ALL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES (CH 1-9, 12, 14, 15)
Binet-Simon scale
"mental age" -- expressed a child's score in terms of average age which children could successfully answer particular level of questions
Wilheim Wundt
"Father of Psychology" - Some work involved *objective introspection* • 1. First attempt to bring objectivity/measurement in psychology • 2. Founded the 1st experimental psychology laboratory.
Putitary Gland
"Master gland", responsible for growth and control of other glands -- secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands
Learned helplessness
(- happens when the learner has no control over when punishment is given) - a breakdown in learning ability caused by exposure to stressors, or aversive events that are uncontrollable - the tendency to fail to try or act in a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past EX: keep failing the first two times and then next time, it's even harder even though it's really easy, by Seligmen's depressed dogs, dogs was getting shocked at first then when they could leave they didnt try because they had this,
Hypnogogic
(Ghostly Hallucinations) as falling asleep, vivid, realistic halluncination that occur in stagge 1 sleep, non Rem
Hypnopompic
(Ghostly Hallucinations) middle of the night- occurs between REM sleep and wakefulness
Trial and Error
(Mechanical Solutions) trying one possible solution after another until finding one that works EX: pin # of bank account, keep trying until you get it right
2 Types of Sensory Memory
(Visual) Iconic memory -- about 1 second (Auditory) Echoic memory -- about 4 seconds
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
(a humanistic approach) Proposed that human beings must fill the more basic needs before being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence
Divergent thinking
(a kind of creativity) type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point EX: a pencil and pen can write, make holes in walls, used as a weapon and so on!
Confounds (Way to Minimize)
(aka third variables) are variables that the researcher failed to control, or eliminate, damaging the internal validity of an experiment. -- extraneous variable that affects the variables you are interested in studying (EX: already aggressive background kids in the violent TV experiment) • Experimental and control groups • Random assignment
Declarative Memory (types)
(explicit) -- type of long‐term memory containing information that is conscious and known such as facts • Semantic memory: declarative memory containing general knowledge • Episodic memory: declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others
Non-declarative Memory (types)
(implicit) type of long‐term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses -- memories appeared to be stored in cerebellum & helps coordinate motor movements as well as predict what to expect from our movements • Procedural memory: memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness
Aptitude/IQ tests vs. Achievement tests
* Both uses to measure/assess intelligence IQ -- intended to predict your ability to learn new skill Achievement -- intended to reflect what you have already learned
Working Backwards & Subgoals Heuristic
** Can be used together, but don't have to be o Working backward from the goal is a useful heuristic, it involves working backwards o Subgoals: formulating intermediate steps towards a solution - EX: breaking down steps of a term paper or planning out the classes needed to graduate
John Watson
*Behaviorism* or study of the observable behavior -- performed the "Little Albert" study trying to create a phobia using the classic conditioning, a technique discovered by Pavlov
Synapse
- (or synaptic gap) in the tiny gap between the tip of the axon of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
Tips for Divergent Thinking
- Brainstorming - Keeping a Journal - Free writing - Mind or Subject Mapping
3 Hypothesized Physical changes when storing memories
- Change in the number of receptor sites - Change in the sensitivity of the synapse through repeated stimulation called longterm potentiation - Changes in the dendrites and specifically in the proteins within the neurons
2 types of attributions
- External (situational or environmental) attributions EX: Behavior is due to the situation, 'The boss yelled at me ... because this is April 15th and his taxes are not done.' - Internal (dispositional or personal) attributions EX: Behavior reflects the person, 'The boss yells at everyone ... because he is a hostile person.'
Facial Expressions of Emotion
- Facial expressions appear to be universal. - Although the situations that caused the emotions may differ from culture to culture, the expression of particular emotions remains strikingly the same. (for example, an angry face, sad face, happy face, etc.)
Fixed schedule vs. Variable schedule
- Fixed: predictable, same in each case - Variable: unpredictable, different number of interval is required for each ease
Preoperational Stage: Shortcomings in Thinking -- Fail at conservation due to... (2)
- Irreversibility - Centration
Hypnosis Can:
- Produce amnesia, briefly - reduce pain - distort sensory perceptions and create hallucinations - help people relax in stressful situations - reduce inhibition
Ratio schedule vs. Interval schedule
- Ratio: number of responses are important - Interval: timing is more important
Uses of Hypnosis
- Relaxation - Pain control - Reduce food cravings or quit smoking (difficult)
Attachment Styles (4)
- Secure - Avoidant - Ambivalent - Disorganized-Disoriented
Environmental Factors on Pregnancy
- Teratogens - Critical periods - Nutrition - Stress & Emotion
Scientific Method
- a system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data - used in psychology to accomplish the goals of description, explanation, prediction, and control 1. Perceiving a Question 2. Forming a Hypothesis 3. Testing the Hypothesis 4. Drawing Conclusion 5. Reporting Results
How can cognitive dissonance be reduced?
- changing the conflicting behavior - changing the conflicting attitude - forming a new attitude to justify the behavior
Hypnosis Cannot:
- give superhuman strength - reliably enhance memory - regress people back to childhood or a "past life"
Cognitive behavioral looks at when pointing out the causes of mood disorders?
- learned helplessness - distorted, illogical thinking - explain events as stable, global and internal
authoritarian
-- "B/C I SAID SO!" -- Parents are stern/harsh, impose rigid rules, tend to be punitive (often punish misbehavior physically) and expect complete, strict obedience.
Survey (Descriptive Method)
-- A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people. Advantages: • Data from large numbers of people • Study covert behaviors (get private information) Limitations: • People are not always accurate •Small variations in wording used or order of questions can affect outcomes •Researchers have to ensure representative sample if interested in generalizing findings to a certain population, aka *sampling*
Behavioral Perspective
-- After a scandal, Watson left his academic job and went into advertising. -- BF Skinner, a famous behaviorist who continued and expanded upon his work in classical conditioning • How to manipulate voluntary behavior by changing the consequences of behavior - Operant conditioning
Theories of Aging (2)
-- Aging is pre-programmed > Cellular clock theory -- Aging is a result of cell damage > Wear-and-tear theory > Free radical theory
Adulthood { in WOMEN & MEN }
-- Begins in the early twenties and ends with death WOMEN: ◦ Experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric ◦ Ends with menopause: the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman's reproductive capability. MEN: ◦ Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system.
Non-REM Stage 2 sleep (N2)
-- Body temperature drops, heart rate slows, and breathing becomes more shallow -- Characterized by sleep spindles -- Theta waves continue during this stage -- If awakened, people are aware that they were asleep
REM sleep
-- Body temperature rises to almost waking temperature, eye lids move, and heart rate increases -- Brain waves resemble beta waves -- Associated with dreaming (90% of dreams) -- REM paralysis: voluntary muscles are paralyzed
How can you prevent facial expressions?
-- Botox • Preventing facial expressions blocks emotional responsitivity • Facial expressions and botox to corrugator supercilii
Theories of Emotion (5)
-- Common sense theory of emotion -- James-Lange theory -- Cannon-Bard theory -- Cognitive arousal theory -- Cognitive Mediational Theory
Mapping Brain Structure
-- Computed Tomography (CT): involves mapping "slices" of the brain by computer -- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): placed inside machine that generates a powerful magnetic field to align hydrogen atoms in the brain tissues (which normally are spinning randomly) -- Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): uses MRI technology to provide a way to measure connectivity in the brain by imaging these white matter tracts
Stages of Language Development
-- Cooing Stage -- Babbling Stage -- One‐Word Stage -- Two‐Word Stage -- "Last Stage"
Brain Stimulation
-- Deep brain stimulation (DBS): procedure where neurosurgeons place electrodes in specific deep-brain areas then route wires to a pacemaker-like device called impulse generator that is surgically implanted under the collarbone -- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper wire coils that are positioned over the head
Botox and Depression Treatment (Wollmer et al., 2012)
-- Depression severity decreased in the BOTOX group (verum group) -- BOTOX increases remission rates
Distributed Practice vs Massed Practice
-- Distributed: spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods, NOT cramming causes better retrieval -- Massed: studying a complete body of information all at once, CRAMS
Infants REM
-- Engage in more REM sleep than adults -- Period of brain growth and development,
Importance of REM sleep
-- Experience more REM sleep after a stressful day ex: they wanna dream -- Experience more non-REM sleep after physically demanding day EX: they wanna sleep the pain away * If deprived of REM sleep, experience *REM rebound* the following night
2 Types of Motivation
-- Extrinsic motivation -- Intrinsic motivation
Prenatal Development: Germinal Stage
-- First 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote becomes a mass of cells, moves down to the uterus (wk1), and implants in the lining (wk 2). -- In the first week: The zygote is rapidly dividing, creating 100 cells or more that continue to become increasingly diverse. -- At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo
Formal Operational Stage > Developmental Phenomena:
-- From age 12 through adulthood, cognitive stage where abstract reasoning develops -- can now use analogies, critical thinking skills, and think about and test hypotheses > Developmental Phenomenon: Abstract logic, Potential for Mature Moral reasoning
Paiget's Concrete Operational > Developmental Phenomena:
-- From age 7 to 11-12 years old, cognitive stage where we become capable of concrete logical thought processes but not capable of abstract thinking -- form the ability to grasp concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations -- can classify/categorize • Capable of Decentration & Reversibility > Developmental Phenomenon: Conservation possible, Mathematical transformations
Paiget's Sensorimotor Stage > Developmental Phenomena:
-- From birth to age two, cognitive stage of experiencing the world through senses and actions/motor abilities (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping) > Developmental Phenomenon: Object Permanence {Major Accomplishment}, & Stranger Anxiety
Support of Multiple Intelligences Theory
-- Gardner notes that people with Savant syndrome typically show a combination of intellectual disability and unusual talent or ability. -- also, b/c brain damage diminish one type of ability but not others
2 Types of Cultures & Motivation
-- Individualistic cultures -- Collectivistic cultures
Intensity (Brightness) -- amount of energy in a wave determined by an amplitude How is amplitude determined as great or small?
