressure to obey court order (risked loosing support of key allies (esp. in D.C) + long-promised CRBill being further delayed - Letter from Birmingham jail - Pacified angry blacks with his call for non-violence (Children's C) as bombs thrown into MLK's bro + his hotel caused attacks on white businesses + police

President Eisenhower's response to the Brown v Board of Education ruling

- Did not endorse/express great support for the Court's decision (lack of enthusiasm) - Admitted his appointment of Warren as Chief Justice was a 'fool decision' - Believed: deeply entrenched racial feeling, traditions, customs could and should not be changed by law - Did not want to alienate Repub voters in S - Keen to maintain calm of mid 1950's America - S/C decision threatened to disrupt social order, leading to violence in S - Requested no exact commencement or completion date be required

Kennedy administration reaction to the Freedom Rides of 1961

- Didn't want bad publicity about race relations in USA whilst meeting Soviet leader - Depended on v.powerful S. Demo senators to steer his legislation through Congress (federal gov intervention could alienate S. Demos + divide party) - R.Kennedy (Attorney General) threatened to send US marshals unless local authorities provided protection for riders

Effect of the Great Depression and New Deal in the South

- Difficult for AA to organise resistance and protest - If they defied segregation: sharecroppers evicted, employees fired, businessmen's property burnt down - Fear of arrest, beating and murder was ever-present

Loopholes of the 15th amendment

- Difficult to register to vote (intimidation, Grand Father Clause, literacy tests etc.) - Women couldn't vote/register to

Significance of the Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

- Dramatic result gave hope to the NAACP + supporters/empowered CRM = emergence of other groups (MLK + SCLC) & youth take more direct action - Eliminated legal basis for segregation in education - Turning point in the struggle for black equality (S/C supported position) > could start challenging segregation in other areas of life - Solidifies white supremacy

Limitations of the Black Panthers

- Easily infiltrated by secret agents/police = 100's arrested, nearly 30 killed in ambushes + shoot-outs with police - By 1970: most leaders dead or forced into exile

Media coverage of Little Rock, Arkansas 1957

- Elizabeth Eckford was harassed + abused - appeared on front of national newspapers both USA/abroad = shocked liberal opinion + support grows for CRM/pressure on P to act > 1957 CR Act (education, armed forces)

How did black culture thrive during/after the Great Depression and the New Deal?

- Epitomized by jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong whom flourished in N cities - 1938: victory of black boxer Joe Louis against German (Nazi) was a source of racial pride for all AA

Booker T Washington's successes: Tuskegee Institute

- Established + was principle - Financial backing from northern philanthropists - Most successful black college in America - Attracted donations from N. white businessmen

Why was P. Johnson forced to address Congress after Bloody Sunday (March 1963) (IMPACT)

- Evening of 'ministers march': white mob attacked 3 clergymen + one N. white died, BUT assailant found not guilty - LBJ's speech was televised/watched by 70m - Said to bring tears to MLK's eyes - 2 days later: LBJ presented his VRAct to Congress

What obstacles to desegregation did state governments and local school boards put up? (reaction)

- Extensive enrollment paperwork - Over-complicated admissions procedures - Ability groups (euphemism for racial groups) - Florida: students had to make formal complaint to local school board - when rejected, had to appeal to various administrative offices/state school board before court hearing considered (EXCESSIVELY COMPLICATED SYSTEM) - Majority of boarder states prohibited tax dollars from being spent on desegregated schools

How did black people influence politics during the Great Depression and New Deal?

- FDR took on many black advisers ('black cabinet') - 1st time: large no. of black Americans switched support from Repub to Demo = South lost its dominant influence in the party - Black officials in the gov protested + advised e.g. persuaded the National Recovery Administration to set the min wage for all races at the same rate - Eleanor Roosevelt was educated by the 'National Council of Negro Women' about conditions for AA and advocated 'fair play and equal opportunity for Negro citizens'

What was CORE's aim with the Freedom Rides of 1961?

- Farmer (leader) wanted to test S/C 1960 ruling banning segregation on interstate transport - Create crisis at bus terminals in S by provoking extremists > attracting publicity > federal gov forced to intervene

What did Johnson do in reaction to Fannie Lou Hamer's speech?

- Feared he would lose control of DNC + support of white S. Demos, so held press conference to divert media attention - Compromise deal worked out, giving MFDP 2 delegated while seating all regular Demo Party delegated (supported by MLK, not MFDP)

Final judgement: Martin Luther King, Kennedy or Johnson for civil rights?

- Federal officials proved essential for allowing truly courageous to succeed - Federal gov made racial reform possible - Blacks in S made reform necessary: mobilized neighborhoods, opened their churches to stage protests + sustain spirits of demonstrators, provoked response from federal gov - Real heroes of CR struggle were the masses + their white allies who put their lives/jobs on line in face of overwhelming odds e.g. LBJ lost most notorious S.states (turned against him), came up against growing white backlash after Watts riots

Cruder methods used by the White Citizens Council (reaction)

- Fire-bombing houses of civil rights campaigners were common - Perpetrators rarely arrested: all-white juries nearly always acquitted defendants, judges/juries/police officers/politicians in S supported or turned a blind eye to intimidation, threats and violence

What was the black power movement?

- Following MX's death, both SNCC + CORE were seeking a new direction, tactics and goal - Meant different things to different people: 'black is beautiful' OR image of the young, armed, black militant - Groups led by fiery, militants leaders Carmichael (SNCC) + McKissick (CORE)

Who were the Black Panthers?

- Founded by Huey + Seale in Oakland, California in 1966 - Symbol taken from LCFO (Carmichael) - Initial aim: monitor behaviour of Oakland police - Media fascinated - extensive coverage - Only had a few thousand followers - Favored arm revolt + openly displayed their firearms - Conveyed cool, hard-edged image that appealed to any young men in ghettos (black berets/leather jackets) - Offered free breakfast programmes for school children, health clinics + ambulance services (BUT not widely reported)

POSITIVE aspects about African Americans lives during the period of reconstruction

- Freedmen's Bureau - 3 new amendments - Blacks become politically active - Union army protects free slaves - 1st Civil Rights Act (1866) - Ku Klux Klan Act (1871) - Black churches became the center of community life

What was the positive flip-side to sharecropping?

