All ID Terms

Louis XIV

"the Sun King;" considered to be the model of absolute monarchs; extended the administrative, financial, military, and religious control of the central state over the French population; he controlled all aspects of government, and demonstrated his power and wealth with his palace at Versailles; engaged in efforts to increase his power by taking attacking Huguenots and engaging in wars to acquire more territory and power

John Calvin

(1509-1564) French theologian who established a theocracy in Geneva and is best known for his theory of predestination. Developed the Christian theology known as Calvinism. Set up community w/ an extreme moral code, denying the goodness of the human nature

Peace of Augsburg

(1555) Document in which Charles V recognized Lutheranism as a legal religion in the Holy Roman Empire. The faith of the prince determined the religion of his subjects. Example of a state actions to control religion and morality.

Edict of Nantes

(1598) A decree that made Catholicism the official religion of France, but also gave religious freedoms to Protestants

Peace of Westphalia

(1648), Peace negotiated in 1648 to end the Thirty Years' War; As a religious issue it marked the effective end of the medieval ideal of universal Christendom, it allowed each prince-whether Lutheran, Catholic, or Calvinist-to choose the established creed of his territory; Ended the Wars of Religion; As a political issue to accelerated the decline of the Holy Roman Empire by granting princes, bishops, and other local leaders control over religion.The treaties contained new language recognizing statehood and nationhood, clearly defined borders, and guarantees of security. It confirmed the principle that a ruler's religion determined that of his country.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church. "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it"

Catherine the Great

(1729 - 1796), was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia who continued Peter's goal to Westernizing Russia. Russia was revitalised under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever and becoming recognised as one of the great powers of Europe. An "enlightened despot" whose policies of reform were aborted under pressure of rebellion by serfs This was the empress of Russia , created a new law code, and greatly expanded Russia, enlightened despot, responsible for many positive changes in Russia.

Partition of Poland

(1772) The inability of the Polish monarchy to consolidate its authority over the nobility led to Poland's partition by Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and its disappearance from the map of Europe

Reign of Terror

(1793-94) period of time in France during the tyrannical rule of Robespierre; more than 40,000 people were executed during the Terror; Brutal program initiated by the French National Convention's Committee of Public Safety to silence critics of the republic.

Berlin Conference

(1884-1885) During European Imperialism, various European leaders met in Berlin, Germany to discuss plans for dividing Africa peacefully. These leaders had little regard for African independence, and had no representation for native Africans. This began the process of imperializing Africa.

Cold War

(1945-1991) The period after the Second World War marked by rivalry and tension between the two nuclear superpowers, the democratic capitalists of the United States and the totalitarian communist of the Soviet Union. The nations never directly confronted each other on the battlefield but deadly threats went on for years. It played out on a global stage and involved propaganda campaigns; covert actions.

Adam Smith

(Scottish economist) in The Wealth of Nations, he created the concept of laissez-faire ( government should leave economy alone) & applied natural law to means of production & exchange (supply & demand); saw mercantilism as government interference in economy or free trade;

Deism

(The religious consequence of the enlightenment.) God created the universe and then stepped away and left it running, now the universe is governed by natural law., God built the universe and let it run. Clockmaker theory.

Second Industrial Revolution

(c. 1870-1914), more areas of Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased in scale and complexity. Mechanization and the factory system became the predominant modes of production by 1914. Volatile business cycles in the last quarter of the 19th century led corporations and governments to try to manage the market through monopolies, banking practices, and tariffs

Concert of Europe

(or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism. Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions. Conservatives re-established control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.

New Industries of the Second Industrial Revolution

**Ex: Chemical industry, Electricity and utilities, Automobile, Leisure travel, Professional and leisure sports

Peter the Great

-Best example of Russian royal absolutism; "westernized" the Russian state and society, transforming political, religious, and cultural institutions; He made Russia come out of their isolation and created the first navy. He soon moved his capital to St. Petersburg, where he expanded the size of Russia. Catherine the Great continued this process.

Motivations for 19th c Imperialism

-European national rivalries and strategic concerns fostered imperial expansion and competition for colonies. -The search for raw materials and markets for manufactured goods, as well as strategic and nationalistic considerations, drove Europeans to colonize Africa and Asia, even as European colonies in the Americas broke free politically, if not economically. -Europeans justified imperialism through an ideology of cultural and racial superiority.

Laws Restricting Labor of Women and Children

-Factory Act of 1833 -An act that limited the factory workday for children between nine and thirteen years of age to eight hours and that of adolescents between fourteen and eighteen years of age to twelve hours. -Mines Act of 1842-English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under -Ten Hours Act of 1847-limited the workday to 10 hours for women a and children who worked in factories

John Locke

17th century (pre-Enlightenment) English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property. More optimistic about human nature. Humans entered into social contract to establish government and protect these rights. Also wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment .

Crimean War

1854 war between the Ottomans and Russia. France, Britain, and Italians helped the Ottomans to defeat Russia but it proved the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, thereby creating the conditions in which Italy and Germany could be unified after centuries of fragmentation.

Enlightenment

18th century, - secular tradition has begun to expand and incorporate other areas of life; natural laws to predict and explain phenomenon becomes an increasingly accepted part of society as well - natural sciences and then to development of social sciences; The movement of the Enlightenment finds itself in a cultural war with the church as increasingly more areas of European life that were previously dominated by religion are now developing cultural battles for new understandings (natural laws); Celebrated the power of human reason, argued that rational thought could create progress and knowledge. Control over own life and society.

Russian Revolution

1917; catalyst provided by WWI; February 1917, Tsar Nicholar II forced to abdicater throne, ending the Romanov dynasty (ruling family for 3 centuries); Demonstrated the inadequacy of the Provisional Government, which was divided and ineffectual, and unable to meet the demands of the revolutionaries. Ended with the seizure of power by communists under the leadership of Lenin.

Glorious Revolution

1688; the parliament deposed King James II, a Roman Catholic who had asserted royal rights over the rights of Parliament. Parliament gave the crown to the Protestant King William III, a Dutch prince, and his British wife, Queen Mary II (daughter of James II), as joint rulers. When the crown was offered to William and Mary, they agreed to a Bill of Rights that severely limited the king or queen's power. The British Bill of Rights is often regarded as a forerunner to the United States Bill of Rights.

Catholic Reformation

16th Century. Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, Roman Catholic authorities undertook an enormous refor effort within their own church. Roman Catholic authorities sought to define points of doctrine so as to clarify the differences between the Roman and Protestant churches. They also attempted to persuade the Protestants to return to the Catholic church. i.e. Jesuits Order, Council of Trent, St Theresa of Avila, Index of Prohibited Books, Roman Inquisition

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1712-1778. Major philosopher, literary figure, and composer of the Enlightenment era whose political philosophy influenced the French Revolution, development of liberal and socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism. Published "The Social Contract" in 1762, one of the most influential works on political philosophy in the Western tradition. (1712-1778) "noble savage"- "man is born free and everywhere is in chains"

Hot Wars of Cold War

"Hot wars" in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean; and an arms race, with the threat of a nuclear war which the United States and the USSR supported opposite sides. Examples include Korean War, Vietnam War, The Yom Kippur War, The Afghanistan War

Baron de Montesquieu

"The Spirit of the Laws"; tried to use scientific method to find natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings; Stresses the importance of moderate government; suggests that there should be 3 separate branches. He states that government should divide itself according to its powers, creating a Judicial, Legislative, and Executive branch. Montesquieu explained that under this system each branch would Check and Balance the others, which would help protect the people's liberty.

Constitutionalism

A government of laws, not people, operating on the principle that governmental power must be limited and government officials should be restrained in their exercise of power over individuals.

Welfare State

A government that undertakes responsibility for the welfare of its citizens through programs in public health and public housing and pensions and unemployment compensation etc. This expansion of cradle-to-grave social welfare programs in the aftermath of World War II, accompanied by high taxes, became a contentious domestic political issue as the budgets of European nations came under pressure in the late 20th century.

Fascism

A governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and criticism, regimenting all industry, promotes an extreme form of nationalism (often racism), a denial of individual rights, and a dictatorial one-party rule. First found in Italy by Mussolini. Later used by Hitler with Nazi Party.

Alliances (WWI)

A grouping of nations where each one pledges mutual support to the others. The formation of alliances was an underlying cause of WWI. This caused WWI because the conflict originally involved between two countries were likely to involve many more countries due to the alliance. For example, Germany was an ally of Austria Hungary, if they were at war, then Germany would be automatically at war. Examples include Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, Russia)

Mass marketing during Second Industrial Revolution

A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second industrial revolution increasing both the production and demand for a new range of consumer goods — including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices — and created more leisure opportunities. **Ex of Mass Marketing Advertising, Department stores, Catalogs

Scientific Method

A logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem; in the scientific method include making observatoins, testing, hypotheses, and developing theories. i.e. Francis Bacon (inductive reasoning), Rene Descartes (deductive reasoning)

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

Levee en Masse

A national draft in France in 1794, created under the Jacobins, of a citizen army with support from young and old, heralding the emergence of modern warfare. This created a new type of military force based upon mass participation and a fully mobilized economy.