-- Larger squiggly line with TALL humps = great amplitude (bright colors, loud sounds) -- Smaller squiggly lone with SHORT humps = small amplitude (dull colors, soft sounds)
Storage decay (/disuse), forgetting
-- Memory Trace Theory, poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay -- Ebbinghaus, the first to study forgetting, showed this with his curve of forgetting
Harlow (1971)
-- Origins of Attachment -- AKA contact comfort, showed/proved that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and touch, NOT nourishment.
Genetic Disorders (2)
-- Phenylketonuria (PKU) -- Fragile X Syndrome
Examples of Culture & Cognition
-- Politics and coffee: accustom to always being alert for their job -- Quincy vs. Igloo: depending on culture/environment determines type of structure for the ice hut
Kohlberg's Development of Morality: Types of Morality (3)
-- Preconventional morality -- Conventional morality -- Postconventional morality
Asch's Conformity Studies (1950's)
-- Subjects were asked to judge line lengths while working in a group -- 7 subjects; the 6th was real, rest were confederates. -- Confederates consistently gave obviously wrong answers -- The subject often conformed (about 1/3rd of the time) and gave the same wrong answer
Explain the Obese Laboratory Rat experiment.
-- The rat on the left has reached a high level of obesity because its ventromedial hypothalamus has been deliberately damaged in the laboratory. -- The result is a rat that no longer receives signals of being satiated, and so the rat continues to eat and eat and eat.
Prenatal Development: Fetal Stage
-- The time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth of the baby. -- Period of tremendous growth. -- Organs accomplish differentiation and continue to become functional. Muscles and bones form, enabling the fetus to make physical movements including kicking. -- During last several weeks, fetus can respond to stimuli in outside world.
Last Language Development Stage
-- There is no "three‐word stage." -- Once out of two-word phrase children move to "longer phrases" -- After telegraphic speech children start filling in missing words to form short phrases/sentences that have syntactical sense (Mommy get ball) -- By age 6 children nearly as fluent as adults, but with more limited vocabulary
Non-REM Stage 1 sleep (N1)
-- Theta waves replace alpha waves -- Light sleep - people will deny they were sleeping! -- Hypnic jerk is common -- Some people hallucinate falling into this stage, called hypnogogic images or hallucinations
Language & Thinking (2)
-- Thinking and language intricately intertwine. Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Vygotsky) Cognitive Universalism (Piaget)
Two theories of Color Vision
-- Trichromatic Theory -- Opponent Process Theory
REM Behavior Disorder (REM)
-- Voluntary muscles are supposed to be paralyzed but aren't -- As a result, people move around / act out dreams (often nightmares) -- Rare disorder -- More common among men over 60 but can impact young men and women too
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
-- Vygotsky's theory stressed the importance of social interactions with other people (typically having more skill) for cognitive development -- Critical to this theory are... 1. Scaffolding 2. Zone of proximal development
2 types of consciousness
-- Waking consciousness -- Altered States of consciousness
authoritative
-- When parents are demanding but responsive to their children -- Parents are more democratic, enforce limits but encourage open communication.
permissive
-- When parents submit to their children's demands -- Parents make few demands and have few rules either by being neglectful (lacking warmth) or overindulgent (supportive/warm).
Conduction Hearing Impairment
-- When sound waves cannot pass from eardrum to the cochlea. -- Caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. EX: ear drum punctured or tiny bones in middle ear can't vibrate. •Hearing aids
Emotion Regulation in the Brain: • Cognitive Reappraisal and Distraction
-- both effective at suppressing emotions -- Both suppress amygdala activity -- Recruit similar and different brain regions
Define: Levels of Processing Model
-- depth that info. Is processed and how impacts strength of parallel connections with in memory systems -- strength and duration of memory increases as the level processing deepens, meaning info is more deeply processed will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time EX: how a ball is used instead of how it looks
Sleep Apnea
-- disorder in which people stop breathing for nearly ½ a minute or more Treatments: - nose device - lose weight - CPAP device - Surgery
Action Potential
-- electrical signal traveling down the axon • occur in an ALL-OR-NOTHING fashion! *** EX: How does the strength of the message get coded (e.g., loud sounds vs. soft sounds)? {CHART} • Fast versus Slow: Myelination • Oligodendrocytes: CNS • Schwann cells: PNS ? brief permeability of sodium ions (IN) and potassium ions (OUT)
Insomnia
-- inability to get sleep, stay asleep, or get good quality sleep -- has both physiological (EX: worrying) and psychological (EX: pain, caffeine) causes, -- Behavioral treatments and pharmacological treatments
Hunger: Bodily Causes includes...
-- insulin & glucagon -- leptin -- hypothalamus -- Weight set point -- BMR
Standardization
-- involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison -- important aspect is establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration EX: standardized tests: taking test in same conditions as everyone else
Groupthink Characteristics (5)
-- invulnerability -- rationalization -- lack of introspection (stereotyping) -- lack of disagreement -- self-deception
Slow to Warm Up Temperament
-- need to adjust gradually to change -- less grumpy, quieter, and more regular than difficult babies, but are slow to adapt to change
social impairment
-- negative influence of others on performance
Difficult Temperament
-- nonadaptable and irritable -- Irregular in their schedules and are very unhappy about change of any kind
William Shockley
-- proposed that anyone with an IQ under 100 be sterilized -- donated his sperm to spread humanity's best genes
Assessing Intelligence
-- psychologists define Intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual & mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores -- most report global measure of mental ability, also unique strengths and weaknesses in task-specific abilities and processing domains
Language Development: Learning to Communicate: -- Language acquisition is ____ and starts ____. -- The ability to _______ words develops before the ability to ______ words.
-- rapid and starts early understands words before producing words
Easy Temperament
-- regular, adaptable and happy -- happy and regular in their schedules of waking, sleeping, and eating and are adaptable to change
Jean Piaget
-- said "children are not like adults but instead think much differently about the world" -- Piaget believed that cognitive development results from individual discovery and a child's interaction with objects.
Infancy and Childhood {Stage Span of each}
-- span from birth to teenage years. -- During these years, the individual has rapid growth physically, cognitively and socially. { Stage Span } Infancy: Newborn to toddler Childhood: Toddler to teenager
Adolescence
-- spans from the beginnings of sexual maturity to independent adulthood. During these years the individual... • physically matures, • places high value on membership in the peer group, • develops a more fully formed identity and morality structure, • starts having romantic and sexual relationships • begins making decisions regarding a career choice
Alfred Binet
-- started modern intelligence testing by developing question that would predict children's future progress in the Paris school system (w/ colleague Theodore Simon) -- work commissioned by the French Ministry of Education to identify students in need of remedial education -- Binet-Simon scale (mental age)
Wechsler's 2 major innovations to testing:
-- test was less dependent on subjects verbal ability -- disregarded the intelligence quotient (IQ) in favor of a new scoring scheme based on normal distribution
temperament
-- the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth -- a person's stable emotional reactivity and intensity. (have infant temperament studies)
attribution
-- the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others -- process of inferring the causes of mental states, behaviors, and events which occur to ourselves & others (Heider, 1958)
Skin Stimulus Input (skin senses):
-- touch, pressure, temperature, pain • Sensory receptors in the skin • Nerve fibers that carry information about tactile stimulation are routed through the thalamus and onward to the somatosensory cortex • Located in the ???
disorganized-disoriented attachment
-- when the infant is insecurely attached and usually linked to abused or neglected children -- seems unable to decide how they should react to mother's return
ambivalent (insecure) attachment
-- when the infant is insecurely attached, and is still angry even after the mother returns -- clinging and unwilling to explore, protest mightily when mother leaves, and are hard to soothe when she returns EX: demand to be picked up, but at the same time push away or kick mother
avoidant attachment
-- when the infant is unattached and explored without touching base -- somewhat willing to explore, seek little contact with their mothers, and may react little to her absence and return
Nerve Hearing Impairment
-- when the inner ear or in the auditory pathways and cortical areas of the brain. -- Caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or to the auditory nerve, also called nerve deafness or sensorineural hearing loss. EX: disease, aging, over‐exposure to loud sounds •Cochlear implant
Perception
-- when we give meaning or organize, select and interpret our sensations (so we can identify different threshold of perception)
Water lilies double in an area every 24 hours. On the first day of summer there is only one water lily on the lake. It takes 60 days for the lake to be completely covered in water lilies. How many days does it take for half of the lake to be covered in water lilies?
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Why is alcohol labeled a depressant?
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Observational Learning: Bobo Doll Experiment
..... (Inflatable punching toy)
Explain how the Information Processing Model works.
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Explain the Levels of Processing Model
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Meditation
...... is training one's attention in order to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and requires a deliberate effort to alter one's state of consciousness and is studied within psychological science to explore its practical and therapeutic applications and can be secularized and has been practiced throughout history by many different religious and spiritual traditions * One type of deliberate effort to alter one's state of consciousness • Studied in psychology as an intervention to help people with chronic pain, anxiety, depression, and many other conditions.
Erikson's Human Development Stages 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
0-1 years -- Is my world predictable and supportive? -- Will others fulfill my needs or am I on my own? Learn to trust or mistrust based on whether needs are met
Psychosocial Development: Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Human Development (8)
1 - Trust vs. mistrust 2 - Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3 - Initiative vs. guilt 4 - Industry vs. inferiority 5 - Identity vs. identity confusion 6 - Intimacy vs. isolation 7 - Generativity vs. stagnation 8 - Integrity vs. despair
The Peripheral Nervous System
1) Autonomic Nervous System a. parasympathetic divison b. sympathetic division 2) Somatic Nervous System
Characteristics of Emotion (3)
1) Certain physical arousal 2) certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world 3) inner awareness of feelings
Photoreceptors { Rods vs Cones }
1) Cones -- 6 million -- located in center of retina -- low sensitivity in dim light -- YES color & detail sensitive 2) Rods -- 120 million -- located in periphery of retina -- high sensitivity in dim light -- NOT color or detail sensitive
Theories of Motivation (7)
1) Instinct theory 2) Drive-reduction theory 3) Needs theory 4) Arousal theory 5) Incentive Approaches 6) Hierarchy of Needs 7) Self-Determination Theory
3 Major Issues in Developmental Psychology
1) Nature/Nurture -- How do genetic inheritence (our nature) and experience (nurture we received) influence our development? 2) Continuity/Stages -- Is development a gradual, continuous process or sequence of seperate stages? 3) Stability/Change -- Do out early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?