- Gave AA autonomy in their daily work/social lives - Some blacks acquired enough money to move from sharecropping to renting/owning land (1860s)

Impact + Significance of the sit-ins

- Greensboro students provided spark that launched new wave of protest (similar sit-ins took place in cities of several neighboring S. states, by Aug 1960 - 70,000 students (B&W had followed by example, soon there were wade-ins on white only beaches + read-ins in white only libraries) - Reignited CRM - Formation of SNCC - Highlighted stark difference between students + white attackers (segregationist editor of N. Carolina newspaper contrasted the two) - Disruption caused in Nashville contributed to Woolworth's profits falling = desegregated lunch counters in all stores across S - Such tactics never before tried

Examples of violence during the Freedom Rides of 1961 that turned the rides into a national news story?

- Greyhound bus firebombed by mob of 200 when it arrived in Anniston, Alabama: riders staggered out to avoid harmful smoke > beaten up - Birmingham: police gave KKK 15mins before intervention = Photographs of beaten riders + stories of Klan's mob attack were featured in major newspapers

Letter from Birmingham jail

- Group of white clergymen first criticized 'Project Confrontation' in Birmingham News (illegal + led by 'outside agitators) - MLK responded - explaining his non-violent philosophy

Significance of the boycott: How did it bring Martin Luther King. Jr to the foreground?

- He laid (+ the movement) the groundwork and established a momentum - Once a spokesman, his charisma and broad appeal allowed him to project his CR message far beyond M - Triggered his emergence as a national figure

Malcom X and the Civil Rights Movement

- Heavily criticized by CR leaders - Farmer (CORE) said 'Malcom had done nothing but verbalize' - Wilkins (NAACP) said 'helped us enormously by cataloging the wrongs done to Negroes in such powerful language' - Leadership complained that his inflammatory speeches and interviews attracted disproportionate media coverage + diverted nation's attention from critical issues - Indirectly supported mainstream CRM - pressurized its leaders to be bolder, radicalism made traditional CRM seem moderate by comparison (Malcom scared some whites into believing the alternative (to not accepting their demands) would be much worse = MLK used this threat to pressurize white opinion into supporting CR

Evidence that Martin Luther King was successful in Chicago (1966)

- Highlighted problems facing black people living in inner-city ghettos - Showed why many urban blacks (younger generation) were attracted by appeals for Black power - Some concessions had been won and financial grants for improved housing secured

How did the events of Little Rock, Arkansas 1957 present the US?

- Highly unfavorable light - Not image of freedom + democracy the country preferred to portray

Why was Birmingham a suitable target for a new campaign (1963)?

- History of racial segregation + violence (most segregated city in America - CR action success, perhaps J/C laws swept out of the S) - High rate of black unemployment + housing - Klan members tormented black neighborhoods - Referred to as 'Bombingham' by blacks - Groundwork already laid by Shuttlesworth + Alabama Christian M foe Human Rights + worked with SCLC to challenge segregation on buses + schools - Public safety commissioner Connor would resort to physical force & Klan known to be large + guaranteed to be violent in the face of public demos = attracting widespread publicity + public outrage > federal gov intervenes

Legacy of the Black Power Movement

- Huge psychological benefits: decolonized black people's minds, cultivating feelings of racial solidarity - Promised more than the CRM, but delivered less - Supporters triggered a division, but not genuine social change - Produced an outburst of creative work in art, music, literature and fashion

Martin Luther King. Jr

- Icon of the CRM - Inspiration to millions, both black + white - Black activist from the S - Influenced by Gandhi's belief in non-violent mass action - Believed in mass movement against racial discrimination founded on the Christian belief in reconciliation through love - Impact of his speech during the boycott inspired + galvanized the 1000's who attended

Where did the idea of the 'Children's Crusade' come from?

- Idea of an SCLC official - When MLK released, seemed demonstration might die (many unwilling to risk jail) - Decided: school children would take the place of their elders (their future, no jobs to lose)

What was convict leasing?

- If AA could not pay the fine for pig laws - had to work for plantation owners till the debt was paid - Planters did not have to care enough to kept them alive = many died working before debts paid off

General effect of the Cold War on African Americans lives

- Increasing no. of black people registering to vote: 250,000 - 1m between 1940 + 50 - Stifling effect on development of AA civil rights after 1945

How did NAACP lawyers took an increasing number of legal cases to the Supreme Court (more receptive - more liberal judges) in terms of EDUCATION?

- Initially set out to achieve equality within the segregated system > whole system of segregated schooling too expensive + dismantled (Maragold Report)

POSITIVE aspects about Jim Crow laws

- Inspired resistance: Rosa Parks trial - 32 month Montgomery bus boycott = S/C ruling declared segregation on buses unconstitutional (birth of CRM) - Brought the black community together e.g. black churches built - Injustice = AA came together to fight J/C laws e.g. creation of the NAACP - Saw the rise of influential figures: Washington, Du Bois

First instances of violence + imprisonment during voter registration in Selma in 1963

- Jan 1965: MLK + Lewis led march to courthouse in Selma (where voter registration took place) - Day 2: sheriff shoved a woman + photograph appeared in NY Times next day (violence escalated) - Everyday, new wave of demonstrators arrived at courthouse + 100s arrested for gathering without permit (inlu. MLK) - Prisoners stayed in terrible conditions: broken toilet, heating turned off, BUT sang + capped > reported in press - MLK wrote another letter from jail + sent to NY Times

MLK's actions in Chicago (1966) before the march in Cicero neighbourhood

- Jan: moved his family into ghetto - keen to show he was prepared to live alongside ghetto dwellers + share same deprived conditions = HUGE MEDIA ATTENTION as he took reporters around rat infested, unheated housing = provoked disturbances (blamed MLK) - No. of local black community leaders keen for SCLC to come, inject new energy into their campaign for improved housing, education, increased employment opportunities

Why did the March on Washington (1963) have to be well-organised?