Industrial Revolution

A period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when there were major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transportation. In this period of rapid socioeconomic change, machines replaced human labor and new sources of inanimate energy were tapped. Coal was the leading energy source fueling the industrial revolution in England's textile-focused industrial explosion.

Appeasement

A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in the hopes of avoiding war. Failed political strategy in 1930s of French and British toward aggression by Germany and Italy. Examples of Fascist states' expansion allowed by European powers Remilitarization of the Rhineland, Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Annexation of Austria, Munich Agreement and its violation, Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Enlightened Absolutism

A policy that meant that while a monarch still maintained absolute power, the monarch encouraged religious tolerance, free speech and free press, and the right to own private property. The monarch also encouraged the arts, science, and education, proving that even absolute monarchs could be beneficial to their subjects. i.e. Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Prussia

Militarism (WWI)

A political orientation of a people or a government to maintain a strong military force and to be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests. Militarism led to a belief in the inevitability of a general European war. A Naval Arms race, amongst other items, between Great Britain and German terms of naval power.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches like Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, etc.

Mercantilism

A set of principles that dominated economic thought in the 17th Century; it held the fact that the prosperity of a nation depended on a large supply of gold and silver. To bring in gold and silver, nations tried to have a favorable balance and trade. The balance and trade is the difference in value between what a nation imports and what it exports over time. When the balance is favorable, the goods exported are of greater value than those imported.

Baroque Music

A style of music between 1600-1750 characterized by the use of the harpsichord. Baroque top composers include Johann Sebastian Bach and George Handel. Baroque music came before the Classical and Romantic music style periods. loaded with tension, drive (sometimes called a ''motor rhythm"), activity, and flairs for the dramatic.

Provisional Government

A temporary government created by the Duma after the abdication of the czar; it made the decision to remain in World War One, costing it the support of the soviets and the people.

Spanish Inquisition

A terrifying period of interrogation regarding heresy, in which many people were tortured, convicted and killed. This was spurred by fear of witches, heretics, Jews, and Muslims and was a byproduct of the reconquista. Example of a state actions to control religion and morality.

Institutions of Enlightenment

A variety of institutions, such as salons, explored and disseminated Enlightenment culture. Other examples include. ), Other examples are Coffeehouses, Academies, Libraries, Masonic Lodges

Total War

A war that involves the complete mobilization of resources and people, affecting the lives of all citizens in the warring countries, even those remote from the battlefields. Examples include factories being converted to produce weapons solely, the use of censorship, propaganda, rationing, mass conscription,

Maximillien Robespierre

A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial.

Blitzkrieg

A German term for "lightning war," blitzkrieg is a military tactic designed to create disorganization among enemy forces through the use of mobile forces and locally concentrated firepower. Its successful execution results in short military campaigns, which preserves human lives and limits the expenditure of artillery.

Christian Humanism

A branch of humanism associated with northern Europe. Like their Italian counterparts, the Christian humanists closely studied classical texts. However, they also sought to give humanism a specifically Christian content. Committed to religious piety and institutional reform. i.e. Erasmus, Sir Thomas More

Marxism

A branch of socialism that emphasizes exploitation and class struggle and includes both communism and other approaches. The economic and political theories of Karl Marx that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will untimately be superseded. *Ex: Friedrich Engels, August Bebel, Clara Zetkin, Rosa Luxemburg

Eastern/Southern Industrialization

A combination of factors including geography, lack of resources, lack of adequate transportation, the dominance of traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government sponsorship accounted for eastern and southern Europe's lag in industrial development.

Spanish Civil War

A conflict from 1936 to 1939 that resulted in the installation of fascist dictator Francisco Franco as ruler of Spain; Franco's forces were backed by Germany and Italy -- represented a testing ground for World War II.

Social Darwinism

A description often applied to the late 19th century belief of people such as Herbert Spencer and others who argued that "surival of the fittest" justifies the competition of laissez-faire capitalism and imperialist policies. Darwin's natural selection inadvertently provided a justification for these racialist theories

Commercial Revolution

A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by the transition from the local economies of the Middle Ages to an economy based on overseas trade, the extension of banking and credit, and mercantilist policies, an increase in towns and trade (population increase), the use of banks and credit, inflation due to the demand for food, capitalists and labor divergence, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price.

Price Revolution

A dramatic rise in prices (actually VERY slowly compared to modern inflation). It was caused by the increasing population of Europe, mainly centered in rural areas, and the influx and silver from the new world. A major problem in Europe in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, causes economic collapse in Spain.

Religious Pluralism

A few states, such as France with the Edict of Nantes, allowed religious pluralism in order to maintain domestic peace.The condition in which one or more religions coexist either as complementary to each other or as competing systems. Others include Poland and Netherlands

Zionism

A form of Jewish nationalism, Zionism, developed in the late 19th century as a response to growing anti-Semitism in both western and eastern Europe. Founded by Theodore Herzl (1860-1904) the Zionists sought the creation of a national homeland for the Jews in Palestine.

New Monarch

Laid the foundation for the centralized modern state led by absolute monarchs. They could impose taxes, raise armies, control the nobles in their respective states and determine the religion of their subjects. i.e. Specific examples of New Monarchs are Ferdinand and Isabella (Spain) Henry IV and Louis XIII (France), Henry VIII and Elizaebth I (England). i.e. Specific examples monarchial control include Star Chamber, Concordat of Bologna, Peace of Augsburg, Edict of Nantes

Commercialization of Agriculture

Large landowners (nobility), recognizing that the increasing wealth and availability of a money economy, realized they could make money by selling products grown on their fields rather than simply renting their lands to subsistence farmers (peasants). These powerful groups restricted use of the village common by peasant using the enclosure movement - practice of fencing or enclosing common lands into individual holdings.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution. He freed the slaves and gained effective independence for Haiti despite military interventions by the British and French.

Imperialism (WWI)

Led to increased tensions between the Great Powers over Africa. Germany aggressively set out to acquire colonies, sometimes coming into conflict with rival European powers. Examples include Kruger Telegram, First and Second Moroccan Crisis)

Leisure Activities of 16th and early 17th Centuries

Leisure activities continued to be organized according to the religious calendar and the agricultural cycle and remained communal in nature. i.e. Saints's day festivities, Carnival, Blood sports

Leisure Activities and Spaces during Industrialization

Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time. **Ex: Parks,, Sports clubs and arenas, Beaches, Department stores, Museums, Theaters, Opera houses

Revolutions of 1848

Liberal and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe during a time after the Congress of Vienna when conservative monarchs were trying to maintain their power. The monarchy in France was overthrown. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary the revolutions failed.

19th c Liberalism

Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance. *Ex: Jeremy Bentham, Anti-Corn Law League, John Stuart Mill, Adam Smith

Literature style that reflected Enlightenment ideals

Literature moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power (Baroque) to an emphasis on private life and the public good. Artistic movements reflected political power and citizenship. Examples of artists include Goethe and Jane Austen

Literature style of 18th Century Commercial Society

Literature moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power (Baroque) to an emphasis on private life and the public good. Literature movements reflected the outlook and values of commercial and bourgeois society. Examples of artists include Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson

Rituals of Public Humiliation in 1600s

Local government and church authorities continued to enforce communal norms through rituals of public humiliation like Charivari, Stocks, Public whipping and branding.

Marshall Plan

Massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe; was intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power

New Economics of Enlightenment

Mercantilist theory and practice were challenged by new economic ideas, such as Adam Smith's, espousing free trade and a free market. Other examples include Physiocrats and Francois Quesnay

1815 (HUB DATE)

Metternich hosts Congress of Vienna (after Battle of Waterloo: the Napoleonic Empire ends)

17th Century Urban Migration

Migration to cities brought about by lost jobs in commercial agriculture and economic opportunity of the Commercial Revolution and Columbian Exchange brought on several issues. Migrants to the cities challenged the ability of merchant elites and craft guilds to govern and strained resources. i.e. sanitation problems, employment, poverty, crime.

Competition Between Monarchs and Nobles

Monarchies seeking enhanced power faced challenges from nobles who wished to retain traditional forms of shared governance and regional autonomy. i.e. Louis and Richelieu, Fronde

Factors of the Rise of Fascist Dictatorship

Mussolini and Hitler rose to power by exploiting postwar bitterness and economic instability, using terror and manipulating the fledgling and unpopular democracies in their countries.