McClelland's Need Theory (3)
1) Need for Achievement (nAch) 2) Need for affiliation (nAff) 3) Need for power (nPow)
Which mapping method would be best? 1) Most interested in measuring a fast response? 2) Most interested in knowing exactly where the signal is coming from?
1) fast response -- EEG 2) where signal coming from -- fMRI
Obedience in Milgram's study was highest when: (3 factors)
1) person giving orders was close at hand and perceived to be legitimate authority figure 2) authority figure is supported by a prestigious institution 3) victim was depersonalized or at a distance such as in another room there were no role models for defiance.
Erikson's Human Development Stages 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1-3 years -- Can I do things myself or must I rely on others? -- Do I have self control; am I in charge of my life? Attempts at independence fostered & successful or blocked & unsuccessful leading to self doubt & shame
Classical Conditioning Vs. Operant Conditioning
1. Classical condition forms associations between stimuli's CS and US 2. Operant conditioning on the other hand forms association between behaviors and resulting events
Goals of Psychology
1. Describe (what is happening?) 2. Explain (why is it happening?) 3. Predict (when will i happen again?) 4. Control (how can it be changed?)
Reflecting on Piaget's Theory: Piaget's stage theory has been influential globally and supported by decades of research. However, today's researchers believe: (3)
1. Development is a continuous process. 2. Children express their mental abilities and operations at earlier ages than Piaget proposed. 3.Stressed the importance of the child's interaction with objects, while underestimated the role of others in child's acquisition of knowledge and skills.
Three Types of Temperament: (Chess & Thomas, 1977, 1986)
1. Easy 2. Difficult 3. Slow to Warm Up
Basic Principles of Acquisition in Classical Conditioning:
1. Neutral stimulus needs to come before the US 2. The time between the two stimuli should be close (about half a second to 5 seconds apart is ideal) 3. Pairing needs to occur several times, often many 4. The CS is usually needs to be distinctive or stands out from other competing stimuliALL MUST OCCUR!
Adolescents and Thinking (2)
1. Personal fable 2. Imaginary audience
3 Main Areas of Social Psychology
1. Social Influence - how we are influenced by others 2. Social Cognition - how we think about others 3. Social Interaction - how we interact with others
Five Basic Tastes
1. Sweet 2. Sour 3. Salty 4. Bitter 5. Unami - "brothy" or "savory"
What did you observe in the class experiment with CAN and the water sprayer? (5)
1. The US is the water squirted in the volunteer's face, the UR is usually a flinch or squint. The CS is the sound of the word "can" and the CR is the flinch or squint when a word is read without an accompanying squirt. Acquisition is demonstrated as "can" by itself gradually comes to elicit a CR. 2. Stimulus generalization is evident as words that sound like can (ban, ran, cap, cast) come to produce a CR. 3. Stimulus discrimination is evident when different stimulus words elicit differences in the CRs. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound like "can." 4. Extinction is evident when the CRs disappear after the word "can" is spoken several times without a squirt. 5. Spontaneous recovery occurs if the word "can" again produces a CR after extinction and after a long string of words that does not include the word "can."
Light Characteristics
1. color (hue) 2. brightness (intensity) 3. saturation (purity)
Prototypes Develop according to.... (3)
1. the exposure a person has to objects in a category 2. the knowledge a person has about objects in a category 3. the culture of a person
** Explain Robber's Cave experiment
11 & 12 year old boys at summer camp Put on two teams and kept separate Competitive events Developed negative feelings about one another Then put back together doing pleasurable activities -> but engaged in continued conflict Conflict didn't reduce until the boys were made to resolve a series of crises together
Milgram's Obedience Shock Experiment: Learner "Feedback"
120 volts:Learner says the shocks are becoming painful. 135 volts: Learner groans from the pain. 150 volts: Learner yells, "Get me out of here. I refuse to go on!" 180 volts: Learner cries out, "I can't stand the pain!" 270 volts: Learner is screaming. 300 volts: Learner shouts that he would no longer answer questions. 330 volts: Learner is no longer heard from, & provides no answers for the remainder of the experiment.
** In late 1900s ** Prior to 2000s
1900s: there was a growing recognition of the fact that IQ tests were largely atheoretical 2000s: almost all test were based on either outdate theory or no theory at all
Randy Garner ???
1965
Erikson's Human Development Stages 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
3-5 years -- Am I good or am I bad? -- Should I make decisions on my own, or listen to others? Challenged to control/regulate own behavior; feel capable & develop initiative or feel irresponsible & be anxious & guilty
Erikson's Human Development Stages 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
6 years-puberty -- Am I competent or am I inferior/inadequate? -- Do I have unique abilities and skills? Make social comparisons as faced with new social and academic learning
In one study, ______ of the infants received the same secure versus insecure attachment classification 20 years later (Waters, Merrick, Treboux, Crowell, & Albersheim, 2000).
72%
Who responds to hypnosis?
80% of people have some response 40% of people are "good" subjects Some predictors: • Hypnotic susceptibility scales • Absorption scales
Spearman's g
> Spearman proposed theory that intelligence is best characterized as a general capacity - underlying all branches of intellectual ability is one underlying fundamental function, the amount of general mental ability (or general intelligence) > He believed intelligence tests tap general intelligence (g) and specific intellectual abilities (s) -- g was the ability to reason and solve problems -- s for specific abilities like music and art, amount of general mental ability
Gardner's Nine Intelligences
> Verbal/Linguistic > Musical > Logical/Mathematical > Visual/Spatial > Movement/Bodily-kinesthetic > Interpersonal (other people) > Intrapersonal (self) > Naturalist > 9th: Existential { a candidate intelligence! }
The Study of Thought/Cognition
>> How people think >> How well people think
Find the error in reasoning • A famous Nobel Prize-winning scientist announces that magnets can relieve back pain when rubbed on a person's back. He found 10 people with back pain and gave each of them magnet therapy. After the therapy, most of the people told him that their back pain was reduced. He concluded that magnets relieve back pain.
? ? ?
Find the error in reasoning • A teacher feels better when wearing bright colors. She hypothesizes that wearing brightly colored clothing can also improve the mood of people around her. She tests this using her students. She wears dull clothing to her morning class of 45 students and brightly colored clothing to her afternoon class of 45 students. She reports that her afternoon class seemed more alert and smiled more. She concludes that wearing bright colors improves other peoples' moods.
? ? ?
? Axon Hillock
? Base of the axon, where axon connects with cell body. ? Acts as a trigger.
? Ataxia
? damage to the cerebellum that henders precise motor movement
Narcotics or Opioids (Includes)
A class of depressant drugs derived from the opium poppy that produce pain-relieving and calming effects and mimic endorphins • Immediate effects: Dreamlike euphoria • Duplicate the action of endorphins • Long term changes in mood and sleep • Body stops producing natural endorphins • Decrease in body's ability to naturally regulate pain • High doses can lead to comatose state, convulsions, respiratory arrest Includes: • Opium • Morphine • Heroin • Methadone • Oxycodone (OxyContin)
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables (examining relationships)
Stimulus motive
A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity, play, exploration
Extrinsic motivation
A person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person
Intrinsic motivation
A person performs an action because the act is fun, challenging, or satisfying in an internal manner
Drive
A psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension
Need
A requirement of some material that is essential for survival of the organism
Experiments
A researcher manipulates one variable (IV) and measures the effect of the manipulation on another (DV).
Conception
A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuse to form one fertilized cell, a zygote.
Cognitive Mediational Theory
A stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction
Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: IQ 70 or below = Mental retardation (MR) IQ 135 or above = High intelligence
Fundamental attribution error
AKA actor-observer bias the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors while underestimating situational factors when observing others (Tendency to attribute someone else's behavior to their personal disposition and underestimate the effect of the situation)
Somnambulism Non-REM
AKA: Sleepwalking -- fairly common (20%) -- Occurs during deep sleep -- Get up and move around -- more common, especially in children (delta waves included, not dangerous to wake them)
Erikson's Human Development Stages 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence -- Who am I and where am I going? -- Do I have a unified sense of self? Make decisions about occupation, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior patterns, leading to strong sense of identity or confusion
3 Forms of Social Interaction
Aggression / Prosocial Liking / Loving Prejudice / Discrimination
Aggression (Biological Influences)
Aggression: behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person • Biological influences include: genetics, the amygdala and limbic system, and testosterone and serotonin levels
>> Meditation Physiological Response
Alpha and theta waves become more prominent in EEG recordings and Decrease in: Heart rate, Respiration rate, Oxygen consumption, Carbon dioxide elimination and Overall suppressed physiological arousal
What part of the brain is involved in various aspects of emotion? (5)
Amygdala Hemisphere Other Subcortical/Cortical Areas: (Core Affect Network) -- Frontal lobes -- Anterior cingulate cortex -- Lateral orbitofrontal complex
In memory, an active system does what 2 things:
An active system: • Receives information • Organizes and alters that information • Retrieves the information
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
An area of the brain containing a biological clock that governs circadian rhythms.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (3)
Analytical Intelligence Creative Intelligence Practical Intelligence
Instinct approach
Approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of animals -- fails to explain why such behavior exists
Association Cortices
Areas within the different lobes that integrate different types on information [EX of damage to an association cortex: Prosopagnosia]
Adenosine
As builds up become more sleepy { Caffeine = adenosine antagonist }
A child adept at roller skating goes ice skating for the first time. She keeps trying to stand and move just as on roller skates but falls again and again. According to Piaget, what is necessary for mastery of this new skill?