- Kennedy felt a low turn out would not be good for P - his bill needed support - 1st time America + world would see such a massive black protest

Example of press giving coverage to deaths of white Americans: 'Mississippi Burning'

- Klan targeted 3 training volunteers (1 black, 2 white) - Arrested + questioned for dubious speeding charges - Released + police informed Klan - who hijacked them = NATIONAL OUTCRY: LBJ ordered huge investigation + sent 200 sailors to help look for bodies, 1000s investigated, 18 implicated, deputy sheriff + 6 others convicted in 1967 (1st TIME A MISSISSIPPIAN JURY CONVICTED KLANSMEN IN CONNECTION W/ DEATH OF BLACK MAN

Response of the federal government to Bloody Sunday (March 1963)

- LBJ's televised speech - Alabama Governor Wallace tried to ban proposed march - federal judge overrode him + gave authorisation for march to go ahead / LBJ sent 200 troops to protect marchers, planes + helicopters deterred bombers + snippers

Effect of the 'Great Migration' in the South

- Labour force shrank - Farming areas struggled (poorest struggled the most, most of whom were black)

Impact of the Gaines v. Missouri (case leading to Brown v BoE)

- Laid the groundwork for Huston's master plan - it became the basis for legal battles that would one day bring an end to legalized J/C in America - HOWEVER: Did not lead to immediate compliance by most racist states in S

Effect of WW2 in the South

- Large no. left farms in S to seek work in cities - Many military training camps situated in S = racism within camps, shocked N black soldiers unused to J/C laws, were insulted, refused service and faced segregation on public transport

What did Malcom X do?

- Lashed out at black Christian leaders (belittled their fantasy of integration) - Instilled fear in white America - Appealed to desperation of urban blacks (esp. the young) - Instilled sense of racial pride in urban blacks - Work + charisma = membership in NOI reached 50,000 + household name in US, feared by many white Americans + some middle/upper class blacks - Taught + preached about African history + emerging nations of black Africa - Carried on traditions of Garvey - Urged blacks to set up their own businesses, defend neighborhoods against police brutality + white thugs

Significance of the Meredith March (June 1966)

- Last time leaders of SCLC, CORE + SNCC - First time 'Black Power' was adapted as a slogan in the campaign for CR + spread like wildfire

What happened when the SNCC had organised a voter registration campaign in 1963 in Selma?

- Lead to dismals + beatings - Organisers accused of being 'communist agitators' > authorities forbade public gathering of more than 3 (even orderly queue illegal) - LITTLE PROGRESS WAS MADE

Evidence that Martin Luther King achieved THE MOST for civil rights

- Led by example, showing great courage + stamina in face of opposition (harsh conditions in prison, didn't stop him) - CR legislation wouldn't have passed without him - crucial to passing of CR legislation of mid 60s - Superb communicator w/ CR leaders + general public - Most effective leader of CRM - even Baker admitted his contribution was massive - Had greatest influence in D.C - His appeal to Christian values/redemptive power of love, suffering + forgiveness captured his black audiences - His appeal to American values (liberty, justice, democracy) inspired millions (B&W) - Attracted national media for more than decade - used them to present local dramas to national/international audience using non-violence to provoke violence = forced Kennedy + LBJ to act (*CATALYST*) - Unifying force

What DIDN'T Malcom X do?

- Left behind no programme or plan of action - No mass-based, lasting organisation to carry on his work - Did not propose viable solutions to issues he raised - WHY? NOI was religious organisation rather than a political one

Why did the Freedom Rides not end after riders directed by CORE were flown to New Orleans?

- Lewis + Nash (leaders of SNCC) immediately organised 2nd trip of 10 riders - SNCC thought N-based CORE had not understood fervor with which segregationists fought for their way of life (more knowledgeable) - New riders aware of danger (wrote last wills + testemants before leaving) - EVENTUALLY: 1000s more activists from all walks-of-life (clergy, professors, trade union members) defied segregation/filled up jails

Significance of the boycott

- Local, popular, sustained + collective action - could achieve advances in CR & challenge J/C - Involved local activists/grassroots movement (diff) - Successful in eliciting a S/C ruling in the blacks' favour - Similar boycotts before, none sustained so long or so successful/ 1st community action that brought nationwide attention to CR struggle - Black solidarity remained firm in face of intimidation + terror - Set precedent as over 20 other S cities desegregated their bus transport after boycotts - Promoted non-violent resistance as means of achieving racial equality

Evidence that the Voting Rights Act DID NOT make an economic difference to African Americans

- Long-term, not short-term - Housing still an issue + one cause of inner city bitterness and anger that led to unrest in N+W. cities mid to late 1960s - Severity of Watts riots showed what little effect it had on lives of many urban blacks: Ghettos bigger + more segregated than in any city in S, many black residents poorly educated/only received v. basic schooling in old segregated S before 'Great Migration' - Made little difference to lives of blacks in city ghettos - remained stuck in poor housing, schools and high employment - *No less segregated after legislation than before*

Evidence that the Civil Rights Act DID NOT make an economic difference to African Americans

- Long-term, not short-term effects - Unemployment among blacks remained higher than among whites - Legislation alone could not ensure equality - stereotypes remained - Housing still an issue + one cause of inner city bitterness and anger that led to unrest in N+W. cities mid to late 1960s - Made little difference to lives of blacks in city ghettos - remained stuck in poor housing, schools and high employment - *No less segregated after legislation than before*

Example of violence leading to the first show of federal government intervention during the Freedom Rides of 1961

- MLK addressed large meeting in Baptist church in Alabama: building surrounded by angry mob throwing stones and bombs > MLK called R.Kennedy who ordered 400 US marshals from a nearby base to intervene

Chicago (1966): March in Cicero neighborhood

- MLK led march into an all-white area = race hatred = attracting publicity + violent opposition = pressurize authorities to enforce change (hoped) - Evoked a hostile response (bottles, rocks, cries of 'apes' - more hate-filled than Mississippi in MLK opinion) from residents who feared black influx = lower house prices + increased crime - MLK was hit - made national press

Impact of white retaliation on the boycott

- MLK response to bombing of his house curbed hotheads who might otherwise have resorted to violence = made him into a hero, symbol of black resistance, won nationwide respect (particularly amongst N. whites - crucial in future) - Strengthened the blacks' resolves - Bombings + arrests of church leaders attracted huge publicity (USA + abroad) = donations poured in, more cars purchased for car pools

Evidence that Kennedy ACHIEVED THE MOST for civil rights

- Maintained contact with several leaders of M (esp. MLK) - Appointed more AA to official positions than previous P's (S. black judges) - Equal Opportunities Commission - Admin established VEP to fund programmes to increase number of registered black voters - Set CRBill into action

What was the problem in Chicago (1966)?

