AICE English Language AS Rhetorical Techniques & Terms and Literary Devices

metonymy

(mĕtŏn′ ĭmē) a term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: "doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat." The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.

litotes

(pronounced almost like "little tee") - a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: "Not a bad idea," "Not many," "It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain" (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).

genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies,autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy,comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry.

inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices. Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams' Glossary of Literary Terms

sentence length

Writers vary their sentence lengths to create different rhetorical effects. As with the example in parallel structure, short, simple sentences might be drawing the reader's attention to something urgent or immediate. ("I want change here. Now. Today.") Long, complex sentences might be used if a writer wants to make a speech sound particularly beautiful and moving such as in Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.

relevant data

a big component of crafting a convincing argument. Writers appeal to an audience's sense of logos when they use data from studies, provide percentage points, or use other kinds of evidence. For example, politicians might claim credit for a drop in the crime rate during their time in office.

simile

a descriptive technique that compares one thing with another, usually using 'as' or 'like'.

metaphor

a descriptive technique that names a person, thing or action as something else

allusion

a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

synecdoche

a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a "sail"; to refer to a car as "wheels"; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as "the strings." **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as "the crown" or the President as "The White House."

personification

a metaphor attributing human feelings to an object

epiphany

a moment of sudden revelation or insight

oxymoron

a phrase combining two or more contradictory terms

pun

a play on words. In an argument, a pun usually calls humorous attention to particular point. He kept waving at the princess. He was a devoted fan.

apostrophe

a prayer like figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee." Another example is Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn," in which Keats addresses the urn itself: rarely on an AP exam, but important when there. ALWAYS Pathos

paradox

a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....")

anaphora

a sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech (1963).

aphorism

a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point

pathetic fallacy

a type of personification where emotions are given to a setting, an object or the weather

motif

a unifying idea that is a recurrent element in a literary or artistic work

hyperbole

a use of obvious exaggeration for rhetorical effect

caricature

a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics. Example: The pupils of her eyes are small; like a pebble of sand floating atop a can of blue paint.

malapropism

a word humorously misused: Example, he is the AMPLE of her eye... instead of ' he is the APPLE of her eye

parody

a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author's expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.

satire

a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat's Cradle, Player Piano).

pedantic

an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as "show-offy"; using big words for the sake of using big words).

red herring

an argument that distracts the reader by raising issues irrelevant to the case. It is like being given too many suspects in a murder mystery

ad hominem

an attack on the person rather than the issue at hand - a common fallacy - common in elections

euphemism

are figures of speech often used to gloss over an unpleasant or taboo subject. For example, slavery was often referred to as the "peculiar institution." Euphemism can give writers a way of making a tough issue more accessible to an audience.

appeals to logos

are intended to speak directly to the audience's sense of reason or logic. These arguments "just make sense."

anecdotes

are personal stories a writer might choose to tell, either about themselves or someone else, in order to make a more compelling point. Anecdotes often use pathos because people are able to empathize with a story that has a face attached to it. Politicians frequently use anecdotes since they speak to a lot of constituents. Here's an example: "When I was in Ohio, I met Private Mark Smith. He had just returned from Afghanistan and was unable to find a job to support his family. We need to have better support for our nation's heroes so that veterans like Private Smith can come home to a life they deserve."

analogies

draw comparisons between similar situations or big ideas. A writer at a local newspaper might compare two adversaries in a pie-baking contest to prizefighters in the boxing ring. The two ideas are different, but they hold enough similarities (competition, possibly high stakes) that the analogy adds weight and drama to the actual proceedings.

rhetoric

from the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

oxymoron

from the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

syllogism

from the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second called "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("all men"). Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams' Glossary of Literary Terms

sarcasm

from the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

didactic

from the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing,especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles

point of view

in literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude.

appeals to ethos

intended to establish a person's professional credibility or qualifications to make a particular argument. Through a claim to knowledge and relevant experience, this method of persuasion emphasizes the ethical or moral character and stature of the person who is providing information

appeals to pathos

intended to evoke an emotional response in the audience, such as fear, anger, or nostalgia/sentimentality

symbolism

involves moving beyond the literal meanings of words to make evocative comparisons, contrasts, or lend a heightened quality to an idea.