Assimilation definitely helped this child to get started. However, she keeps falling, so she needs to make a change. To reach mastery of this skill,she needs to adapt her schema, or in otherwords, use accommodation.
4 elements of observational learning
Attention, Memory, Imitaion, and Motivation
3 Forms of Social Cognition
Attitudes Attribution Impression ( and Formation )
Name the three parenting styles (aka "Child‐Rearing Practices")
Authoritarian permissive authoritative
Consciousness (what is it used for and what is it generated from?)
Awareness of everything around you & inside of your own head at any given moment -- Used to organize your behavior, thoughts, sensations, and feelings -- Generated from a set of action potentials
Which axis in the DSM-IV-TR deals with which clinical syndrome is present?
Axis I
Personality disorder or mental retardation is found in which axis?
Axis II
Personality disorders and mental retardation fall under which Axis?
Axis II
The general medical condition can be found in which axis?
Axis III
Psychosocial and environmental problems are found in which axis?
Axis IV
the Global Assessment of a person's functioning can be found under what axis?
Axis V
Operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner -- developed theory to explain how voluntary behavior is learned -- behavioral responses followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced EX: crying infant gets mother's attention, infant with cry for attention again in the future
Localization of Sounds
B/c we have two ears, sounds reach one faster than the other helping us to localize sound.
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Bandur's experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll study indicate that individuals Lean through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments, preschool children in a room with a bobo doll and one acts aggressive to it because of his model and the other did not because he did see a model,
What happened with Patient SM?
Bilateral, specific amygdala lesions -- Impaired fear recognition -- Impaired fear conditioning (AKA what if you don't have an amygdala)
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and Spinal Chord -- Brain: interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs -- Spinal Cord: pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system
Brown‐Peterson Task
Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959) measured the duration of short‐term memory by manipulating rehearsal. Duration of short‐term memory is about 20 sec.
Principles that Violates Acquisition in Classical Conditioning
By Taste Aversions: 1. pairing of the CS and UC should be timed closely and should take serval parings to achieve conditioning, yet with taste it only takes one time, because of biological preparedness
Capacity of Long term memory Typically lost Long term memory
CAPACITY: seems to be unlimited for all practical purposes LOST: we only store long lasting memories of events and concepts that are meaningful to us
CHAPTER 15: Psychological Therapies
CARDS 1060-1085
CHAPTER 3: Sensation and Perception
CARDS 159-251
CHAPTER 1: Science of Psychology
CARDS 2-79
CHAPTER 4: Consciousness
CARDS 252-357
CHAPTER 5: Learning
CARDS 358-461
CHAPTER 6: Memory
CARDS 462-576
CHAPTER 7: Cognition
CARDS 577-679
CHAPTER 8: Development
CARDS 680-790
CHAPTER 9: Motivation & Emotion
CARDS 791-861
CHAPTER 2: Biological Perspective
CARDS 80-158
CHAPTER 12: Social Psychology
CARDS 862-964
CHAPTER 14: Psychological Disorders
CARDS 965-1059
Vicarious Conditioning
CC of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person EX: seeing someone get a shot first and starts to cry before you even get to get yours you start to cry becoming classically conditioned by simply watching someone else respond to a stimulus.
Parathyroid Gland
Calcium regulation in the blood
humanistic therapy is based on the work of who?
Carl rogers
Optic Nerve
Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Oligodendrocytes
Central NS
Fovea
Central point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
Middle
Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that send vibrations to the cochlea's oval window.
obedience
Changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure
conformity
Changing one's own behavior to match that of other people
Retina
Contains sensory receptors that process visual information and send it to the brain.
Animal Research
Controversial Reasons: • Greater control • Ability to perform some research it would not be ethical to conduct in humans Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
Olfactory Transduction
Conversion of chemical molecules in the air into neural impulses by the olfactory cilia.
Acoustical Transduction
Conversion of sound waves into neural impulses in the hairs cells of the inner ear
Parts of the eye
Cornea Iris Lens Retina
Max Wertheimer
Gestalt Psychology, or how we experience the world - "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
White Matter
Glia
Evolutionary Perspective
Grew in part out of functionalism • Argues that human behavior is a result of psychological adaptations that help people successfully function and survive -- focuses on the biological gases for universal mental characteristics that all humans share
Cognitive Perspective
Grew in part out of gestalt psychology • How people think, remember, and store information - Language, problem solving, intelligence, decision making... • Cognitive neuroscience: brain and cognitive processing
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) Grey Matter: White Matter:
Grey Matter: cell bodies & unmyelinated -- outer areas White Matter: myelinated axons -- fiber tracts thats myelinated responsible for lighter color
Conditions That Increase Conformity: (5)
Group size -- increases as group size increases up to 4 Group is unanimous (lack of dissension) -- even one dissenter significantly reduces conformity Group observes one's behavior -- when behavior is not private, but publicly known Culture -- collectivist cultures tend to show more conformity than individualistic cultures Other research has shown feelings of incompetence, insecurity, and low-self-esteem all increase conformity
Gustatory (taste) Receptors
Gustatory (taste) receptors are clusters of cells, responsible for taste, mostly located on tongue
social cognition
The mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them
Emotion regulation
The modulation of one's emotional response when it is inappropriate, unwanted, or excessive, so as to ensure goal relevant behavior
How people think
The nature of thought or the processes involved in thinking
prejudice
The negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group
Weight set point
The particular level of weight that the body tries to maintain
Self-actualization
The point at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential
Priming (or subliminal threshold)
The priming effect and other experiments reveal that we can process some info. from stimuli too weak to recognize/detect (below the absolute threshold). -- The effect is too subtle or weak to be enduring on behavior so no worries about subliminal advertising
Motivation
The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met
altruism
The prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself • The temporoparietal junction (TPJ) is larger in individuals who make altruistic choices
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting
What is Psychology?
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. -- behavior: any action -- metal processes: perceptions, thoughts, feelings (latent constructs) -- scientific
cognitive dissonance
The sense of discomfort or distress that occurs when a person's behavior does not correspond to that person's attitude
Human Development
The sequence of age- related changes that occur in people as they progress from conception to death.
in-groups
The social group with whom a person identifies
out-groups
The social groups with whom a person does not identify them
Ghostly Hallucinations (2)
Hypnogogic Hypnopompic
Two Theories of Hypnosis
Hypnosis as Dissociation Social-Cognitive Theory
What Intelligence predict
IQ tests do well predicting academic success for those who score at the higher and lower ends, intellectual ability has positive association with income and occupational success Intelligence (as measured by IQ tests) is associated with... • Positive • Academic performance • Years of education • Occupation and occupational performance • Negative • Criminal behavior
Prenatal Development Fertilization: Identical twins are ___________ twins and fraternal twins are ____________ twins.
Identical = Monozygotic >> Every 1 in 250 births, a single egg is fertilized by a one sperm. The egg splits in half with each developing into a fetus with same genetic composition Fraternal = Dizygotic >> Twice as common, arise when 2 eggs are released at once. If both fertilized by separate sperm, two fetuses form. genetically, they are ordinary siblings.
_________ express similar temperaments, suggesting heredity predisposes temperament
Identical Twins
Previously, whenever Johnny banged with a spoon, his mother would put it in a drawer and Johnny would quickly move on to something else. Now that he is eight months old, this isn't working. The child continues to demand the spoon even though he can't see it. Identify the cognitive stage of this child and the change that has taken place.
Johnny is in the sensorimotor stage and has recently developed object permanence.
Taste
KNOW: The Stimulus Input: Chemicals Gustatory (taste) receptors The five basic tastes
Smell
KNOW: The Stimulus Input: Chemicals Olfactory Cilia
Hearing
KNOW: The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves Parts of the Ear Hearing Impairment
Specialization of the Two Hemispheres
LEFT: -- controls right hand -- spoken language -- written language -- mathematical calculations -- logical thought processes -- analysis of detail -- reading RIGHT: -- controls left hand -- nonverbal -- visual-spatial perception -- music and artistic processing -- emotional thought and recognition -- processes the whole -- pattern recognition -- facial recognition
Erikson's Human Development Stages 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
Late Adulthood -- Have I lived a full life? Acceptance of one's life, both successes and failures. Life review and retrospective evaluation of one's past, leading to enjoyment and no fear of death or feeling empty and fearing death
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Law stating performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too high or too low • This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: • Easy tasks require a high‐moderate level • Difficult tasks require a low‐moderate level EX: Choking under pressure, or flow‐states
** What kind of love involves intimacy only? What kind of love involves passion only? What kind of love involved commitment only?
Liking = intimacy only Infatuation= passion only Empty Love= commitment only
Neurotransmitter: Glutamate
MAJOR excitatory neurotransmitter (turns cells on) -- involved ink earning, memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity
Neurotransmitter: GABA
MAJOR inhibitory neurotransmitter (turns cells off) -- involved in sleep and inhibits movement
Neurons
MOSTLY Gray matter specialized cells that Receives & Sends messages
Gray Matter
MOSTLY neurons
Strategies to Enrich Encoding/Improve Memory { MOVA }
MOVA your memory • Meaningfulness (e.g., schema‐building) • Organization (e.g., chunking, hierarchy) • Visualization (e.g., imagery) • Attention (i.e., effort)
First woman to to receive Ph.D in Psychology
Margaret F. Washburn, The Animal Mind
Who designed the experiment "Strange Situation"? What did the experiment entail?
Mary Ainsworth (1978, 1985) ~ Attachment Differences ~ exposing the infant to a series of leaving and returning of mother and stranger -- 60% of children express secure attachment • Explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers • When mother leaves they show distress. -- Other 40% show insecure attachment • cling to their mothers or caregivers • less likely to explore the environment.