- Many publicly funded housing projects all-black (ghetto) of all-white - Private housing: estate agents steered black homebuyers away from white areas - Black families in white neighbourhoods came up against verbal and physical abuse

Booker T Washington's successes

- Many whites approved of him (accepting 2nd class status - industry, not politics/vocational, not academic skills) - Encouraged blacks to become skilled and set up businesses = economically independent from whites - Invited to dinner at the WH in 1901 (FDR wanted advice on appointing blacks to office in S) - Set up 100s more schools - Poor blacks could become farmers, carpenters, mechanics etc. (1/4 of all black farmers owned the land they farmed) - Inspiration to emerging black middle class - Offered a road map out of tenancy and debt (sharecropping)

Why may the March on Washington (1963) have had limited impact?

- March did not lead to swift passing of CRBill - many in Congress unmoved - S. Demos disappointed Kennedy supported march = CRBill delayed in Congress - S: segregationists remained as entrenches as ever (less than 3w after: bomb was thrown into Birmingham church, killing 4 young girls = shocked + sickened million > angry blacks rioted in Birmingham, attacking white troops + police) - Kennedy assassinated, BUT successor LBJ appealed to Congress to pass bill as tribute

How did the events escalate during the Children's Crusade?

- Marching, singing + praying, they were arrested and send to jail = many adults impressed by children's bravery + joined demo - Connor resorted to using high-pressure fire hoses that knocked people over + dogs - TV reporters came from all over the country > pictures appeared on TV stations all over USA + newspapers around the world (millions sickened)

Who were the 3 figures of the early civil rights movement?

- Marcus Garvey (Jamaican who arrived in the US 1916 - founder and P of the Universal Negro Association (UNIA) - Booker T Washington - W.E.B Du Bois

Why was the Voting Rights Act of 1964 not all down to Martin Luther King?

- Mass media hugely supportive of CR campaign - Black voting power in N was greater - S. Demos no longer as strong in the senate - Cold War context meant US had to act in order to maintain its image as home of liberty + democracy *SITUATION IN D.C WAS CHANGING

Why was Martin Luther King unsuccessful in Chicago (1966)?

- Mayor Daley not going to invite publicity into his city - Many B&W businessmen were far less sympathetic to campaigning in their cities than they had been in Selma etc. - MLK + colleagues were S's, used to campaigning in v. different conditions (blacks in Chicago not deprived of vote or subjected to attacks by KKK) - Local black leaders did not welcome SCLC - Huge challenge: Chicago had over 700,000 black residents in city of 3m people - LBJ's war on poverty not working because of $ for Vietnam

Growing impact of the NAACP after WW2

- Membership lept from 50,000 to 450,000 by end of war - More blacks had confidence to attend NAACP classes where they learn to pass literacy tests + pay poll tax to register to vote = THIS SUSTAINED ACTIVITY MARKED A NEW DEVELOPMENT IN THE CAMPAIGN FOR BLACK CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE S

Background to the Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56

- Montgomery, Alabama: 42 y/o Rosa Parks boarded a segregated bus - when asked to give her seat behind the white section to a white man, she refused - 30,000 black people usually traveled by bus, providing most of the company's income (EXPLOITED THEIR ECONOMIC POWER) - Blacks walked, shared lifts, cycled, hitchhiked

Why was the March on Washington (1963) a resounding success?

- Most attendees were middle class + black (also limitation) - 1/4 were white (also limitation) - 1/4 of million people attended from cities in N+S - Both peaceful + celebratory - Biggest demo in US history - Main CR leaders speak - White leader of car workers' union declared: 'we cannot defend freedom in Berlin so long as we deny freedom in Birmingham' - HOWEVER: no women spoke

What was the reality of the 'Great Migration?'

- Most black migrants were poor, even the skilled had to take unskilled jobs - Job was low paid - 90,000 blacks confined to crowded accommodation in most run-down part of city - Rent higher than what a white person would be charged

What did southern resistance of the desegregation of schools lead to? (reaction)

- Nearly all S. members of Congress signed the 'Southern Manifesto' created in 1956 to condemn the Brown decision/unite the S. in resistance - KKK was revived: drove through streets to remind blacks of lynching threat + stop them from voting - Little Rock, Arkansas (1957)

Malcom X's views after his pilgrimage to Mecca (1964)

- No longer supported innate evilness of white Americans - Strongly condemned pervasive racism - In favor of Pan-Africanism, but admitted its limits - Criticized capitalism - Praised AA entrepreneurship - Advocated black nationalism - Favored self-defense in response to violence

What was the problem of sharecropping (freed slaves share landlords land)?

- No profit/Debt: owed landowners more than they were able to repay (tools etc.) = forced into poverty - Threat of violence to sign unfair labour contracts

To what extent were the gains made by the NAACP successful?

- None signified end of white supremacy - J/C system of segregation still entrenched in S - supported by all-white courts, police, prisons - Increasingly educated and outspoken urban black pop in S were helping to win wider support for an activist approach - War saw emergence of more widespread, sustained, well-organised action = FOUNDATIONS FOR THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT OF THE 1950s + 60s WERE BEING LAID

What was the flip-side of the 'Great Migration?'

- Not all landlords exploited migrants / lived in the worst parts of the cities - Some black professionals lived in better areas - Poorer AA moved to the white suburbs, within reach of families that needed nannies or domestic servants - Many owned businesses, schools, churches

Limitations of the Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

- Not immediately the case - S/C did not follow up decision with plan for implementation (controversial - would arouse much opposition) - Even when the Court's 2nd Brown ruling called for SPEEDY desegregation: no set timetable + left to lower federal courts vulnerable to pressure from ruling elites in the white supremacist S

Result/Impact + Significance of the Freedom Rides of 1961

- Nov: R.Kennedy ordered ICC to enforce desegregation on buses + bus terminals (finally enforced ruling) - Signs had to be changed - Next 3yrs: SNCC highlighted Mississippi's gov's reluctance to act on CR + showcased extent of white brutality in most racist states in S - Achieved goal of integrating interstate travel - HOWEVER: Did not achieve Farmer's overall objective of obtaining overt, active and continued support for CR from federal gov (grudging, limited, slow) - Accelerated a split within CRM between active confrontation + decentralized grassroots activism (SNCC) / centralized, established leadership of NAACP + SCLC (too cautious to achieve sig change) - Increased media coverage - SNCC strengthened (better knowledge) / CORE weakened - Annoys JFK > frustrated MLK

How was Freedom Summer unsuccessful?