metaphorical language

involves moving beyond the literal meanings of words to make evocative comparisons, contrasts, or lend a heightened quality to an idea. Examples include symbolism, metaphors, similes, analogies, etc.

understatement

is the opposite of hyperbole. By deliberately belittling something, the writer can actually highlight it in a different way. For example, let's say a writer is talking about an issue involving freedom of expression: protesters are staging a rally across the street from a major government building, and politicians are upset. In support of the protesters, the writer could say, "They're just exercising a little thing called their First Amendment rights." This understatement, which in this case is also sarcasm, draws attention to how crucial the protesters' rights are.

emotive language

language intended to create an emotional response

tone

mainly concerns the attitude of the writer. How does the writer feel about the subject discussed? Is it made clear through a spirited, argumentative tone, or is it more subtle or removed? Tone could also be conversational, funny, sarcastic, personal, emotional, etc.

juxtaposition

making on idea more dramatic by placing it next to its opposite. In art it is called chiaroscuro, where a bright white object is placed next to a black object and thus both are made more visible. My goodness is often chastened by my sense of sin, or The Gasoline savings from a hybrid car as compared to a standard car seem excellent until one compares the asking prices of the two vehicles. The juxtaposition of the asking prices shows that the savings are not as significant as they first appear.

tone

similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, somber, etc.

diction

refers to the word choice the author uses. Typically in formal writing or speeches, authors will use formal diction (no contractions, elevated speech style). If they use more casual diction, ask yourself why the author made that choice. Are they trying to connect with an audience or show that they have human side? Or, if the diction is more formal, is this part of the author's ethos to establish credibility and knowledge on the subject discussed? Consider what the purpose of the passage might be to determine why authors use the diction they use.

parallel structure

same form when using a series of verbs or nouns in a sentence such as I like fishing, hiking, and swimming. Also includes creating sentences of a similar length or style for rhetorical effect. For example, an author might start off a series of sentences with the same word or phrase to call attention to an idea. ("Today, I remember the sacrifices our troops made in fighting for our country. Today, I recognize that our work in achieving peace around the world is not finished. Today, I call on each and every one of you to find something you can do in your community -- be it small or large -- to help this important cause.") This example not only provides a rhythm to the speaker's words, but also emphasizes the urgency of the speaker's call to action (i.e., "today").

style

the consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist movement.

irony/ironic

the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language: (1) verbal irony - when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning (2) situational irony - when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen (3) dramatic irony - when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

allegory

the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

register

the level of formality or informality used in a piece of writing and can be determined by diction (word choice) and syntax (for example, ending a sentence with a preposition would indicate a less formal register). It's a type of diction.

connotation

the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions or attitudes

asyndeton

the omission of conjunctions such as "and", "or", "for" and "but" from a series of related phrases and clauses. For instance, compare She's a genius and a star with She's a genius, a star.

antithesis

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

mood

the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

syntax

the process of arranging words to make logical sentences. It involves elements like parallel structure, dangling modifiers, subject-verb agreement, fragments, run-ons, comma splices, and more.

consonance

the repetition of consonant sounds appearing anywhere in successive words or phrases. The sound can come at the beginning, middle or end of the words

alliteration

the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

assonance

the repetition of vowel sounds in successive words or phrases.

imagery

the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

denotation

the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of knife- a utensil for cutting - Connotation - knife - such as knife in the back - anger fear violence betrayal

narrative

the telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events

colloquial/colloquialism

the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialect

non sequitur

this literally means "it does not follow" Non sequitur is an argument by misdirection and is logically irrelevant. "Should we invade Canada, Sire? " Has seen my wand?"

homily

this term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

ellipsis

three dots that indicate words have been left out of a quotation; they also can be used to create suspense.

Imagery

vivid language the author uses to immerse readers in a particular place, and usually related to visual detail. Other sensory details can include taste, smell, touch, and sound. If an author is using imagery in a persuasive piece, they probably want to put the reader into a specific situation so the reader can empathize more readily with the argument being made

onomatopoeia

words that sound a little like they mean