Beneficence
Maximize benefits while minimizing harm • Monitor and intervene if something bad occurs • Keep a participant's data confidential
Medical uses and association for Marijuana
Medical uses: reducing nausea and stimulating appetite • Acute vs. long‐term cognitive declines in cognitive ability • Association with psychosis in adolescents (especially for those with underlying risk) • Can create powerful psychological dependence • Some users can have motivational problems • Heavy users can have significant withdrawal symptoms such as Aggression
Biopsychological Perspective
Mental processes can be explained by the events in the body including interaction with biological factors like genes, or hormones. (or heredity, brain chemicals, etc) -- research includes sleep, emotions, aggression, sexual behavior, learning, and memory, plus disorders
Pons
Messages between the cerebellum and the cortex, sleep, dreaming
Erikson's Human Development Stages 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle Adulthood -- Will I produce something of real value? -- Have I contributed to the world in some meaningful way? Challenge to transmit something positive to the next generation
Working Memory Capacity
Miller's "magic number" 7 items plus or minus 2 -- current research suggest about 5-9 bits of info. and now its about 3-5 items if a strategy is not being used
Difference Threshold
Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time, also called just noticeable difference (JND)
Absolute Threshold
Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. EX: detection (light bulbs intensity)
Memory Construction
Misinformation Effect Source Monitoring Error False Memories Abuse
Extended sleep deprivation
Missing multiple days of sleep, no sleep or reduced levels Causes significant impairment in functioning and health problems like Obesity and Impaired immune system functioning and increased inflammatory response
elaboration likelihood model
Model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message (Central-route processing) or fail to elaborate on it (Peripheral-route processing) • the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than those who do not
Psychodynamic Perspective
Modern version of psychoanalysis - more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a person's behavior. - Psychodynamic psychotherapy - Attachment theory: type of bond formed between caregiver and an infant
Iris
Muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of opening (pupil) for light.
Sensation
Occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated, allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain (detect physical energy, aka stimuli, from the environment and convert it into neural signals)
Hearing Deficits
Older people tend to hear low frequencies well but suffer hearing loss for higher frequencies.
Smell and the Brain: Olfactory bulb has projections to the _________
Olfactory bulb has projections to the __limbic system__
Sensation seeker
One who needs more arousal than the average person
Define: Open Symbolic
Open -- free to change Symbolic -- no connection between a sound and the meaning or idea associated with it
Visual Information Processing
Optic nerves connect to the thalamus in the middle of the brain, and the thalamus to the visual cortex.
Parts of the ear
Outer Ear [Eardrum] Middle Ear [oval window] Inner Ear [cochlea]
Cortex
Outermost covering of the brain, densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought process and interpretation of sensory input
conditioning
Pavlov -- the idea that reflexive responses can be learned or "conditioned"
** similarity
People like people who are similar to themselves
Schwan Cells
Peripheral NS
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Peripheral nerves (aspects of nervous system that are not ESSENTIAL; organs) -- transmits information to and from the central nervous system
Physical Dependence (+/- Reinforcement?)
Person's body becomes unable to function normally without the drug, involves Withdrawal and Tolerance - Negative Reinforcement: continue a behavior to remove or escape from unpleasant circumstances or sensations
How can attitudes change? (2) What are the key elements of that? (4)
Persuasion Cognitive Dissonance
** What are some factors involved in attraction? (4)
Physical attractiveness Proximity Similarity Reciprocity of liking
Sound Characteristics
Pitch Volume Timbre
Theories of Hearing: Pitch Perception
Place Theory Frequency Theory Volley Principle
Blind Spot
Point where optic nerve leaves the eye, because there are no receptor cells located here, it creates a blind spot
Successive approximations
Positively reinforcing numerous small steps of a more complex behavior in sequence in order to teach said complex behavior.
THe disorder resulting from exposure to a major stressor, with symptoms of anxiety, dissociation, nightmares, poor sleep, reliving the event, and concentration problems, lasting for more than one month is called?
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Types of Psychological Professionals
Psychologists Therapy Psychiatrists
Two kinds of sleep
REM sleep Non-REM sleep
** Romantic love = consummate love = companionate love = fatuous love =
ROMANTIC = Intimacy + Passion CONSUMMATE = Intimacy + Passion + Commitment COMPANIONATE = Intimacy + commitment FATUOUS = Passion + Commitment
2 types of memory retrieval
Recognition and Recall
>> Meditation is Associated with
Reduced reported stress, Lower levels of stress hormones, Enhanced immune response, increased self-esteem, Improved mood, Improved sense of control, Decreased depression, Decreased eating disorders, Decreased blood pressure (if high) and Improved sleep patterns and Improved concentration, Heightened awareness, Increased emotional resilience and Increased pain tolerance
Insulin
Reduces the level of glucose in the bloodstream
Negative Punishment
Removing something valued or desirable, Punishment by removal EX: time-out from privileges, revoked driver's license, losing a privilege such as going out with friends
Examples of Heuristics
Representative Availability Working Backwards & Subgoals
Frontal
Responsible for higher(complex) mental processes and decision making. Also, contains the motor cortex - generation *** Phineas Gage
Hypnosis as Dissociation (Evidence)
The subject has a split awareness: one stream communicates with the hypnotist and external world, while the other is the "hidden observer" Evidence: • Driving to school while having a daydream and not remembering the steps of physically driving there • Like what can happen when you drive someplace familiar • Ice water experiment, press a button if feel pain
social loafing
The tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task people who are lazy tend not to do as well when other people are also working on the same task, but they can do quite well when working on their own • easier to hide laziness when working in a group
** reciprocity of liking
The tendency of people to like other people who like them in return
Homeostasis
The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state
Habituation
The tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information. -- the brain ignores stimuli that are being sensed, but do not change
Sensory Adaptation
The tendency of the sensory receptors to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging -- receptors less responsive to the stimulus, and therefore no longer send signals to the brain
** scapegoating
The tendency to direct prejudice and discrimination at out-group members who have little social power or influence
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event • "Monday morning quarterbacking" • Reading about research studies in the news
attitude
The tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation
** information processing theory
The theory that says that the sensory register receives too much information to process
** schema theory
The theory that says that the way we mentally organize information about things into related categories
Two Types of Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia
** In Titantic, Jack and Rose found that they could talk and understand each other as well as make steamy love in a car. However, Rose was still engaged to Cal. Their type of love would therefore be considered
Romantic love
The severe disorder in which the person suffers from disordered thinking, bizarre behavior, and hallucinations, and is unable to distinguish between fantasy and reality is called?
Schizophrenia
The mood disorder caused by the body's reaction to low levels of sunlight in the winter months is called?
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Axon
Sends information/passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands -- some are Myelinated (myelin sheath) glial cells, which covers the axon and helps to increase speed of transmission of neural impulses
Compare and contrast the endocrine system and the nervous system
Similarity: Both produce molecules that act elsewhere in the body Endocrine: -- use hormones -- take longer to act via the blood stream -- effects last longer Nervous: -- use neurotransmitters -- electrical current takes fractions of a second -- effects are more transient (shorter)
Single Blind Study vs Double Blind Study
Single Blind Study -- participants are blind to the treatment they receive Double Blind Study -- both participants and person measuring the dependent variable are blind to who got what (blind of whose experimental or control)
Hunger: Social Causes
Social cues for when meals are to be eaten • Cultural customs • Food preferences • Use of food as a comfort device or escape from unpleasantness --Some people may respond to the anticipation of eating by producing an insulin response
Non-REM Deep Sleep Disorders
Somnambulism and Night terrors
Space - Time - Frequency -
Space - encode place or location of things Time - note the events that take place in a day Frequency - keep track of things that take place (involved with automatic processing)
Spinal Chord Reflect (3) EX: touching fire
Spinal cord; reflex arc neurons: (fire stimulates pain receptors/sensory neurons) 1. [Afferent] Sensory Neurons - from senses to spinal chord (excite interneurons) [access spinal cord] 2. Interneurons - connect afferent to efferent (excite motor neurons) 3. [Efferent] Motor Neurons - from spinal chord to muscles (motor nerves exit spinal cord, excite muscles, and initiate movement) [exit spinal cord] -- This is why a reflex is so fast !
Non-REM Stage 3 and 4 (N3)
Stage 3: delta waves start Stage 4: deepest sleep - during this stage that body growth occurs - if you wake a person up during this stage, will be disoriented
Explain Milgram's obedience experiment with shocking people.
Stanley Milgram designed a set of studies that investigated the effects of authority on obedience. People obeyed orders to deliver shocks to other people, even when the recipients were clearly in pain. 68% of participants delivered the maximum potentially lethal shock of 450 volts. The shocks were faked an those being shocked were actors.
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
Starts eating when insulin levels are high -- Without it, no eating to starvation
Cocaine
Stimulant: natural substance; can cause euphoria, followed by a crash including feelings of depression, anxiety, agitation, powerful craving • Euphoria and increased energy • Also, paranoia and vascular problems (including risk of heart attack and stroke)
Nicotine
Stimulant: natural substance; causes slight rush in arousal & blood sugar • Easy to get addicted to, very hard to quit • Treatment can help. • More smoking‐related deaths in the US than from car accidents, alcohol, illicit drug use, AIDS, suicide, and homicide combined.