Napoleon Limitation of Rights

Napoleon often curtailed some rights and manipulating popular impulses behind a façade of representative institutions. i.e. Secret Police, Censorship, Limitation of women's right especially in Civil (Napoleonic) Code

Reforms of Napoleon

Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms. i.e. Careers open to talent, public educational system, centralized bureaucracy, Civil (Napoleonic) Code, Concordat of 1801, Bank of France

Napoleon's Military Tactics

Napoleonic tactics are characterized by intense drilling of the soldiers, speedy battlefield movement, combined arms assaults between infantry, cavalry, and artillery, relatively small numbers of cannon, short-range musket fire, and bayonet charges. Tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the European continent, spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe

Nationalist and Separatist Movements

Nationalist and separatist movements, along with ethnic conflict and ethnic cleansing, periodically disrupted the post-World War II peace. For example, nationalist violence in Ireland and Chechnya, separatist violence amongst the Basque in Spain and the Flemish in Belgium

19th c Nationalism

Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation in a variety of ways, including romantic idealism, liberal reform, political unification, racialism with a concomitant anti-Semitism, and chauvinism justifying national aggrandizement. *Ex: J. G. Fichte, Grimm Brothers, Giuseppe Mazzini, Pan-Slavists

War of Louis XIV

Nearly continuous wars, pursuing both dynastic and state interests, provoked a coalition of European powers opposing him. War included Dutch War, Nine Years War, War of Spanish Succession

Innovations creating consumerism

New efficient methods of transportation and other innovations created new industries, improved the distribution of goods, increased consumerism, and enhanced the quality of life. *Ex: Steamships, Railroads, Refrigerated rail cars, Ice boxes, Streetcars, Bicycles

Post War Love, Marriage and Reproduction

New modes of marriage, partnership, motherhood, divorce, and reproduction gave women more options in their personal lives. Examples include Birth Control, Abortion, 'The Pill', Scientific means of fertilization

New Architectural Movements in 1900s

New movements in the architecture demolished existing aesthetic standards, explored subconscious and subjective states, and satirized Western society and its values. Examples include Functionalism, Bauhaus Modernism, Postmodernism

New Movement in Music in 1900s

New movements in the music demolished existing aesthetic standards, explored subconscious and subjective states, and satirized Western society and its values. Examples include Compositions of Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, Richard Strauss

New Movements in Visual Art in 1900s

New movements in the visual arts demolished existing aesthetic standards, explored subconscious and subjective states, and satirized Western society and its values. Examples include Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries. Defense treaty to prevent Soviet expansion in Europe

Challenges to National Sovereignty in EU

One of the major continuing challenges to countries in the EU is balancing national sovereignty with the responsibilities of membership in an economic and political union. Examples include The creation of the euro, The creation of a European parliament , Free movement across borders

Consumer Culture

Overseas products and influences contributed to the development of a 'consumer culture' in Europe in which personal worth and identity reside not in the people themselves but in the products with which they surround themselves. i.e. Sugar, Tea, Silks and other fabrics, Tobacco, Rum, Coffee

Polish liberum vote

Parliamentary device in polish-lithuanian commonwealth. it was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting. Led to weak monarch and the eventual elimination of Poland.

Five Year Plans

Part of Stalin's plan of a centralized program of rapid economic modernization (the other is Collectivization). These plans were used to industrialize the Soviet Union rapidly, beginning in 1928. They set goals for the output of steel, electricity, machinery, and most other products and were enforced by the police powers of the state.

Collectivization

Part of Stalin's plan of a centralized program of rapid economic modernization (the other is Five Year Plans) This is a process of rural reform undertaken by the communist leadership in which private property rights were abolished and peasants were forced onto larger and more industrialized farms to work and share the proceeds as a community rather than as individuals.

1555 (HUB DATE)

Peace of Augsburg, Holy Roman Empire had religious civil war for over 3 decades (between Protestants and Catholics), so Charles V agrees to allow Lutheranism.

1713 (HUB DATE)

Peace of Utrecht ends War of Spanish Succession

Philosophy of irrationality

Philosophy largely moved from rational interpretations of nature and human society to an emphasis on irrationality and impulse, a view that contributed to the belief that conflict and struggle led to progress. *Ex: Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche, Georges Sorel, Henri Bergson

New Economic Policy (NEP)

Policy proclaimed by Vladimir Lenin in 1924 to encourage the revival of the Soviet economy by allowing small private business and farming using markets instead of communist state ownership. His idea was that the Soviet state would just control "the commanding heights" of the economy like major industry, while allowing ordinary citizens to operate business and property ownership as normal. Joseph Stalin ended this in 1928 and replaced it with greater state ownership, collectivization, and a series of Five-Year Plans.

Population Growth 16th vs. 17th Century

Population recovered to its pre-Great Plague level in the 16th century, and continuing population pressures contributed to uneven price increases; agricultural commodities increased more sharply than wages, reducing living standards for some (Price Revolution. However, after the late 16th century, Europeans responded to economic and environmental challenges, such as the "Little Ice Age," by delaying marriage and childbearing, which restrained population growth and ultimately improved the economic condition of families.

Positivism

Positivism, or the philosophy that science alone provides knowledge, emphasized the rational and scientific analysis of nature and human affairs. Positivists believed that social and economic problems could be solved by the application of the scientific method, leading to continuous progress.

19th c Anti-Semitism

Prejudice, hatred of, or discrimination against Jews for reasons connected to their Jewish heritage. Often connected to some strong or extreme sense of nationalism. *Ex: Dreyfus Affair, Christian Social Party in Germany, Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna

Bolshevik

Radical Marxist political party founded by Vladimir Lenin in 1903. Under Lenin's leadership, the Bolsheviks seized power in November 1917 during the Russian Revolution. Eventually become known as Communist Party and established the Soviet Union.

19th c British Radical/ Continental Republicans

Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women. *Ex:Chartists, Flora Tristan

Realism in Art

Realist and materialist themes and attitudes influenced art as painters depicted the lives of ordinary people and drew attention to social problems. *Ex: Honoré Daumier, Gustave Courbet, Jean-Francois Millet

Realism in Literature

Realist and materialist themes and attitudes influenced literature as writers depicted the lives of ordinary people and drew attention to social problems. *Ex: Honoré de Balzac, Honoré Daumier , Charles Dickens , Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Émile Zola, Thomas Hardy

Economic Miracle

Refers to the great recovery that was made in European economies in the post World War II era. Extensive reconstruction of industry and infrastructure and stimulated an extended period of growth in Western and Central Europe, which increased the economic and cultural importance of consumerism.

19th c Mass Based Political Parties

Responding to the problems created or exacerbated by industrialization, Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform. *Ex: Conservatives and Liberals in Great Britain, Conservatives and Socialists in France, Social Democratic Party in Germany

Government Reforms Modernizing Infrastructure

Responding to the problems created or exacerbated by industrialization, government reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. *Ex: Sewage and water systems, Public lighting, Public housing, Urban redesign, Parks, Public transportation

New Technologies of Second Industrial Revolution

Resulted in more fully integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, and a truly global economic network. ** Ex: Bessemer process, Mass production, Electricity, Chemicals

Communication of Second Industrial Revolution

Resulted in more fully integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, and a truly global economic network. **Ex: Telegraph, Steamship, Streetcars or trolley cars, Telephones, Internal combustion engine, Airplane, Radio

Early 19th c Revolt

Revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo. *Ex: Greek War of Independence, Decembrist Revolt in Russia, Polish Rebellion, July Revolution in France

1848

Revolutions in France, Germany, Netherlands, Austria; The Communist Manifesto; Louis Napoleon elected

Romantic Art

Romantic art broke from classical artistic forms to emphasize emotion, nature, individuality, intuition, the supernatural, and national histories in their works. *Ex: Francisco Goya, Caspar David Friedrich, J. M. W. Turner, John Constable, Eugène Delacroix

Romantic Music

Romantic composers broke from classical artistic forms to emphasize emotion, nature, individuality, intuition, the supernatural, and national histories in their works. *Ex: Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, Richard Wagner, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

Romantic Literature

Romantic writers while responding to the Industrial Revolution and to various political revolutions, broke from classical artistic forms to emphasize emotion, nature, individuality, intuition, the supernatural, and national histories in their works. *Ex: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, Percy Shelley, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Victor Hugo

David Hume

SKEPTICISM - Scottish philosopher whose sceptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses built on Locke's theories

Aristotle classical cosmology/ Ptolemy astronomical system

Said the earth was the center of the universe Ptolemy believed that the sun and the 5 known planets revolved around earth this theory lasted 1,400 years the catholic church and most scholars accepted ptolemy theory

Consumer Revolution of 18th Century

Shaped by a new concern for privacy (Home were built with private retreats such as the boudoir), encouraged the purchase of new goods for homes (Porcelain dishes, cotton and linens for home décor, mirrors), and created new venues for leisure activities (Taverns, Coffeehouses, Theaters and opera houses)

English Exploration

Showed little interest in exploration during most of the 150ww. When colonization did begin in 1600s, English efforts were directed toward both the mid-Atantic of North America and India. Established their own colonies and trading networks to compete with Portuguese and Spanish dominance.

17th Century Demographic Patterns

Small landholdings, low-productivity agricultural practices, poor transportation, and adverse weather limited and disrupted the food supply, causing periodic famines

Regulation of Public Morals in 1600s

Social dislocation, coupled with the weakening of religious institutions during the Reformation, left city governments with the task of regulating public morals. Methods included new secular laws regulating private life, strict code on beggar and prostitution, abolishing or restricting Carnival, Calvin's Geneva.