- Obstacles = only 1,600 were registered to vote - 35 shooting incidents, 3 injured, 30 homes/buildings bombed, 35 churches burned, 80 beaten, 6 murdered - AA citizens of Mississippi remained: their churches burned, homes destroyed + jobs and property lost - March from Selma to Montgomery more impactful - SERIES OF SETBACKS, FEW SUCCESSES

Was the MFDP successful in achieving its aims?

- Obtained credentials from sympathetic delegated from other states + sat in vacant Mississippi delegation seats at SNC (after some segregationist delegates left) - Controversy at DNC spurred Demo Party to change its rules + in 1963: MFDP delegation was seated to represent Mississippi at DNC in Chicago - HOWEVER: did not immediately challenge the political structure

Background to the Atlanta Race Riots (1906)?

- One of the most segregated cities in the S - Leading up to the riots: 'The Klansman' glorified the KKK, belittled blacks + local press claim black men had sexually assaulted white women - White crowds inflamed by the headlines began to search for AA, beating them senseless (25 OFFICIALLY DIED) - White press explained the rioters' actions as punishing criminals

Limitations of the increase in black workers in the military and factories

- Outbreaks of racist violence and strikes by whites over having to work with them/returning soldiers wanted jobs back from black migrants (problems/clashes) - Survey at the end of the war showed many were still racist

Strengths of the Voting Rights Act (1965)

- Outlawed literacy tests + directed US Department of Justice to challenge poll taxes (work to guarantee VR) - Gave Attorney General power to assign federal examiners to observe + direct voter registration where less than 1/2 of eligible residents were registered to vote - S/C decisions e.g. Harper v. Virginia State BoElections upheld many requirements of VRAct + concluded that placing burden of proof of compliance on states + localities with a history of VR violations was constitutional - Laws effects wide + powerful: 60% of eligible AA were registered to vote in Mississippi (by 1968) - No. of black state legislators + members of Congress rose from 2-160 (1965-90)

Reasons for the delay of desegregation in education

- P. Eisenhower's response - S resistance of desegregation of schools - White Citizens Council

Reasons for the success of the boycott: Nixon

- P. of the NAACP Alabama branch - Helped to organise the Montgomery Voters League on 1940 - Lead a march of 750 people to register to vote in Montgomery in 1944 - Nixon's Montgomery Improvement Association organised the extension of the boycott

Evidence that the Civil Rights Act DID make an economic difference to African Americans

- Paved the way for programmes like affirmative action - Prosperous black middle class emerged in 1960s - partly as a result of better economic opportunities

What happened in the Plessy v Ferguson case?

- Plessy disobeyed segregation laws on transport in Louisiana 1896 - arrested + jailed - Took the case to S/C on the grounds that it opposed the 14th amendment (interpreted amendment concerned with political, not social rights) = voted 7:1 to uphold Louisiana's segregation laws (constitutional as long as separate facilities were equal)

How did African Americans have a political influence in during the time of the 'Great Migration?'

- Pop of cities rose sharply in areas with voting wards - They could keep a mayor in power (e.g. Chicago) = listen to more - HOWEVER: in NY where black pop evenly distributed, white politicians had a tight hold on politics = DID NOT GAIN POLITICAL POWER + INFLUENCE

What were the aims of the MFDP?

- Prepared to offer alternative delegated at the Demo National Convention (DNC) - Hoped they might be able to pressure the Demo Party to renounce the segregationist state parties OR at least expose its hypocrisy in including them

Role of the media on Bloody Sunday (March 1963)

- Press + camera present - TV programmes interrupted to show scenes - 50m viewers saw violence + heard Sheriff Clark racially abusing demonstrators = NATIONWIDE OUTCRY

Reasons for the success of the boycott: Robinson

- Professor at an all-black Alabama State College - P. of Women's Political Council (group of 300 educated black women who had been campaigning for voter registration + desegregation of buses for several buses) - Had persuaded the city authorities to employ black policemen

How did the Ku Klux Klan react violently to the 1st Civil Rights Act (1866)?

- Race riots and mass murders of former slaves occurred in Memphis and New Orleans in 1866 - Reign of terror against those seeking to assert their new political rights - Blacks unable to protect themselves

Evidence that Civil Rights Act DID transform the political status of African Americans

- Racial segregation/discrimination had been illegal for many yrs - NOW ENFORCED (AA no longer had to file law suits in courts to stop segregation) - S/C upheld act to pre-empt any suggestion that it was unconstitutional - Gov withdrew federal funds from any school/business that failed to integrate - LBJ used federal funds to support educational authorities in S to integrate = Sept 1965, 88% of school districts in S had complied = better educational opportunities = prosperous black middle class emerged in 1960s - 2 most racist states states (Alabama, Mississippi): approx of towns desegregated public accommodation

Limitations of the New Deal for black people

- Racism often led to whites being employed first by ND organisations - Black workers were sacked in their 1000s during agriculture reforms - FDR did little to advance civil rights and often restricted the no. of black workers on a project if the donor insisted - Social security provisions of the ND did not apply to farm workers/those who worked in others' homes (many of whom were AA)

Why was there southern resistance to the desegregation of schools? (reaction)

- S/C decision seen as an outright attack on the S. way of life/long-standing customs - Attack on states rights to organise education* - Most believed in white supremacy/white superiority over blacks - Opposed any kind of racial integration in public spaces -integrated schooling might lead to interracial marriage or sex

W.E.B Du Bois's failures

- S/C rulings had little effect: white Oklahomans would stop black voting another way and Kentucky would enforce segregated housing differently - NAACP suffered a setback in 1915 when campaigning to ban the showing of a silent film 'TBOAN' - FAILED TO BAN OR EVEN CENSOR IT EVERYWHERE = leading to more hate crime

Who was Bloody Sunday (March 1965) led by + why?

- SCLC + SNCC - MLK keen to work with SNCC (had done initial groundwork in Selma) - Leaders of both organisations wished to show united front to strengthen their case for VRAct

Who criticized the sit-ins?