Caffeine
Stimulant: natural substance; helps maintain alertness/wakefulness, can increase the effectiveness of pain relievers such as aspirin • Mild stimulant, 90% of Americans use caffeine • If use regularly and quit, can get withdrawal symptoms
Amphetamines or "speed" (Drug Examples)
Stimulant: synthetic substance; increase alertness, reduce appetite, give rush of energy Methylphenidate (Ritalin) • ADHD treatment • Use by students/"cognitive enhancement" Methylenedioxy‐methamphetamine (MDMA) (Ecstasy) • Stimulatory hallucinogenic • Chronic use: Memory problems Methamphetamine ("Crystal meth") • Euphoricrush • Also insomnia, mood disturbances, delusions, physical symptoms
Major Drug Categories
Stimulants Depressants Hallucinogens Narcotics
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
Stops eating when glucose levels are high -- Without it, overeating
Control Group
Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the IV and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for some confounding variables)
** Levels of categorization
Superordinate, Basic (Generic) Level, Subordinate
What are the key players involved in sleep and circadian rhythm?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the.... -- hypothalamus, -- pineal gland -- melatonin
Two divisions of autonomic nervous system, a subfield of the Peripheral NS: Sympathetic division _______ Parasympathetic division ________
Sympathetic: Arouses (FIGHT-or-FLIGHT) -- located in middle of spinal column Parasympathetic: "Calms" (REST-and-DIGEST) -- located at the top and bottom of the spinal column, on either side of the sympathetic division neurons
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to notice, seek out, and interpret information in a way consistent with your own prior beliefs
Stimulus Generalization Classical Conditioning
Tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS in the same way with CR ex: little Albert displaying a fear response to all furry things, after being conditioned originally to fear a rat
(Recall:) Thalamus
Thalamus is the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs all sensory messages to the sensory areas in the cortex. [except: SMELL!]
Emotion
The "feeling" aspect of consciousness
group polarization
The 'risky shift' phenomenon is the tendency for members involved in a group discussion to take somewhat more extreme positions and suggest riskier actions when compared to individuals who have not participated in a group discussion
History of Hypnosis
The Mesmerizing Franz Anton Mesmer: - laying on of hands - power of suggestion, mesmerism - where we got the term mesmerized, and The Hypnotic James Braid: - coined the term hypnotism
conservation
The ability to understand that simple changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature
social categorization
The assignment of a person one has just met to a category based on characteristics the new person has in common with other people with whom one has had experience in the past
Instinct
The biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals • In animals: migrating, nest building, mating • McDougal, 18 instincts: flight (running away), pugnacity (aggressiveness)
Obesity
The body weight of a person is 20% or more over the ideal body weight for that person's height • Biological Causes include: heredity, hormones, and slowing metabolism with age • Overeating may be a factor as food supplies stabilize in developing countries and Western-culture lifestyles are adopted
situational (external/enviromental) attribution
The cause of behavior attributed to external factors, such as delays, the action of others, or some other aspect of the situation
dispositional (internal/personal) attribution
The cause of behavior attributed to internal factors such as personality or character
A four-year-old insists small people must live in the TV because they are right there behind the glass. Identify the stage and the phenomenon being displayed by the child.
The child is in the preoperational stage and is showing egocentric thought.
** equal status contact
The contact between groups in which the groups have equal status with neither group having power over the other
What happens to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)... -- When it gets dark, -- When it gets light,
DARK: the SCN triggers the secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland, making us feel sleepy LIGHT: the SCN stops the secretion of melatonin, allowing the body to waken
Chart for Loudness of Sound
Decibels 140 - rock band 130 - 120 - loud thunder 110 - jet plane at 500 ft 100 - subway train at 20 feet 90 - 85 - - - - above can cause hearing loss - - - - - - 80 - busy street corner 70 - 60 - normal convo 50 - 40 - typical room 30 - 20 - whisper 10 - 0 - threshold of hearing
Milgram's Obedience Shock Experiment: Degree of obedience influenced by:
Degree of obedience influenced by: • Physical proximity • Status of authority figure • Depersonalization of victim • Lack of defiant role models
Tranquilizers
Depressant • Major tranquilizers: Barbiturates • Minor tranquilizers: Benzodiazepines (Xanax, Ativan, Valium)
Timbre
Determined by the purity or the complexity (richness) of the tone of the sound
Kohlberg
Development of Morality
Wavelengths (Color/Hues) Chart { ROYGBIV } Different wavelengths of light result in different colors.
Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. 400 nm, short wavelengths Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red 700 nm, long wavelengths
disorders in which there is a break in conscious awareness, memory, the sense of identity, or some combination are called?
Dissociative disorders
Activation - Synthesis Hypothesis
Dreams are produced by the pons • Inhibits movement • Sends signals to the cortex Since frontal lobes are basically shut down, dreams are sometimes bizarre
Primary drives
Drive involving needs of the body
Acquired (secondary) drives
Drive learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval
Hallucinogens (Includes)
Drugs that can alter and distort perceptions of time & space, alter mood, produce feelings of unreality, & cause hallucinations; alter perception of reality and can cause false sensory messages • Vary in how addictive they are • For some people, use can result in hallucinogen persisting perception disorder Includes: • LSD (Flashbacks) • PCP (developed for use in surgeries) • (MDMA, "Ecstasy") • Psilocybin • Mescaline • DMT • Ketamine Currently being tested for treatment‐resistant depression (glutamate) • Marijuana
Depressants (Includes)
Drugs that decrease activity in the central nervous system, slow down bodily functions, reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation, Includes: Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, and Alcohol
Stimulants (Includes)
Drugs that increase the activity in the central nervous system, suppress appetite, cause people to feel more awake/alert and energetic, Includes: Amphetamines, such as cocaine, nicotine, and caffeine
Erikson's Human Development Stages 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
Early adult years -- Shall I share my life with another or live alone? -- Can I form a committed relationship with another individual? Determine who they are with another person, leading to satisfying intimate relationships or isolation and loneliness
Humanistic Perspective
Emphasis in conscious and immediate experiences and the empowerment of the individual to become the best he/she can be, achieve one's full potential (self‐actualization) - Humanists held the view that people have self-actualization & free will: the freedom to choose/shape their own destiny. - Client‐centered therapy
3 Memory Processes
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Encoding and Retrieval Cues: (2)
Encoding specificity State-dependent learning
Anxiety that seems to have no real source, consists of excessive worrying, and is associated with physical symptoms such as difficulty concentrating, irritability, and sleeping problems is called:
Generalized anxiety disorder
Cerebral Hemisphere
The two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain RECALL: Left visual info is processed in the right side of the brain and vice versa !
Peripheral-route processing { Elaboration Likelihood Model }
The type of information processing that involves attending to factors not involved in the message, such as the appearance of the source of the message, the length of the message, and other noncontent factors -- Persuasion based on non‐message factors such as attractiveness, emotion, credibility -- Low elaboration: Minimal processing of the information -- Less durable attitude change
Central-route processing { Elaboration Likelihood Model }
The type of information processing that involves attending to the content of the message itself -- Persuasion based on content and logic of the message -- High elaboration: Careful processing of the information -- More durable attitude change
Associative Learning
Through life, we learn to associate things with each other, our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence • Gestalt contiguity idea ‐ things that occur close in time to one another are grouped together • Example, rules of language syntax In other words, when one event precedes another we learn to associate one event with the other. EX: • thunder & lightning • lucky shirt and doing well on exam (Learning that things go together is very adaptive)
Peak experience
Times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved
Structuralism
Titchener -- expanded on Wundt's original ideas -- focus of the study was the structure of the mind
vicarious conditioning
Watching the actions and reactions of others to ideas, people, objects, and situations
Behaviorism
Watson -- focused on the study of observable behavior
Gestalt Psychology
Wertheimer -- How we experience the world as whole
stereotype threat
When a person is aware of stereotypical expectations for him or her as a member of the group
Proximity
When objects are close to one another, we tend to perceive them together rather than separately [ shape constancy ? ]
Extinction
When the US food no longer follows the presentation of the CS tone, the CR salivation starts to decrease and at some point completely diminishes, disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of US in CC when puting the sound away or the Removal of a reinforcer in OC • Respondent extinction = When a US does not follow a CS, a CR starts to decrease and at some point completely diminishes.
secure attachment
When the baby is willing to play and explore comfortably with mother present; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon the mother's return
Pupil
Where light comes in
False Memory Syndrome
a condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists • Creation of inaccurate or *false memories* through the suggestion of others, often while under hypnosis • Evidence suggests that false memories cannot be created for just any kind of memory • Memories must at least be plausible
Curve of forgetting
a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually
Cognitive and behavioral explanations see dissociative disorders as what?
a kind of avoidance learning.
Conditioned Response
a learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus, was previously neutral stimulus that mimic the unconditioned response, new reflex
What is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision?
a manual of psychological disorders and their symptoms
Method of Loci
a method of memorizing information by placing each item to be remembered at a point along a familiar imaginary journey, recalled in a specific order by retracing the same route through the imaginary journal
Elaborative Rehearsal
a method of transferring info. from STM into LTM by making that info. meaningful in some way • Goes beyond just repeating information • Involves making connections EX: French word maison means house, so it sounds like masons so masons build houses, connect the words together like that
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
a modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response (also uses analysis of the function of behavior and behavioral techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior) EX: Autism children, moving their face to look at teacher or task and then if done right they are given a treat,
Participant observation
a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect)
Hippocampus ( & Explain H. M. )
a part of the limbic system, the part of the brain that is responsible for the formation of new long term memories, particularly declarative LTMs H.M. -- Henry Molaison -- Hippocampus is not important for implicit memories (without it you cant form new declarative memories and consolidation it. and takes in sensory info. And help process it)
diffusion of responsibillity
a person fails to take responsibility for action or for inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen to share the responsibility
Variable-interval schedule
a response at unpredictable time intervals, the interval of time changes from one time to the next, slow steady responding, telephoning another individual whose line is busy, or pop quizzes
Thalmus
a round structure in the center of the brain that acts as the brain's sensory switchboard, relaying incoming sensory information to the appropriate area. -- EXCEPT smell!
stereotypes
a set of characteristics, attributes, and behaviors that people believe is shared by all members of a particular social category
Psychoanalytic theories see schizophrenia as resulting from what?
a severe breakdown of the ego
Neutral stimulus
a stimulus that has no effect on the desired response, a stimulus that before conditioning or learning does not naturally bring about a response, the knocking on door, ex: dish with dog food in it,
Whether or not something is reinforcing or punishing is determined by the _____ that thing or event has on _______. Determined by what 2 questions?
effect on future behavior (EX: time out, praise for participation • 1. Is something added or taken away? • positive vs. negative OR (by application vs. by removal) • 2. After adding or taking away something, does the behavior increase or decrease? • reinforcement vs. punishment
** Early intervention
ex: Carolina Abecedarian Project- 111 6 to 12 old infants of AA mothers of low income and low IQ randomly assigned to either intensive day care through preschool or a control group, help families learn how to support school learning
excitatory effect VS inhibitory effect
excitatory effect (turns cells on) inhibitory effect (turns cells off)
Neurotransmitter: Serotonin
excitatory or inhibitory •Mood, hunger, sleep, and anxiety
Neurotransmitter: Dopamine
excitatory or inhibitory •Movements, sensations of pleasure
Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
excitatory or inhibitory •Responsible for muscle movement/contractions •Learning new memory, arousal, attention
Placebo Effect (Way to Minimize)
expectations of participants can influence their behavior • Experimental and control groups • Single blind study
Night Terror
experiences of extreme fear and panic during sleep screams or running around during deep sleep without waking fully -- takes place during non-REM sleep, and people usually don't remember theirs
The disorder in which a person has feelings of dread and impending doom, along with physical symptoms of stress, which lasts six months or more is called?