Alchemy/astrology

Some scientists of this new era still held on to these medieval scientific beliefs. e.g. Medieval chemistry, esp. the attempt to change common metals into gold/ a pseudoscience claiming divination by the positions of the planets and sun and moon

Philip II

Son of Charles V, King of Spain, 1556 - 1598; he was the most powerful monarch in Europe until 1588; controlled Spain, the Netherlands, the Spanish colonies in the New World, Portugal, Brazil, parts of Africa, parts of India, and the East Indies. Absolute monarch who helped lead the Counter Reformation by persecuting Protestants in his holdings. Also sent the Spanish Armada against England.

Spanish Exploration

Spain was the first to seize the opportunities (for labor, land and goods) created by the New World. They continually funded more explorations. The conquistadores destroy native populations. Spanish explorers are the first to discover and colonize much of the Americas (especially the southern end). i.e. Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, Hernando Cortes, Francisco Pizarro

1588 (HUB DATE)

Spanish Armada defeated "Invincible" group of ships sent by King Philip II of Spain to invade England; Armada was defeated by smaller, more maneuverable English "sea dogs" in the Channel; marked the beginning of English naval dominance and fall of Spanish dominance.

Revival of Classical Texts

Spread by the printing press, challenged the institutional power of universities and the Roman Catholic Church and shifted the focus of education away from theology toward the study of the Greek and Roman texts. i.e.Leonardo Bruni, Niccolo Machiavelli

Stalin's Oppressive Political System

Stalin's economic modernization of the Soviet Union came at a high price, including the liquidation of the kulaks, famine in the Ukraine, purges of political rivals, unequal burdens placed on women. Examples include the Great Purges, the Gulags, Secret police

Great Depression

Starting with collapse of the US stock market in 1929, period of worldwide economic stagnation and depression. Heavy borrowing by European nations from USA during WWI contributed to instability in European economies. Sharp declines in income and production as buying and selling slowed down. Widespread unemployment, countries raised tariffs to protect their industries. Led to the rise of new political and economic systems in Western Civililzation (U.S. Roosevelt's New Deal, Germany's Nazis, Italy's Fascists, USSR - Stalin's Five Year Plans)

State Exploitation of Religious Conflicts

States exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests. i.e. Spanish Armada-- King Phillip II sent a fleet of 130 ships to England to defeat them but lost and gave England naval domination. Publicly about religion, but mostly about Spain trying to eliminate England as a rival on the Atlantic. Seen as the beginning of the end of Spanish dominance and the beginning of the rise of English dominance. Thirty Years War--(1618-48) A series of European wars mostly in the HRE that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia

Individualism

Stressed the importance of personality, the development of unique talents, and pursuit of fame and glory. By displaying the full range of human abilities, a Renaissance person demonstrated "virtu"

Agriculture in 1500s

Subsistence agriculture was the rule in most areas, with the inefficient three-crop field rotation in the north and the even more inefficient two-crop rotation in the Mediterranean; in many cases, farmers paid rent and labor services for their lands. These practices eventually would be chipped away by Commercial Agriculture.

Cottage Industry or "Putting Out" System

System of merchant-capitalists "putting out" raw materials to cottage workers for processing and payment that was fully developed in England. Small scale manufacturing based in homes using hand tools rather than in a factory, commonly found before the Industrial Revolution.

Keynesian Economics

The British economist John Maynard Keynes believed that the government could pull the economy out of a depression by increasing government spending, thus creating jobs and increasing consumer buying power.

New Economic Elite

The Commercial Revolution and Columbian Exchange produced a new economic elite, which challenged the traditional elites in different ways in Europe's various geographic regions. i.e. Gentry in England, Nobles of Robe (new) vs. Sword in France (old), Town Elites (bankers and merchants)

Unification of Germany

The German Confederation had 39 states controlled by Austria due to the Congress of Vienna. Otto von Bismarck was made prime minister to King Wilhelm I of Prussia. The Prussian army was expanded and Germany fought wars, building nationalist pride. In 1871, Wilhelm was the self-proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich.

1618-1648 (HUB DATE)

The Thirty Years' War is fought between Catholics and Protestants (and between rival dynasties); this "last of the religious wars" ends with the Peace of Westphalia.

Artistic style of Enlightenment Ideals

The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power (Baroque) to an emphasis on private life and the public good. Artistic movements reflected political power and citizenship. Examples of artists include Neoclassicism, Jacques Louis David, Pantheon in Paris

Artistic style of 18th Century Commercial Society

The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power (Baroque) to an emphasis on private life and the public good. Artistic movements reflected the outlook and values of commercial and bourgeois society. Examples of artists include Dutch Painting, Frans Hals, Rembrandt, Jan Vermeer

Bank of England

The bank founded in 1694. Unlike most banks, it offered loans. Issued paper banknotes backed by credit, providing substitute for silver and gold currency, enabled the government to raise money at low interest for foreign wars.

Iron Curtain

The boundary separating the Communist nations of Eastern Europe from the mostly democratic nations of Western Europe. Term used by Churchill in 1946 to describe the growing East-West divide in postwar Europe.

New Breed of Conservative Leaders

The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for movements of national unification in Italy and Germany as well as liberal reforms elsewhere. These liberal reforms were, oddly, led by Conservative leaders and governments. They co-opted the agenda of nationalists for the purposes of creating or strengthening the state. *Ex: Napoleon III, Cavour, Bismarck

New Physics

The challenge to the certainties of the Newtonian universe in physics opened the door to uncertainty in other fields by undermining faith in objective knowledge, while also providing the knowledge necessary for the development of nuclear weapons and power. Challenged traditional notions of casualty, time, and space. It undermined the optimistic confidence that people lived in a predictable and orderly world. Examples include Einstein, Max Planck, Marie and Pierre Curie, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Enrico Fermi, Niels Bohr

Christian Responses to Totalitarianism

The challenges of totalitarianism and communism in Central and Eastern Europe brought various responses from the Christian churches. For example, Solidarity (Polish political party (anti-communism) lead by Lech Walesa; wanted free elections for Poles), Pope John Paul II (This pope contributed materially to the end of the Cold War and gave attention to Solidarity), Martin Niemoller (luthern minister, preached against nazi policies --- "First they came for the ...)

Diderot

The chief editor of the Encyclopedia published between 1751-1772. Said that "All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard to one's feelings." and "We will speak against senseless laws until they are reformed; and, while we wait, we will abide by them."

Advanced weaponry of 19th c Imperialism

The development of advanced weaponry invariably ensured the military superiority of Europeans over colonized areas. *Ex: Minié ball (bullet), Breech-loading rifle, Machine gun,

New Financial Practices and Institutions of Market Economy

The development of the market economy led to new financial practices and institutions like Insurance, Banking institutions for turning private savings into venture capital, individual definitions of property rights and protections against confiscation, Bank of England

Secularism

The emphasis on the here and-now rather than on the spiritual and otherworldly. More widely seen in Italian (southern) Renaissance.

Moderate Phase of French Revolution

The first, or liberal, phase of the French Revolution established a constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation, nationalized the Catholic Church, and abolished hereditary privileges. i.e. Declaration of Rights, Civil Constitution of Clergy, Constitution of 1791, Abolition of provinces and division into departments

Existentialism

The idea that human beings simply exist, have no higher purpose, and must exist and choose their actions for themselves. Philosophy that God, reason, and progress are all myths. Humans must accept responsibility for their actions. This responsibility causes an overwhelming sense of dread and anguish. Existentialism reflects the sense of isolation and alienation in the 20th century. Existentialism mainly influenced by Nietzsche.

Cult of Domesticity

The ideal woman was seen as a tender, self-sacrificing caregiver who provided a nest for her children and a peaceful refuge for her husband, social customs that restricted women to caring for the house

Separate Spheres

The ideology that men should be working and women should be at home keeping the house. The separate spheres ideology became more explicitly articulated in the nineteenth century, as middle classes became wealthier and the notion that the wife should not work became an indicator of wealth and status. With the advent of this new ideology, middle class women increasingly resented legal restraints.

Weimar Republic

The new German republic the in 1921 owed 33 billion annually to the allied reparations commission. In order to recover from its severe economic issues the annual fees were reduced each year depending on the level of German economic prosperity and Germany received large loans each year from the United States. Due to economic and political instability, it faced constant threats from both left wing (communist) and right wing (monarchists, authoritarians, fascists)

New Technologies of WWI

The new technologies confounded traditional military strategies and led to massive troop losses. Examples include Machine gun, Barbed wire, Submarine, Airplane, Poison gas, Tank

Decolonization

The process by which colonies gained their independence from the imperial European powers after World War II (1947-62). It was the rising demand of Asian and African people for national self-determination, racial equality, and personal dignity. The Indian independence played a big role in decolonization. Decolonization in much of Africa proceeded smoothly. Colonies were given a choice of a total break or immediate independence within a commonwealth. This resulted in increase of western European countries' economic and cultural ties with former African colonies.