- SCLC feared students were being too confrontational - NAACP preferring to continue more orderly route of taking legal action - NEVERTHELESS: offered (+ CORE) finance support, legal aid and training

Criticisms of Martin Luther King's response to Bloody Sunday (March 1963)

- SNCC leaders furious, felt betrayed - One critic denounced MLK as an 'accomplice of the white power structure'

Effect of the Great Depression on education in the South

- Searing poverty made the lie of separate but equal all the more glaring - Height of the D: lawyer Huston set out to expose the inequities of J/C - visual documentation of how unequal education was between B&W students in America

NEGATIVE aspects about Jim Crow laws

- Segregated public schools = inferior education + children had no potential socially/economically (teachers less educated/cheaper facilities) - AA terrorized/killed by white supremacist mobs - Facilities for blacks significantly worse - AA limited in jobs they could work + paid considerably lower salaries = 42% living in poverty - Violated J/C law/tried to vote (demanding CR) = risked homes, jobs and lives, lynched - J/C criminal justice system all white = little legal recourse - Sexual interactions between races illegal (or accused of rape/portrayed)

Result of the Children's Crusade

- Senior federal officials sent to start talks between MLK + Birmingham businessmen: agreed to desegregate businesses under pressure from D.C + because loosing money due to boycott + disorder

Who were the SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee)?

- Set up 1960 when Baker (leading member of SCLC) encouraged them to set up independent organisation - Highly democratic (no obvious leader), less male dominated (Nash had leading role in Nashville movement) , non-violent grass-roots M, direct action, white members welcomed - Criticized NAACP for its 'over-reliance on the courts'

Significance of the 'Birth of a Nation'

- Showed blacks as rapists lusting after white women and glorified the KKK as saviors of civilization) - TBOAN was considered a visual masterpiece - audiences were spellbound - most successful silent film ever

Media's interpretation of Malcom X's views ('The Hate That Hate Produced' - TV documentary about the NOI)

- Showed how anti-black feelings of white supremacists = backlash represented by people such as Malcom - V.few whites learnt of black Muslims' successes in rescuing + rehabilitating poor blacks from lives of crime - persuading them to embrace American values (hard-work, discipline, self-respect) - Focused on threat of violence - NOI portrayed as virulently racist/an army of black fanatics

Exceptions to the southern resistance of the desegregation of schools (reaction)

- Some desegregation of schools in boarder states e.g. Maryland - In areas where black children formed a small proportion of school pop - (Deep S): some white moderates in churches, education, press called for acceptance of the ruling - Some blacks admitted to white schools in order to shower compliance with court's ruling

How did some blacks benefit from the New Deal?

- Some measures did help AA because of their situations e.g. many of the poorest people eligible for low-income housing

Effect of Little Rock, Arkansas 1957

- Some of CHS white students symbolized hope for future by befriending the Nine - CHS became a largely black school within a few years as the VICTORY encouraged flight of many middle-class, white families to the suburbs in order to enroll their children in white suburban schools ('white flight - unofficial segregation) - Nine endured constant harassment inside school - More educational opportunities for some AA kids

Why WASN'T Little Rock, Arkansas 1957 a victory?

- Sponsored segregation remained predominant in schools of the Deep S for several more years - End of 1950's: v. few schools desegregated - Gov. Faubus closed down ALL Little Rock High School's to hold segregation

Why was Freedom Summer organised in Mississippi?

- State known for racial violence/most entrenched - Active KKK (gov officials, businessmen, police) - Where WhiteCC originated - White Mississippians maintained J/C - Moses (SNCC) went in 1961 to encourage voter registration BUT constant violence + economic intimidation greatly reduced success of SNCC's work - NEEDED MORE COORDINATED EFFORT - Only 1% of 400,000 potential AA voters were registered

What was the significance of the Plessy v Ferguson case?

- States free to follow own customs and traditions in order to preserve social order and peace - Paved the way for more segregationists laws throughout the American S - Most services provided to AA inadequate compared to those offered to whites - Angers black individuals = rise of political activism e.g. Du Bois + the NAACP

Huston and his philosophy

- Strategist + architect for a campaign that would gradually dismantle the precedent for Plessy v Ferguson - Courts were the ideal way to achieve equality - if you won = legit victory with weight of authority behind it

Role of the media during the sit-ins

- TV (widespread in American homes) helped to publicize campaign - Journalists flocked to report disturbances taking place in stores across S

Impact of the March on Washington (1963) + Martin Luther King on promoting the Civil Rights Movement

- TV networks focused on MLK's speech in news programmes = American public saw him as leader of CRM - Broadcast live for 3hrs on US TV + widely covered in many other countries - Many Americans (some for 1st time) saw B&W's united, marching together in support (not threatening)

Legacy of Malcom X

- Taught generation of *mostly young and poor, urban blacks* to acknowledge the psychological damage 300yrs of slavery + white domination had caused - Sense of pride in African identity had lasted for decades beyond his death - Most forceful supporter of black nationalism since Garvey - Shaped changing beliefs of young, black activists (esp. from SNCC + CORE - who came to believe that insisting on interracial co-operation did not lead to the end of anti-black violence) - Brought significantly greater awareness to all of the US of the grievances + frustrations of AA - particularly those outside S, whose troubles had been largely ignored by national press + white civic leaders - Left a legacy that both united + divided CRM

What was the overall impact of Bloody Sunday (March 1963)

- The Selma campaign put the voting rights issue at top of political agenda - Opinion polls showed there was widespread support for reform

Why was the concept of the Freedom Rides of 1961 not universally appreciated by the civil rights community?

- Thought rides would reverse progress NAACP made in Mississippi - NONETHELESS: riders received promises of support from SCLC + NAACP for housing and food

Aims of Freedom Summer

- To combine voter registration with education and political activism - Freedom Schools to teach both adults and children - Full integrated project

Purpose of the 'Blossom Plan' following Brown decision

- To comply with Brown on a minimal basis - Tokenism that would limit enrollment of AA into white schools to a handful by allowing superintendent choose AA students to be integrated

How/why was the boycott extended?