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Segments (or sections) within DNA having the same arrangement constitute _______ to determine our development.
genes making proteins
The form of directive insight therapy in which the therapist helps clients to accept all parts of their feelings and subjective experiences, using leading questions and planned experiences such as role-playing is called?
gestalt therapy
** How Memory Works
get into memory, maintained in memory, and pulled back out of memory
Retrieval
getting it out -- getting information that is storage into a from that can be used
lack of introspection
groupthink characteristic when members do not examine the ethical implications of their decision because they believe that they cannot make immoral choices
lack of disgreement
groupthink characteristic when members do not express opinions that differ from the group consensus
rationalization
groupthink characteristic when members explain away warning signs and help each other rationalize their decision
invulnerability
groupthink characteristic when members feel that they cannot fail
self-deception
groupthink characteristic when members share in the illusion that differ from the group consensus
What are the sensory experiences without sensory stimulation called?
hallucination
MDMA (Ecstasy)
hallucinogen; dehydrates the body and raises body temperature
PCP
hallucinogen; depending on dose can be hallucinogen, stimulant, depressant, painkiller
Mescaline
hallucinogenic effects that can last longer than LSD
Elizabeth Loftus' research
has shown that if false memories are implanted in individuals, they construct their memories ( false memories abuse recovered )
Hypothalmus
helps direct several maintenance activities like thirst, hunger, body temperature, sleeping and wakin, sexual behavior. Controls pituitary gland -- lies below (hypo) the thalamus
Biological explanations of mood disorders look at what?
hereditability and genetics the function of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine systems in the brain
Variable ratio and variable interval
higher resistance to extinction
What personality disorder would you more likely associate with Lindsay Lohan and Paris Hilton?
histrionic
people who have they tendency to overreact and use excessive emotions to draw attentions to themselves have what kind of personality disorder?
histrionic
The therapy that aims to boost self-fulfillment by helping people grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance is called?
humanistic therapy
The nondirective insight therapy based on the work of Carl Rogers in which the client does all the talking and the therapist listens is called? It is also know as?
humanistic therapy AKA person-centered therapy
Grammar
a system of rules that governs the structure and use of language & enables us to communicate with each other -- includes semantics and syntax
Algorithms
a systematic step by step procedure, such as a mathematical formula, guarantees a solution to a problem or certain type EX: the way library books are organized
Eidetic imagery
ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more
neuroplasticity
ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma
Stimulus Discrimination in Operant
ability to distinguish between stimuli to determine the one that provides a cue from making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement ex: tommy knows that when with his dad he can get a treat before dinner by sucking up, but when with his mom sucking up does not lead to a treat
Selective attention
ability to focus on only one stimulus (or narrowed range of stimuli) from among all sensory input -- Gets into STM thru this, the selective attention
Recognition
ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact EX: "which of following is a dwarf name?, matching, true false, and multiple choice questions
Existential (9th Intelligence)
ability to see the big picture of the human world (contemplate the meaning of life) Philosophical thinker
What does "circe" or "diem" mean?
about a day, or approximately 24 hours
What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
absence of normal appropriate behavior; poor attention, flat affect, avolition and alogia.
After Nadia learned that penguins can't fly, she had to modify her existing concept of birds. This best illustrates the process of:
accommodation
Validity
accuracy -- refers to the degree a test measures what it's supposed to measure or predict * Reliability of a test does not insure validity EX: pass driver's license test, we hope they can safely operate a motor vehicle when actually on road
Concepts
ideas that represent a class or group of objects, events, or activities that share common characteristics or attributes o CONTAINS: the important features of the objects or events people think about & allow for the identification of new objects and events that may fit the concept EX: new type of dog for the first time, or any type of bird, long as you know what it looks like 4 legs dog,
Cognitive psychologists believe that excessive anxiety comes from what?.
illogical, irrational thought processes
Procedural memory
implicit memory or nondeclarative is not easily brought into conscious awareness; not something that can be forgotten, motor skills, habits, reflexes EX: how to ride a bike or tie your shoes • Procedural memory: memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness
Cognitive learning theory
in the 1950's and more intensely in the 60's many psychologist were becoming aware that cognition, the mental events that take place inside the mind while behaving, could no longer by ignored EX: thoughts, expectations exist and clearly influence behavior, leading to rise of it,
Theta waves
in the Non-REM Stage 1 sleep (N1), theta waves replace alpha waves by even slower and larger waves, indicating the early stages of sleep
Cognition / Thinking involves
acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information, includes: sensation, perception imagery, concept, formation, reasoning,,, decisions making, comparing things, problem solving, and language
the fear of heights is called?
acrophobia
A type of therapy where the main goal is to change disordered behavior is called
action therapy
What kind of therapy changes the disordered behavior?
action therapy
Rapid Eye Movement sleep (REM)
active sleep dream during this stage voluntary muscles are paralyzed, can't move
Working Memory
active system that processes or manipulates the information in STM, does the work • The active system that processes or manipulates the information in STM • Comprised of three interconnected systems: (a) central executive, (b) visual "sketchpad, and (c) auditory "recorder" EX: you run into someone familiar at the mall, you pull that person's name out of memory from the last time you saw the person, almost as you were viewing it on a screen, and at the same time you will hear the name in your head, so you can greet Bob successfully
Lewis Terman
adapted Binet's test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test
Positive
adding something
Positive punishment
adding something unpleasant, punishment by application EX: getting a spanking for disobeying, administer an aversive stimulus, getting a speeding ticket,
Forgetting (4 Reasons for Forgetting)
inability to retrieve information, due to: -- Encoding Failure -- Storage Decay or Disuse -- Proactive Interference -- Retroactive Interference
REM rebound
increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights, ex: sleeping pills
Agonist
increases the original message of the neurotransmitter was supposed to send
masking
info that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new info.
3 components of an attitude:
affective component behavioral component cognitive component
Thyroid Gland
affects metabolism
Drugs are categorized under 2 types
agonist antagonist
The fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible is called?
agoraphobia
Intellectual disability
aka mental retardation -- must have all: -- below 70 IQ score -- adaptive behavior skills severely below a level appropriate for age -- presentation of these limitations prior to age 18
Cognition
aka thinking -- mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person organizing and attempting to understand and/or communicated information to others • The mental manipulation of representations of information we encounter in our environments
What is the tendency to believe that one's performance must be perfect or the result will be a total failure called?
all-or-nothing thinking
Autonomy
allow people to make their own decisions • Informed consent -- Risks and benefits of participation • Deception is justified -- By debriefing -- telling participants at end why deception was important to study • Right to withdraw participation at anytime
The poverty of speech is called?
alogia
Drugs, psychoactive
alter thinking, perception, and/or mood
Retrieval Failure forgetting
although info. Is retained in the memory store it is not always accessible to attempt retrieval because of info interferes, cannot be accessed from the Long term memory retrieval failure EX: tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon
Memory
an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage -- permanent part of learning • There are multiple types of memory‐ it is not one thing in one place in the brain.
To store in LTM,
information must be acted upon 1. Maintenance rehearsal 2. Elaborative Rehearsal
Neurotransmitter: Neuropeptides
inhibitory neural regulators -- EX: Endorphins -- released during experience of pain
Give an example of practice retrieval.
initial recall tests (pretest) before/yielding the larger test benefits better
Primary Reinforcer
innately reinforcing stimulus like hunger, food, water, warmth, pleasurable touch, things that fulfill biological drives, young children and animals are easily reinforced by these • any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch
Adrenal Gland
inner part, called the medulla, triggers fight-or-flight response, engaged under stress or danger
What kind of therapy allows psychologists to gain insight to what is going on in the patient's mind?
insight therapy
Midbrain
integrates sensory processes, such as vision and hearing (one area is involved in dopamine synthesis) -- segment of brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain
Humanistic therapies work best with who?
intelligent, highly verbal persons
** According to Sternberg, what are the three components of love?
intimacy passion commitment
Representative Heuristic
an assumption that any object or person sharing characteristics with members of a particular category is also a member of that category EX: stereotypes
Heuristics (rule of thumb)
an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem EX: type format into the help feature search box, to narrow down results to solve problem instead of reading whole book about it
** Basic (Generic) Level
an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, ex: Apple
Prototype
an example that closely matches the defining characteristics or common features or a concept EX: think of fruit first thing to mind is a apple or strawberry, because of where we live
Language
an open and symbolic communication system that has rules of grammar and allows its user to express abstract and distant ideas -- Language means... a means of communicating thoughts and feeling using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (EX: sounds sign rigs)
Flashbulb memory
an unique and highly emotional moment can give rise to clear, strong, and persistent memory, not free from errors, type of automatic encoding -- automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it (Bush & 9/11) • However, this memory is NOT free from errors.