Jacobins

The radical Jacobin Republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages, and pursuing a policy of de-Christianization.

Romanticism

The romantic movement of the early 19th century with neoclassical forms of artistic representation and with rationalism, placing more emphasis on intuition and emotion. It set the stage for later cultural perspectives by encouraging individuals to cultivate their uniqueness and to trust intuition and emotion as much as reason. Partly in reaction to the Enlightenment, romanticism affirmed the value of sensitivity, imagination, and creativity and thereby provided a climate for artistic experimentation

Ethnic Cleansing

The systematic attempt to remove all people of a particular ethnicity from a country or region either by forced migration or genocide. During the 1990s, Serbian terrorize and killed ethnic Albanians in Kosovo and muslims in Bosnia, who were asking for self rule as a result of a growing Nationalism after the fall of communism in eastern Europe

Expansion of Transatlantic slave labor system

The transatlantic slave-labor system expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries as demand for New World products increased and a consumer culture grew. i.e. Middle Passage, Triangle Trade, plantation economies in the Americas

Agricultural Revolution

The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled. Features: Increased production of food, new methods of cultivation, selective breeding of livestock. Low countries led the way.

Non European Theaters of World War I

The war in Europe quickly spread to non-European theaters, transforming the war into a global conflict. Examples include Armenian Genocide, Arab revolt against the Turks, Japanese aggression in the Pacific and on the Chinese mainland.

Age of Anxiety

The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th-century thought began to break down before World War I; the experience of war intensified a sense of anxiety that permeated many facets of thought and culture, giving way by the century's end to a plurality of intellectual frameworks. (Examples include New Physics, changes in the Visual Arts, Literature, music, Existentialism)

Secular Absolutism

Theory which proposes a government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.). First type of government to control the sovereign state. i.e. Suggested by political philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin

Challenge to traditional literature in 1900s

Throughout the century, a number of writers challenged traditional literary conventions, questioned Western values, and addressed controversial social and political issues. Examples include Franz Kafka, James Joyce, Erich Maria Remarque, Virginia Woolf, Jean-Paul Sartre, George Orwell, T.S. Elliot, Oswald Spengler

1993 (HUB Date)

Treaty of Maastricht creates the European Union (EU)

1871 (HUB DATE)

Unification of Germany; Unification of Italy; Commune and Third Republic in France

Tools of Fascist Dictators

Used modern technology and propaganda that rejected democratic institutions, promoted charismatic leaders, and glorified war and nationalism to lure the disillusioned.

Camillo di Cavour

Used realpolitik strategy -- Architect of Italian unification in 1871; formed an alliance with France to attack Austrian control of northern Italy; resulted in creation of constitutional monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel .

19th C Private nongovernment reform movements and groups

Various private, nongovernmental reform movements sought to lift up the deserving poor (Young Prostitutes, Children, Women and Elderly) and end serfdom and slavery. *Ex: The Sunday School Movement, The Temperance Movement, British Abolitionist Movement, Josephine Butler

Dutch Exploration

When colonization did begin in 1600s, Dutch efforts were directed toward a little toward the mid-Atantic of North America, but mostly toward India. Eventually they replaces Portuguese dominance in the East with the help of the Dutch East India Company

French Exploration

When colonization did begin in 1600s, French efforts were directed toward both the northern region of North America (think Canada). Established their own colonies and trading networks to compete with Portuguese and Spanish dominance.

Reaction to Napoleon

While Napoleon spread the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe, his expanding empire created nationalist (anit-French, too) responses throughout Europe.

Baby Boom

With economic recovery after World War II, the birth rate increased dramatically (the Baby Boom), often promoted by government policies. Government policies include Neonatalism, Subsidies for large families, Child-care facilities

Women in French Revolution

Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men.

14 Points

Woodrow Wilson's peace plan, set out before war ended, helped bring it to and end because it helped Germans look forward to peace and be willing to surrender, was easy on the germans punishment for war. Points included: poeple all over the world are to determine their own fate, (self-determination) no colonial powers grabbing nations, free trade, no secret pacts, freedom of the seas, arms reduction, creation of world orginization/League of Nations.

19th c Workers Political Party

Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties. *Ex: German Social Democratic Party, British Labour Party, Russian Social Democratic Party

Lost Generation

World War I created a "lost generation," fostered disillusionment and cynicism, transformed the lives of women, and democratized societies. The generation of the 1920s after WWI, when men and women saw little hope for the future because of the casualties caused by the war, disease and starvation.

1914-1918

World War I; "The "Great War" in essence a European civil war with global implications that was marked by massive casualties, the expansion of offensive military technology beyond tactics and means of defense, and a great deal of disillusionment with the whole idea of "progress."

World War II destruction of populations

World War II decimated a generation of Russian and German men; virtually destroyed European Jewry; resulted in the murder of millions in other groups targeted by the Nazis including Roma, homosexuals, people with disabilities, and others; forced large-scale migrations; and undermined prewar class hierarchies.

1939-1945 (HUB Date)

World War II, which began with the German invasion of Poland and ended with the U.S. bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

European Union (EU)

a supranational organization whose goal is to unite Europe so that goods, services, and workers can move freely among member countries. Formed in 1993 for the purpose of achieving political and economic integration. Made up of over two dozen European nations, with a common currency and common policies and laws.

Rise of Austria

after the Thirty Year's War, the Austrian Habsburgs reestablished control over Bohemia and then Hungary, which had been dominated by the Turks, and collected an empire under the Pragmatic Sanction, stating that the lands could never be divided. Maria Theresa was the queen of Austria as a result of the Pragmatic Sanction. She limited the papacy's political influence in Austria, strengthened her central bureaucracy and cautiously reduced the power that nobles had over their serfs

Jean Baptiste Colbert

financial minister for Louis XIV, extended the administrative, financial, military, and religious control of the central state over the French population, furthered prosperity by promoting good farming methods, building roads and canals (infrastructure), promoted existing industries with tariffs, aided new industries with subsidies, and increased mercantilism by establishing French trading posts in India and North American colonies

Painters and Architects of Renaissance

i.e. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Brunelleschi

Anatomical Discoveries of Scientific Revolution

i.e. William Harvey - English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood, Andreas Vesalius - Basically was the founder of studying human anatomy with attention to detail and accuracy. Before it was legal he would steal bodies from graveyards to dissect them and find out what human anatomy really looked like.

Printing Press

invented by Johann Gutenberg in 1450s; first book was Gutenberg Bible; changed private and public lives of Europeans; used for war declarations, battle accounts, treaties, propaganda; laid basis for formation of distinct political parties; enhanced literacy, people sought books on all subjects

Cesare Beccaria

philosophe; promoted criminal justice; applied logic and reason to crime and punishment; felt that the justice system should focus on preserving social order instead of avenging crimes; called for the abolition of capital punishment and torture; wanted speedy trials and the elimination of cruel and unusual punishment

British-French Rivalry

resulted in world wars (Seven Years' War / French and Indian War) fought both in Europe and in the colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power.

Inventions of Proto-Industrialization

water frame (Richard Arkwright), spinning jenny (James Hargreaves, flying shuttle (John Kay), power loom Edmund Cartwright), steam engine (James Watt)

Baron d'Holbach

wrote "System of Nature", which said humans are only machines and have no free will- created a rift between atheist and deist thinkers within the enlightened group. d'Holbach was a devout atheist who believed religion was driven by fear, and controlled people and their reason. People put too much trust in the Church, and relied on it instead of knowledge and reason. d'Holbach also stated that the church turned people into slaves.

League of Nations

A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed by President Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined the League. It proved ineffectual in stopping aggression by Italy, Japan, and Germany in the 1930s. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946.

Role of Commercial and professional groups

Across Europe, gained in power and played a greater role in political affairs as new monarch restricted the power of nobility. Began the development of the middle class. i.e. Nobles of robe vs. Nobles of Sword in France, Gentry in England, Merchants/ Bankers in Italy

Advances in medicine of 19th c Imperialism

Advances in medicine supported European control of Africa and Asia by preserving European lives. *Ex: Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease, Anesthesia and antiseptics, Public health projects, Quinine

Military technology for exploration

Advances in military technology allowed Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires. i.e. horses, guns and gunpowder

Military Revolution

Advances in military technology led to new forms of warfare, including greater reliance on infantry, firearms, mobile cannon, and more elaborate fortifications, all financed by heavier taxation and requiring a larger bureaucracy. Technology, tactics, and strategies tipped the balance of power toward states able to marshal sufficient resources for the new military environment i.e. Spain, Sweden and France benefitted

African Slave Trade

African peoples captured by Europeans and taken as slaves to South America (sugar cane plantations) and North America (cotton plantations). The profits were then taken to Europe. This was the Triangular Trade.