- To force the bus company to agree to their demands - MLK was P of the MIA - MLK addressed a mass meeting at Holt Street Baptist Church on the evening of initial boycott: nearly 5000 attended (most stood outside listening through loudspeakers), struck a chord with listeners (appealed to Christian values + instilled a belief in their moral authority) - Encouraged by their success, citizens of M voted unanimously to continue the boycott - Ministers played crucial role in sustaining the boycott - Blacks became more determined, more confident - Evening meetings in churches were attended by 1000's - Bus company suffered huge financial losses

Martin Luther King's response to Bloody Sunday (March 1963)

- To keep up momentum + maintain pressure on federal gov - MLK called on all religious leaders to join him in a 'ministers march' to Montgomery 2 days later - 1000 black/450 white marchers reacher town bridge, met by police again - Stopped to pray + agreed to turn around, walk back (no loss of momentum + publicity)

What was the aim of Martin Luther King + other SCLC members in Selma?

- To provoke the kind of crisis that would attract the publicity needed to pressurise the federal gov into passing a VRAct (giving federal gov powers to overrule state authorities + demolish obstacles preventing blacks from voting)

How was Freedom Summer successful?

- Total of 41 FreedomS established where more than 3,000 AA youths attended - Schools also taught leadership skills so CR activism would continue - Potential voters tutored on how to interpret Mississippi Constitution to satisfaction of registrar (1000s came to classes + 17,000 applied to vote) - Overwhelming majority of FS volunteers survived -Lack of registered voters demonstrated need for federal enforcement of VR - paving way for VRAct of 1965 - MOST SUSTAINED + INTENSIVE OF WHOLE CRM THAT CARRIED ON DESPITE INTIMIDATION, BOMBING, KILLING + LACK OF FEDERAL GOV SUPPORT

Riots in Watts, LA (1965)

- Triggered by an arrest for drink-driving + resulting argument in which a black woman was roughly handled by the police - Stories spread of woman being beaten up by the police (*media*) - Riots erupted in black ghetto - 5 days of rioting - Suppressed by police + National Guardsmen - RESULT: 34 people (mostly black) killed; 4000 arrested; millions of dollars' worth of damage

How did civil rights activists use the Cold War to their advantage?

- USA needed to be seen to uphold its ideals of liberty, equality and justice to win friends and allies - Soviet diplomats at UN in NY publicized lynchings and race riots to help win allies among non-white member states (SOVIET PROPAGANDA LASHED USA FOR TREATMENT OF BLACKS AND RACIAL SEGREGATION)

What developments led to the emergence of new leaders?

- Urban riots - Increasing American involvement = opposition to Vietnam war - Assassination of MX - Murder of Younge (SNCC organiser, killed in Alabama (1966) for using a 'whites only' toilet at a service station - Need to develop strategy to further black CR in N. cities

Marcus Garvey's aims

- Urged blacks to develop separately, without white support - Blacks first, Americans second - Instill racial pride - AA > Africa

Evidence that Kennedy DID NOT ACHIEVE THE MOST for civil rights

- VEP: intended to divert attention from disorder created by FR's, increase no. of Demo voters + avoid alienating S - March on Washington - Kennedy opposed to it (see separate card) - Promise to get rid of segregation in federal housing projects was very weak measure = Chicago - Birmingham forced his hand - faced mounting pressure when public opinion increasingly called for federal intervention (even PM of Uganda send open letter to Kennedy, condemning attacks) - only committed himself to major legislation when faced with pressure - Did little for AA CR in his first 2 years as P - FRs: Reluctant to intervene in FR's (believed it was up to state authorities to maintain law and order), forced to intervene when white riders attacked, did not publicly support actions of riders or protest against their imprisonment, too focused on not alienating S. Demo voters - AA official positions: symbolic gestures, he was reluctant to give overt support to CRM, appointed segregationists too

How was the March on Washington (1963) organised?

- Volunteers recruited to act as marshals - 100s of drinking fountains, toilets + First Aid stations (v. hot + humid) - NY church agreed to send 80,000 cheese sandwiches - Federal troops on standby to deter white extremists (replaced police) - Liquor stores closed - Rustin + MLK brought in Protestant ministers, Catholic priests, Jewish rabbis (front of march) - Musicians entertained crowds before speeches - Churches organised 'freedom' buses (2000) + trains (30)

Initial (different) views on the March in Washington (1963)

- Wilkins of NAACP not keen -feared it wouldn't persuade Congress - Most CR activists worked on a local level (SNCC volunteers) - Others wanted to take case to national audience + politicians in D.C - Lewis (SNCC) preferred mass sit-ins in D.C

Evidence that Voting Rights Act DID transform the political status of African Americans

- Within a month: 60% of Selma's blacks were registered to vote - Gov sent in federal registrars if few too black registered in states such as Alabama etc. - No literacy tests etc. - Ensured blacks were not prevented from registering to vote - enforced 15th amendment - Across S: blacks registered to vote rose from 35% (1964) to 65% (1969) - *Tone of electoral politics changed*: no more open declarations of race hatred/white supremacy, men like Sheriff Clarke voted out + most white politicians more conciliatory - *Voting power led to more political power*: no. of blacks elected to public offices increased from 300 - 1400 (1965-70), more than 2000 blacks held office in 11 states (1977), former SNCC worker became mayor of D.C (1979)

Reasons for the success of the boycott: Nixon and Robinson

- Years of experience gave them knowledge of who to contact + skills to organise a city wide boycott - Had just 4 days to organise the boycott if it was to take place on the day of Parks' trial - Robinson + colleagues stayed up 1/2 the night producing to later distribute 1000's of leaflets to publicize the boycott - Nixon called a meeting of church ministers, college professors and crucial leaders to announce plans in their sermons on Sunday, distribute leaflets and persuade black taxi companies to transport people at bus fare rates

Why wasn't Martin Luther King in Watts, LA (1965)?

- Young black anger - Not addressing key issues: unemployment, poor education, poor living conditions (overcrowded ghettos)

White reaction to the sit-ins

- Young whites pushed, kicked + punched - Poured tomato ketchup - Stubbed cigarettes out on their bodies

Events of the Meredith March to inspire blacks to stand up, assert their voting rights (June 1966)

1. 'March Against Fear' from Tennessee to Mississippi (450,000 steps for each unregistered black voter in Mississippi) 2. Lone walk through racially violent states where Meredith was ambushed + hit 3. When taken to hospital - most CR leaders felt to complete the march rather than let racist think they won (BUT divisions were clear) 4. Carmichael wanted march to be protected by Deacons (MLK agreed) + an all-black march (MLK wanted inclusion of whites, otherwise he refused to participate - Carmichael craved publicity/knew there would be less media attention) 6. Greenwood: Carmichael arrested. On his release, seized the limelight calling for 'black power' on back of truck + crowd screamed

How did Bloody Sunday (March 1963) escalate?