Authoritarian dictatorships in Central & Eastern Europe

After failures to establish functioning democracies, authoritarian dictatorships took power in Central and Eastern Europe during the interwar period. Examples include Poland, Hungary, Romania

Rise of New Nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe

After the fall of communist dictatorships in eastern Europe, a new nationalism brought peaceful revolution in most countries (Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, etc) but resulted in war and genocide in the Balkans (Former Yugoslavia) (and instability in some former Soviet republics (Chechnya).

Urbanization during Industrialization

Along with better harvests caused in part by the Agriculture Revolution, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant mortality. With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities.

Navigational Technology for Exploration

Also, with technological advances such the magnetic compass being invented Europeans finally felt they would be able to survive a voyage into the unknown. i.e. stern-post rudder, portolani, quadrant, astrolabe, lateen rig

18th Century Reproduction

Although the rate of illegitimate births increased in the 18th century, population growth was limited by the European marriage pattern and, in some areas, by the early practice of birth control.

Dual Monarchy

An 1867 compromise between the German speaking Hapburg of Austria-Bohemia and the Magyars of Hungary to resolve the nationalities problem by creating the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, with a common ministry for finance, foreign affairs, and war. Austria-Hungary, two separate, equal states ruled by one monarch was an attempt to stabilize the state by reconfiguring national unity.

Galileo

An Italian who provided more evidence for heliocentrism and questioned if the heavens really were perfect. He invented a new telescope, studied the sky, and published what he discovered. Because his work provided evidence that the Bible was wrong he was arrested and ended up on house arrest for the rest of his life.

Market Economy

An economic system in which decisions about production, price, and other economic factors are determined by the law of supply and demand. Labor and trade in products were increasingly freed from traditional restrictions imposed by governments and corporate entities (Medieval town guild system).i.e. Le Chapelier laws (anti-guild laws in French revolution ion).

Northern Renaissance

An extension of the Italian Renaissance to the nations Germany, Flanders, France, and England; it took on a more religious nature than the Italian Renaissance

Civic Humanism

An ideology celebrated by many rich merchants in Italian city-states that preached public virtue and serving one's state for the greater good. i.e. Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean Bodin, Baldassare Castligione

Italian Renaissance Humanists

An intellectual movement in Renaissance Italy that sought to re-discover and study Greek and Roman classics, and classical disciplines like rhetoric, Latin, history, and poetry. i.e. - Petrarch, Lorenzo de Valla, Pico Della Mirandola

United Nations

An international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. It was founded in 1945 at the signing of the United Nations Charter by 50 countries, replacing the League of Nations, founded in 1919.

19th c Anarchists

Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation. *Ex: Mikhail Bakunin, Georges Sorel

Anabaptists

Another Protestant sect that had different interpretation of the Bible--only adults could make a free choice regarding religion and so baptism was an action taken in adulthood; they also advocated pacifism, separation of church and state (the church was not subordinate to the state), and a democratic church organization.

Isaac Newton

Articulated the laws of motion and gravity and tied together the works of Galileo and Copernicus (end of scientific revolution). His logical system of the universe will inspire the logic and reason on the Enlightenment.

Mannerism

Artistic movement against the Renaissance ideals of symetry, balance, and simplicity; went against the perfection the High Renaissance created in art. Used elongated proportions, twisted poses and compression of space. i.e. El Greco

De-Stalinization

As carried out by Nikita Khrushchev, de-Stalinization meant denouncing Joseph Stalin's cult of personality, producing more consumer goods, allowing greater cultural freedom, and pursuing peaceful coexistence with the West. Policies eventually failed to meet their economic goals within the Soviet Union and prompted revolts in Eastern Europe in the late 1960s

18th Century Child-Rearing

As infant and child mortality decreased and commercial wealth increased, families dedicated more space and resources to children and child-rearing, as well as private life and comfort.

Responses by non-Europeans to New Imperialism

As non-Europeans became educated in Western values, they challenged European imperialism through nationalist movements and/or by modernizing their own economies and societies. *Ex: Indian Congress Party, Zulu Resistance, India's Sepoy Mutiny, China's Boxer Rebellion, Japan's Meiji Restoration

Eastern Question

As the Ottoman Empire declined in the mid-late 19C other powers (mainly Britain, France and Russia) attempted to make sure that Russia did not incorporate it into the Russian empire while Greek, Serbian and other nationalists vied for independence. Nationalist tensions in the Balkans drew the Great Powers into a series of crises, leading up to World War I. *Ex: Congress of Berlin in 1878, Growing influence of Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina Annexation Crisis, 1908, First Balkan War, Second Balkan War

Eastern Serfdom

As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercialization of agriculture, serfdom was codified in the east, where nobles continued to dominate economic life on large estates.

Motives for Exploration

At the end of the 15th Century, rulers began to consolidate their rule and with that became better able to tax and control their subjects --> a large increase in wealth many European countries. Before the Age of Exploration, the Renaissance, Crusades, and Reformation set the stage for the defining motives behind European exploration. This period of exploration during the 15th to the 18th Century was driven by the three G's: God (spreading Christianity), Glory (power/prestige), and Gold.

Russian autocratic leaders push reform

Autocratic leaders pushed through a program of reform and modernization, which gave rise to revolutionary movements and eventually the Revolution of 1905. *Ex: Alexander II, Sergei Witte, Peter Stolypin

Anti-immigration, right-wing parties

Because of the economic growth of the 1950s and 1960s, numerous guest workers from southern Europe, Asia, and Africa immigrated to Western and Central Europe; however, after the economic downturn of the 1970s, these workers and their families often became targets of anti-immigrant agitation and extreme nationalist political parties. Examples include French National Front, Austrian Freedom Party

English Reformation

Began because of a political dispute betw the king and the pope. The pope refused to grant a divorce between King Henry VIII and his Spanish wife. In response to this, the King broke England's ties with the Catholic Church and established himself as the head of Christian faith. Eventually Henry VIII daughter would rule England and the Church. i.e. Led to the creation of the Book of Common Prayer-the Anglican service book of the Church of England; Book that contained both Catholic and Protestant prayers; hated by most. Example of a state actions to control religion and morality.

1885 (HUB Date)

Berlin Conference - division of Africa

Columbian Exchange

Biological exchange of flora and fauna + global diffusion of plants, animals, food crops and disease pathogens) to the New World (North and South America) and vice versa. i.e. Europe to Americas (Wheat, Cattle, Horses, Pigs, Sheep, Smallpox, Measles) ... Americas to Europe (Tomatoes, Potatoes, Squash, Corn, Tobacco, Turkeys, Syphilis

Renaissance Artistic Techniques

Bright Colors, Perspective, Balance, Classical Themes

Changes of Lifestyle for Working Class

By the end of the century, wages and the quality of life for the working class improved because of laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet, and the use of birth control. Ex of laws restricting labor: Factory Act of 1833, Mines Act of 1842, Ten Hours Act of 1847

Puritan

Calvinism sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization Included many from the English nobility wishing to challenge the authority of the English monarch. Development of this group would eventually led to religious tension in England vs. Anglicans and the English Civil War.

French Wars of Religion

Catherine de Medicis (regent for her son) granted opposed the Calvinists (many French Nobles were Calvinist) and ordered the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre in which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout France. A war in France between the Catholics and the Calvinists, got very violent. Eventually leads to Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) who is a Huguenot to be named King. He converts to Catholicism to maintain peace, but issues Edict of Nantes.

Haitian Independence

Causes: poor conditions of the slaves, inspired by Enlightenment and American and French revolutions, Toussaint L'Overture; Positives: enslaved Haitians free in 1798, Haiti became a republic. Negatives- economy destroyed (Plantations destroyed, crops burned)

New Concept of the Sovereign State

Centralization of power in the hand of a secular government as opposed to local control (feudalism) or religious institutional control; secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire. Later, as chancellor of Germany used liberal and socialist policies to gain support for conservative (monarch) government.

Baroque Art

Characterized by emotional intensity, strong self-confidence, spirit- meant to inspire the masses. It is lavish, rich and excessive. Aimed at glorification of Catholic Church in Counter Reformation and power of Abosolute Monarchs. Commissioned by monarchies, city-states, and the church for public buildings to promote their stature and power. Displayed a religious theme, red and gold color scheme, dark (sinner) vs. light (saint), and was intensely dramatic. Baroque artists: Peter Paul Rubens, Diego Velasquez, Gian Bernini Artemisia Gentileschi, Gian Bernini, Peter Paul Rubens

18th Century Urbanization

Cities offered economic opportunities, which attracted increasing migration from rural areas, transforming urban life and creating challenges for the new urbanites and their families. Cities developed concentration of the poor in cities led to a greater awareness of poverty, crime, and prostitution as social problems, and prompted increased efforts to police marginal groups. This changes caused an erosion traditional communal values and city governments strained to provide protection and a healthy environment.

1492 (HUB DATE)

Columbus's first voyage to the Americas; Christian Reconquista of Spain as Ferdinand and Isabella oust the Muslims from Spain

Nationalism (WWI)

Competition between nations (nationalities) as they struggled for power for sovereignty and power. Examples include Pan-Slavism, First and Second Balkan War, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand set off the war.

Absolute Monarch

Concept of government developed during rise of nation-states in Western Europe during the 17th century; featured monarchs who passed laws without parliaments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, established state churches, and imposed state economic policies. Absolute monarchies limited the nobility's participation in governance but preserved the aristocracy's social position and legal privileges. i.e. Louis XIV, Philip II, James I, Peter the Great

19th c Conservatism

Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. Ex: Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre, Klemens von Metternich, Corn Laws, Carlsbad Decrees, Syllabus of Errors

Human-centered Naturalism

Considered individuals and everyday life appropriate objects of artistic representation was encouraged through the patronage of both princes and commercial elites. i.e. Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Jan van Eyck, Peter Bruegel the Elder, Rembrandt

1517 (HUB DATE)

Considered the beginning of the Protestant Reformation when Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses.

Second Vatican Council

Convened by Pope John Paul XXIII (1962-1965), this council aimed to reflect on Church teaching so that the Church would respond appropriately to the needs of the modern world. Reform in the Catholic Church found redefined the Church's dogma and practices and started to redefine its relations with other religious communities.

Huguenot

Converts or adherents to Calvinism in France, including many from the French nobility wishing to challenge the authority of the Catholic monarch. Development of this group led to French Wars of Religion which was a Conflict/oppression from Catholics (St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre). Eventually this violence led to The Edict of Nantes (1598) which freed them from persecution in France (revoked in the late 1600s)

Heliocentric Theory

Copernicus recognized that the geocentric theory did not explain the movement of the sun, moon and earth. He discovered the earth revolved around the sun. His theory did go against the church.

Warsaw Pact/Comecon

Countries east of the Iron Curtain came under the military, political, and economic domination of the Soviet Union within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and the Warsaw Pact. Warsaw Pact is a military alliance of communist nations in eastern Europe. Organized in 1955 in answer to NATO, Included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.

Wage Fixing

Created by the committee of public safety making all wages stay stagnant without change with the market in order to give people solid income. Part of the planned economy of the French Revolution

Law of Maximum

Created by the committee of public safety, it made a maximum price for food which eliminated free trade which the Bourgeoisie didn't like. A planned economy to respond to economic problems like food shortages, maximum allowed prices fixed prices which poor can afford, rationing, nationlized workshops, qualizing of grain and bread, arms and munitions now produced.

Treaty of Versailles

Created by the leaders victorious allies Nations: France, Britain, US, and signed by Germany to help stop WWI. The treaty 1) stripped Germany of all Army, Navy, Airforce. 2) Germany had to pay war reparations(33 billion) 3) Germany had to acknowledge guilt for causing WWI 4) Germany could not manufacture any weapons. Essentially serves as the cause of WWII.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation --> The practice of alternating the annual crops grown on a specific field in a planned pattern or sequence in successive crop years so that crops of the same species or family are not grown repeatedly without interruption on the same field. Instead of leaving part of field go fallow (empty) as was done in the Middle Ages, nitrogen rich crops like turnips or clover would be grown to replenish the soil.

1968 (HUB Date)

Czechoslovakia began a program of reform with promised civil liberties, democratic political reforms, and a more independent political system. The Soviet Union invaded the country and put down the short-lived period of freedom == ReStalinization. Student revolts in Paris. Robert Kennedy assassinated. MLK assassinated. Peak of the counterculture movement

Debate about Women

Debate among writers and thinkers in the Renaissance about women's qualities and proper role in society; misogynists denounced females as devious, domineering and demanding; others praised women for their loyalty, bravery and morality; carried over to the debate about female rulers and whether or not nobility and education would allow women to overcome the limitations of their sex; determined the actions of ordinary men and women, and marriage was seen as a characteristic of a "true man"and women's work was valued less than men's; contributed greatly to defining the social hierarchy of the Renaissance. This question also revealed itself in the Protestant Reformation with the role of women as preachers. i.e. La Querrelle de Femmes

Democratic Successor States of WWI

Democratic successor states emerged from former empires but eventually succumbed to significant political, economic, and diplomatic crises of the 1920s and 1930s. Examples include Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia

Printed Material of Enlightenment

Despite censorship of Absolute Monarchs, increasingly numerous and varied printed materials served a growing literate public and led to the development of public opinion. Examples include Newpapers, Periodicals, Books, Pamphlets, Encyclopedie

Women in Enlightenment

Despite the principles of equality espoused by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, intellectuals such as Rousseau offered new arguments for the exclusion of women from political life, which did not go unchallenged. Individuals who challenged Rousseau's position on women were Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, Marquis de Condorcet

Charles Darwin

Developed theory of natural selection which provided a rational and material account of biological change and the development of human beings as a species.The theory about how plants and animals species develop; The species originate by descent, with variation, from parent forms, through the natural selection of those individuals best adapted for the reproductive success of their kind.

Persistence of primitive agricultural practices

Due to a persistence of primitive agricultural practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization while facing famine, debt, and land shortages. **Ex: The "Hungry '40s", Irish Potato Famine, Russian serfdom

Holy Roman Empire

Due to the limitation of sovereignty in the Peace of Westphalia, Prussia rose to power and the Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shifted their empire eastward.

Witch Hunts

During the 1500's, there was great upheaval after the Reformation as people began to challenge and question the Catholic faith. Churchmen tried to restore order by forcing conformity on people of Europe. Women who practiced folk medicine, charms and chanting were accused of being witches. These were usually older, poorer, uneducated and illiterate women. They were accused of flying on brooms, killing infants, dancing naked and meeting with the devil. A witch, when captured was tortured until she confessed and gave names of other witches. She was then killed by burning, strangling or beheading. Over three centuries, it has been speculated that there were 100,000 lives lost because of this but others have said it was closer to 900,000. 85% of those who were killed were female. Witchcraft accusations served as a cover for other problems and the women of the family could be made "scapegoat" for hardship.

Battle of Vienna - Decline of Ottoman Empire

During the Austrian-Ottoman Wars, the Ottoman Turks attempted a siege on Vienna, Austria, in 1529, but it failed. This battle begins the long decline of their Empire and stops the advance of Islam into central and western Europe, ensuring that the Christian rather than the Muslim religion and culture would dominate the region.

De-Christianization

During the Terror, The Catholic Church was linked to real or potential counter-revolutions. Religion was linked with the Ancien Regime, and Superstition, and so the Committee of Public Safety enacted measures to reduce its influence. Churches were replaced by temples of reasons; the revolution became the new religion; a new calendar was created from the start of the republic instead of the birth of Christ; escalated counter revolution

Women in World Wars

During the world wars, women became increasingly involved in military and political mobilization as well as in economic production.

Utopian Socialist

Early nineteenth-century socialists who hoped to replace the overly competitive capitalist structure with planned communities guided by a spirit of cooperation. *Ex: Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen

Motive of Marriage during Industrialization

Economic motivations for marriage, while still important for all classes, diminished as the middle-class notion of companionate marriage began to be adopted by the working classes.

International Reaction to French Revolution

Edmund Burke: Reflection on the Revolution in France * Conservative Viewpoints: Opposed the revolution and dubbed it mob ruling. Thomas Paine: Liberal Viewpoint: defending Enlightenment principles and France's revolution.

1642-1649 (HUB DATE)

English Civil War (Charles I executed)

Portuguese Exploration

Enjoyed a head start on exploration because of its location in Europe, , Prince Henry "the Navigator" founded a school for sailing and exploration. Bartholomew Diaz rounded Cape of Good Hope, Vasco de Gama reached India, fought Muslims for spice trade in India. Portugal became on of the early economic powers because of their commercial network along the African coast, in South and East Asia, and in South America (think Brazil).

Causes of French Revolution

Enlightenment, American Revolution, French Monarchy, Population & Social Structure, Financial Problems of France

1989 (HUB Date)

Fall of Berlin Wall. This is the symbolic end of the cold war

Dutch Republic

Federation of provinces -- dominated by the bourgeoisie -- characterized by religious toleration to promote trade and protect traditional rights. Declared its independence from the Spanish Netherlands in the late 16th century. It established the Bank of Amsterdam and became the leading financial center on the Continent.

19th c Feminism

Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions. *Ex: Flora Tristan, British Women's Social and Political Union, Pankhurst family, Barbara Smith Bodichon

Trench Warfare

Fighting with trenches, mines, and barbed wire. Horrible living conditions, great slaughter, little to no gains, stalemate, used in WWI. Soldiers battled in harsh conditions and developed the "trench foot" from standing for hours in wet, muddy trenches. They got lice from the millions of rats that infested the trenches, lived in constant fear due to their knowledge of surprise snipers or acid gases

Family Structure of Bourgeois

Focused on the nuclear family and the cult of domesticity with distinct gender roles for men and women.