1. More than 500 set off, but were blocked at bridge leading out of town 2. Marchers ordered to turn around, refused + police charged (some on horseback with batons + gas masks) 3. Men + women, young + old were mown down + gassed *RESULT: 5 women unconscious + 57 taken to hospital for treatment

How did the events escalate during the Campaign in Birmingham (1963)?

1. Planned to march peacefully from Baptist church to city center, disrupting traffic + carrying out boycott of city center stores in busy shopping days leading up to Easter 2. Demonstrators met by police with batons + dogs = attracting media attention > more marchers > more police violence > more publicity 3. State authorities secured special court order forbidding further protests 4. Money for bail running out + some black businesses calling for retreat by demonstrators

What did CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) plan to do on the Freedom Rides of 1961?

13 volunteers (7 black, 6 white) set off on bus journey from D.C - New Orleans, where they planned to sit together (integrate), ignore 'White' and 'Colored' signs in toilets, waiting rooms and restaurants in bus terminals

What were the 3 new amendments?

13th - Abolishes slavery 14th - Makes freed slaves U.S citizens 15th - Gave all American men the right to vote (union army protects - force S. states to obey Congress - allowing all men to vote)

1st Civil Rights Act

1866: gave newly emancipated blacks the right to sue, serve in juries, amongst other legal rights

Ku Klux Klan Act

1871: authorized military protection for blacks

What was the 'Great Migration?'

1914-18: more than 350,000 black Americans migrated North

Give an example of an incredibly influential legal victory for NAACP lawyers

1939: when S/C ruled it unconstitutional for Missouri to send black student Gaines, to a law school in another state rather than to the all-white one in Missouri

Civil Rights Act

1964: Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin and ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public

Voting Rights Act

1965: Gave the federal gov powers to override state authorities, and demolish obstacles preventing blacks from voting

How did America perceive unity in society during the Cold War?

Any attempt to undermine the social order was unpatriotic = easy for racists to attack anyone campaigning for racial equality as 'communist' (l/wing) e.g. Du Bois arrested in 1951 for being the "agent of foreign power"

What was the main effect of WW1?

Awakened perceptions of injustices and unified

What was the Crisis newspaper?

Battled racial discrimination, promoted women's rights, articles about black history and literature (to show achievements/capability of greatness) and encourage voting

Significance of churches

Became bases for organizing civil rights protests - many later AA leaders of the CRM were preachers

How did the Great Depression and New Deal lead to increased black migration to the North?

Because better pay, more job opportunities, free to vote, express views and protest

Boycott + sit-in in Nashville, Tennessee

Boycott: older black people boycotted main city stores (blacks spent $50m annually) Sit-in: students arrested, only to be replaced by waves of more students

Freedmen's Bureau

Congress gave struggling newly freed AA food, medical care, legal advice and public education

Decision and Impact of Murray v. Maryland (1935)

DECISION: judge ordered Uni of ML to admit him IMPACT: only applied to ML + graduate schools (had to reach the S/C to apply to entire country) / NAACP begun selecting cases that would likely be appealed all the way by S/C

Who spent weeks planning the March on Washington (1963)?

Director: Randolph Key organiser: Rustin

Why did Lewis (SNCC) complain that the march was becoming a 'march in'?

Examples of agreements made with organisers: - Try to attract as many whites as possible (Congress worried might be too many black protesters in one place) - Consist of short walk with speeches at the end *Speech critical of CRBill (leaked day before)

Why was the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party formed?

FS leaders had anticipated the resistance of white Mississippians + worked with local AAM's to promote an alternative political party to challenge the all-white MDP

Why did Kennedy (like most Americans) initially oppose the March on Washington (1963)?

Felt more congressmen might oppose his bill if they felt they were being forced to pass it under threat

Black codes (limits rights)

Laws that limit former slaves from travelling, voting, working certain jobs, testifying against whites, marry white women, be unemployed and loiter in public places

How did NAACP lawyers took an increasing number of legal cases to the Supreme Court (more receptive - more liberal judges) in terms of EQUAL PAY?

Legal victory obliged states of Virginia and Maryland to pay equal salaries to b&w school teachers = salary gap was virtually closed by end of war

What was Malcom X doing in a nearby church during voter registration in Selma in 1963?

Made speech, warning whites the alternative to MLK was more threatening (endorsing non-violent approach)

What were pig laws?

Many trivial offences treated as felonies with harsh sentences and fined = convict leasing

How did blacks become politically active?

Newly enfranchised blacks (more than 100) gained a voice in the gov (more gov positions)

Did blacks benefit from the war induced boom beginning 1939?

Not much

POSITIVES and NEGATIVES of nearly 1m AA being called to fight during WW2

Positives: job opportunity, loyalty, awareness of treatment at home (no J/C), FDR appointed the first black general - calling for equal opportunities for all in armed forces Negatives: segregation of units

Who originally planned a 'March on Washington' in 1941?

Randolph: MLK + other SCLC members approached him with the aim of organising such a march

How was Martin Luther King's role in the Freedom Rides limited?

Riders invited MLK (most nationally recognized face of M), who declined for 2nd time not to violate probation (riders on probation too) = MLK lost significant amount of respect of SNCC members / some believed he was scared

What happened when the NAACP took the case to a federal district court in 1956?

Ruled the bus company's segregated transport unconstitutional (initial demands did not include desegregation of buses) IN THE LIGHT OF THE RECENT BROWN DECISION

Evidence that Johnson DID NOT ACHIEVE THE MOST for civil rights

Selma to Montgomery pushed him (preoccupied)

Impact of boycott + sit-in in Nashville, Tennessee

Sit-in: Nashville bus stations served blacks at lunch counter (HOWEVER: another 4yrs before Nashville desegregated hotels, cinemas etc.) Overall: disruption + huge economic impact = Woolworth's profits fell + desegregated lunch counter across all stores in S

Jim Crow laws

To maintain white supremacy and ensure black people fell back into place

What was the period of reconstruction designed to do?

To rebuild relationships between states after the civil war