World monetary and trade system

Following World War II, the United States exerted a strong military, political, and economic influence in Western Europe, leading to the creation of world monetary and trade systems. Examples include (International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank - loans to countries for economic development, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) - reduction of tariffs and import quotas, World Trade Organization (WTO) - successor to the GATT

Napoleon III

Former Louis Napoleon, who became president of the Second Republic of France in 1848 and engineered a coup d'etat, ultimately making himself head of the Second Empire. Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew; legalized labor unions; provided public health and education for girls; worst defeat was Franco Prussian War

Lenin

Founded the Communist (Bolshevik) Party in Russia and set up the world's first Communist Party dictatorship. He led the October Revolution of 1917, in which the Communists seized power in Russia. He then ruled the country until his death in 1924. Followed a policy of War Communism, but when the Russian civil war was over, famine swept Russia and many were against Lenin, so he abandoned communism in favor of his New Economic Policy.

French Industrialization

France moved toward industrialization at a more gradual pace than Great Britain, with government support and with less dislocation of traditional methods of production. **Ex of gov't support: Canals, Railroads, Trade agreements

Rise of Prussia

Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-1688) initiated the process by building an efficient military, After victories in the War of Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War, Prussia was now recognized as a central European power; Continued by Frederick the Great (1740-1786).

1789 (HUB DATE)

French Revolution begins

Freudian Psychology

Freudian psychology provided a new account of human nature that emphasized the role of the irrational and the struggle between the conscious and subconscious. Developed model of the mind, whereby he described the features of mind's structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind. On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a 'cauldron' of primitive wishes and impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area. (ID, EDO, SUPEREGO)

Nazi New World Order

Fueled by racism and anti-Semitism, Nazi Germany — with the cooperation of some of the other Axis powers and collaborationist governments — sought to establish a "new racial order" in Europe, which culminated with the Holocaust. Examples of their efforts include Nuremberg Laws, Wannsee, Auschwitz

Martin Luther

German monk who in 1517 launched the Protestant Reformation in reaction to corruption in the Catholic Church. His followers, called Lutherans, downplayed the priestly hierarchy, emphasizing that believers should themselves look for truth in the bible. Posted 95 Theses at Wittenberg church.

Crises of the Cold War

Germany divided, Korean War, Fidel Castro and Cuba, Berlin Wall, Cuban Missile Crisis, Space Race, Vietnam War, Arms Race

1688 (HUB DATE)

Glorious Revolution -- William and Mary come to power (Bill of Rights adopted next year)

Perestroika and Glasnost

Gorbachev comes to power in USSR - ushers in era of reform - perestroika- economic reform-restructuring -- glasnost- means openness- allowed greater free expression

Urban Planning

Government reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. Ex: Sewage and water systems, Public lighting, Public housing, Urban redesign, Parks, Public transportation

Great Britain's Industrial Dominance

Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems. Britain's ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other essential raw materials promoted industrial growth. Economic institutions and human capital such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists helped Britain lead the process of industrialization, largely through private initiative. ** ex. The Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Banks, Government financial awards to inventors

New Voices in Modern Europe

Green parties in Western and Central Europe challenged consumerism, urged sustainable development, and, by the late 20th century, cautioned against globalization. Gay and lesbian movements worked for expanded civil rights, obtaining in some nations the right to form civil partnerships with full legal benefits or to marry. Intellectuals and youth reacted against perceived bourgeois materialism and decadence, most significantly with the revolts of 1968.

1455 (HUB DATE)

Gutenberg starts printing using moveable type, produces first printed Bible.

Napoleon Bonaparte

He believed in the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 such as liberty equality and fraternity applicable to the law. He declared himself Emperor of the French suggesting the sovereignty of the people rested in their hands. He abolished feudalism. Responsible for many French Revolution reforms as well as conquering most of Europe. He was defeated at Waterloo, and died several years later on the island of Saint Helena.

18th Century Demographic Patterns

Higher agricultural productivity and improved transportation increased the food supply, allowing populations to grow and reducing the number of demographic crises (a process known as the Agricultural Revolution).In the 18th century population also changed, plague disappeared as a major epidemic disease, and inoculation reduced smallpox mortality.

1933 (HUB Date)

Hitler is named Chancellor of Germany (less importantly to Europe but Roosevelt becomes U.S. President and begins (New Deal)

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and Carlos I of Spain, tried to keep Europe religiously united, inherited Spain, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Austria, and much of the Holy Roman Emperor from his grandparents, he sought to stop Protestantism and increase the power of Catholicism. He allied with the pope to stamp out heresy and maintain religous unity in Europe. He was preocuppied with struggles with Turkey and France and could not soley focus on the rise of Protestantism in Germany.

Artists and writers influenced by non-Europeans

Imperial encounters with non-European peoples influenced the styles and subject matter of artists and writers. *Ex: Jules Verne's literature of exploration, Paul Gauguin and Pablo Picasso's Primitivism, Vincent Van Gogh and Japanese prints, Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness

Debate over 19th c Imperialism

Imperial encounters with non-European peoples provoked debate over the acquisition of colonies. *Ex: Pan-German League, J. A. Hobson's, Vladimir Lenin's

Diplomatic tensions from 19th c Imperialism

Imperialism created diplomatic tensions among European states that strained alliance systems. *Ex: Berlin Conference in (1884-1885), Fashoda crisis (1898), Moroccan crises (1905, 1911)

Unification of Italy

In 1830s, nationalist leader, Giuseppe Mazzini, founded Young Italy whose goal was to constitute Italy as one free independent, republican nation. In 1860, ally of Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi recruited volunteers and won control of Sicily. Next, Garibaldi turned Naples and Sicily over to Victor Emmanuel. Successors of Count Camillo Cavour acquired Venetia and soon Rome was won back when France had to withdraw its troops during the Franco-Prussian War. Last, Italy becomes a united nation, which it hadn't been since the fall of the Roman Empire. Cavour's Realpolitik strategies, combined with the popular Garibaldi's military campaigns, led to the unification of Italy.

Post World War II Feminism

In Western Europe through the efforts of feminists, and in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union through government policy, women finally gained the vote, greater educational opportunities, and access to professional careers, even while continuing to face social inequalities. Examples of feminists and feminism include Simone de Beauvoir and Second-wave feminism

Self-conscious Social Classes of industrialization

In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes known as the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (middle class). Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political, and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions among the working classes. (In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites persisted into the 20th century.)

European Economic Alliances

In the aftermath of World War II, European states began a process of economic unification. The economic alliance known as the European Coal and Steel Community, envisioned as a means to spur postwar economic recovery, developed into the European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market) and the European Union (EU), Europe experienced increasing economic and political integration and efforts to establish a shared European identity.

Renaissance Patronage

In the early renaissance, powerful urban groups such as guilds or confraternities would commission works of art. Later, wealthy individuals and rulers would sponsor art. It showed wealth, power, and was a status symbol to be a patron of the arts. i.e. Medici Family, Fugger Family

Modern Art

Including Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Cubism, moved beyond the representational to the subjective, abstract, and expressive and often provoked audiences that believed that art should reflect shared and idealized values such as beauty and patriotism. *Ex: Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, Henri Matisse, Edgar Degas, Pablo Picasso, Vincent Van Gogh

Post World War II European Immigration

Increased immigration into Europe altered Europe's religious makeup, causing debate and conflict over the role of religion in social and political life.

Indigenous Nationalists Movements

Independence for many African and Asian territories was delayed until the mid- and even late 20th century by the imperial powers' reluctance to relinquish control, threats of interference from other nations, unstable economic and political systems, and Cold War strategic alignments. Movements within African and Asian nations played a large role in beginning the decolonization process. For example, Indian National Congress, Algeria's National Liberation Front (FLN), Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh, Keynan Mao-Mao

Catholic Abuses in pre-Reformation era

Indulgence--paying a fee to the Church so that a person could escape purgatory and go to heaven (began in the Crusades) used to raise money for the Church; Nepotism--the members of the church would give positions to relatives; Simony--Practice of selling positions in the church; absenteeism--An official not participating in benefices but receiving payment and privileges;

Prussian Industrialization

Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under government sponsorship. **Ex of Prussian industrialization: Zollverein, Investment in transportation network, Friedrich List's National System

Salon Movement

Informal gatherings, usually sponsored by middle-class or aristocratic women, that provided a forum for new ideas and an opportunity to establish new intellectual contacts among supporters of the Enlightenment in the 18th century. These informal gatherings gave intellectual life an anchor outside the royal court and church-dominated universities and afforded an opportunity to test ideas or present unpublished works.

Innovations in Banking and Finance

Innovations in banking and finance promoted the growth of urban settings as both financial centers and a money economy. i.e. Double Entry Bookkeeping, Bank of Amsterdam, Dutch East India Company, British East India Company

English Civil War

James I tried to advocate the divine right of kings and bring more absolutist policies to England. He was also seen as bringing too much Catholic influence to the Church of England. War broke out between Parliament's supporters (Roundheads) and the kings's supporters (Cavaliers). Later Charles I was tried and executed in 1649 as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy". Oliver Cromwell, leader of military, ruled England as "Lord Protector" until 1658.