Reflex
an unlearned, involuntary response to a stimulus, ex: produce saliva
The condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent or more below the ideal body weight occurs is called?
anorexia
The disorder in which a person has no morals or conscience and often behaves in an impulsive manner without regard for the consequences of that behavior is called?
antisocial personality disorder
Stress and Emotion
anxiety and depression in pregnant women can have long‐lasting effects on the child
Panic, phobias, and stress disorders are classified as what?
anxiety disorder
GAD, panic disorder, phobias, OCD, and PTSD are classified as what?
anxiety disorders
disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness are called what?
anxiety disorders
Define: Punishment
any event following a response that decreases the future probability of that response occurring, weakens the behavior it follows
Define Reinforcement
any event or stimulus that when following a response, increaes the probability that the response will occur again any event following a response that increases the future probability of that response occurring strengthens the behavior it follows
Stimulus
any event that causes a response (reaction), ex: the food
Reinforcers
any events or objects that when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again
Secondary, Conditioned, Reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars, is a learned reinforce, it gets its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforce, association formed via classical conditioning, EX: money, good grades • any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
Sleep Deprivation
any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability, people have without realizing it, disrupts the normal sleep-wake cycle and isn't good for health
Discriminative stimulus
any stimulus that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement EX: negatively reinforced by avoiding receiving a speeding ticket,
Variable
anything that can change or vary
Mental Images
are interacted with in similar ways as physical objects -- very helpful for memory, and for learning or maintaining motor skills
Broca's area
area in the left frontal lobe devoted to production of speech allowing person to speak smoothly/fluently -- Broca's aphasia: inability to use or understand written or spoken language
Wernicke's area
area in the left frontal lobe involved in understanding the meaning of words -- Wernicke's aphasia: can speak fluently and pronounce words, but words would be wrong entirely
Analytical Intelligence
assessed by intelligence tests & ability to break problems down into component parts for problem solving EX: book smart people
Deviation IQ scores
assumed to be normally distributed with an IQ/M? of 100 and SD of about 15 -- Wechsler's intelligence scoring scheme
How we Encode
automatically processed, and some novel information requires times and attention
Peripheral Nervous System consists of 2 parts:
autonomic nervous system -- automatically regulates glands, internal organs and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, and blood pressure somatic nervous system -- carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles
Research Ethics
autonomy beneficence justice
What kind of personality disorder involves being fearful of social relationships, and tend to avoid social contacts unless it is necessary?
avoidant
Sleep & Exercise
avoids retroactive interference thus leading to better recall, as time and similarity between the intervening material decreases, the amount of forgetting also decreases • Sleep is important in forming memories • memories rehearsed during sleep as well as during waking are more likely to be consolidated • one can't learn something new while sleeping, but new information can be better consolidated while sleeping • sleep deprivation severely interferes with hippocampal function and memory • Even brief exercise can be good for your memory, increasing size of hippocampus and increasing memory
What is the term for the lack of motivation in a person?
avolition
Cellular Clock Theory
based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can divide (telomeres) ◦ Division necessary for repair/replacement of tissue
Opponent Process Theory
based on the idea that there are four primary colors: red, green, blue, and yellow. The colors are arranged in pairs (red with green and blue with yellow) and if one member of a pair is stimulated, the other member is inhibited. -- Explains afterimage, visual sensation that persists for a brief time after original stimulus is removed
Availability Heuristic
basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind -- or how easy is it to recall info. from memory or to think of releated examples (how many ks in whole book?)
What usually is the trend for high-prejudice groups before and after discussion?
before discussion the prejudice is pretty high, after discussion it becomes even higher
The action therapies based on the principles of classical and operant conditioning and aimed at changing disordered behavior without concern for the original causes of such behavior is called?
behavioral therapy
Personal Fable
believe they are especially unique and protected from harm
The significant binge eating followed by remorse but do not purge or fast is called?
binge eating disorder
biological changes in the chemical, structural, or genetic explanations to explain the cause of abnormality is called what kind of explanation?
biological
When an individual is treated with biological or medical methods to relieve symptoms, what kind ofin?therapy are they n
biomedical therapy
severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes (manic: having the quality of excessive excitement, energy, and elation or irritability) is contributed to what kind of mood disorder?
bipolar disorder
Antagonist
blocks original message that neurotransmitter was supposed to send -- Some drugs act by affecting the amount of neurotransmitter available at the synapse
The maladaptive personality pattern in which the person is moody and unstable, lacks a clear sense of identity, and often clings to others is called?
borderline personality disorder
biological psychology (or behavioral neuroscience)
branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning
Dendrite
branching arms (like a tree) receive info/messages from other cells/dendrites
Echoic Memory
brief memory of something a person has heard, auditory memory; -- last about 4 sec. and is lost by masking -- Capacity: limited to what can be heard at any one moment and is smaller than the capacity of iconic memory, although it lasts longer. -- helps people remember what others say long enough to recognize the meaning of the phrase
Microsleeps
brief periods of sleep that last only a few seconds
The condition in which a person develops a cycle of "binging," or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain is called?
bulimia nervosa
Ben saw 3 young black kids at the side of the interstate and decided not to call 911. What factors might have influenced his decision to not call?
bystander effect
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
can be reinforced based on how much time has passed or oh how many responses you gave, interval, ratio, fixed, and variable
The prolonged fixed rigid lack of movement is called?
catatonia
The type of schizophrenia in which the person experiences periods of statue-like immobility mixed with occasional bursts of energetic, frantic movement and talking is called?
catatonic
Soma
cell ody
Evaluative Conditioning
changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli EX: Commercial PowerAde with MJ and then natural response, then PowerAde makes us happy alone
Consolidation (long-term potentiation)
changes that takes place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed, from special cell that make up your NS • long‐term potentiation: changes in number and sensitivity of receptor sites/synapses through repeated stimulation
compliance
changing one's behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change
** Ex: FBA
chis behavior were motivated by negative reinforcement of escape, Arlene's behaviors were motivate by positive reinforcement of access to staff attention, and Felix behaviors were motivated by automatic positive reinforcement of sensory consequences produced by behaviors
Stimulus substitution (Pavlov)
classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together -- CS substituting for US through pairing
Stereotypes are _______/_______ part of prejudice attitude.
cognitions/beliefs
The irrational beliefs and illogical patterns of thought that are used to explain abnormality is called?
cognitive
Fatal familial insomnia
involuntary sleep deprivation, can't get any longs hours of sleep and will maybe die because of it,
Conditioned taste aversion
involves the development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste b/c if was followed by a nausea reaction occurring after only 1 association
Learning
is any relatively permanent/ durable change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is brought about by experience or practice.
Sally enjoys solving puzzles and reading about the brain. She is most likely a.....
cognitive psychologist
Cross‐sequential
combination of both cross-sectional & longitudinal developmental research designs. Start cross-sectional with at least two groups and have longitudinal follow‐up.
The relationship between metabolic rate, calories consumed, and weight is very ______
complex
Hierarchy
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories, once people are experts
low-ball effect
compliance technique when people are offered a deal with an unattractive detail, most will refuse it. However, if the same unattractive detail is introduced after the deal is made, considerably fewer then refuse it. -- getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment
door-in-the-face techinique
compliance technique where a reasonably large request refused will increase the likelihood of a smaller related request being accepted. -- asking for a large commitment and then, after being refused, asking for a smaller commitment
foot-in-the-door-technique
compliance technique where people who comply with a small meaningful request are considerably more likely to agree to a big request later. -- asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment
Natural concepts
concepts formed as a result of people's experience in the real world o Most concepts we form. Defined by a general set of features, not all of which must be present for an object to be considered a member of the concept. EX: birds, fruits, (whale as a fish but is a mammal, a vegetable?)
Formal concepts
concepts formed by learning the specific rules or features that define it o Many acquired in school. Each member of the concept meets all the rules (or has all the defining properties), and no nonmember does. EX: A square -- 4 same sides & 4 equal angles
Pavlov SG
conditioned the dog's salivation, CR, by using miniature vibrators, CS, to the thigh, the closer the better response
Retrograde amnesia
is lost memory from the point injury backwards, the consolidation process, was busy making the physical changes to allow new memories to be stored, got disrupted and lost everything that was not already nearly finished EX: head injury often are unable to recall the accident itself, or hours or days before the accident • Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past.
Intelligence
is the ability to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, and use resources in adapting to new situations or solving problems -- research studies, it is whatever the tests measure
Creativity
is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable -- correlates to a moderate degree with intelligence, solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in in new ways
Classical Conditioning aims...
is to create a new behavioral response to a stimulus that did not normally produce it 2. Involves learning involuntary behavior 3. Antecedent stimuli important in forming an association expectancy develops that the US follows the CS
Operant Conditioning aims...
is to increase or decrease an already occurring behavior, 2. Involves learning of voluntary behavior, Consequences important in forming association expectancy develops for what will follow a behavior Ex: reinforce, punisher
Latent learning
is when an organism learns something, but the knowledge is not immediately expressed, -- learning remains dormant or hidden, and may not be available to consciousness until specific events required this knowledge to be demonstrated or until reinforcement for demonstrating this knowledge is present, learning happens without reinforcement, no operant conditioning ex: a child has seen a lot of different tables set, but does not act on leaning until he finds out this is a chore he can do for an award
How do genes interact with the environment?
it can influence traits, which affect responses the environment can affect gene activity
Continuity
items that continue a pattern or direction tend to be grouped together as part of a pattern [ shape constancy ? ]
Storage
keeping it in -- holding onto information for some period of time
What is the symbolic or hidden meaning of dreams?
latent content
Behaviorists explain abnormal behavior as what?
learned behavior
Classical Conditioning (4)
learned to elicit an involuntary or reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): unlearned, innate • Unconditioned response (UCR): automatic and involuntary • Conditioned stimulus (CS): learned (starts off as neutral) • Conditioned response (CR): learned (not as strong as UCR)
Observable learning
learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior, higher animals, especially humans, through observing, then imitating a model perform that behavior
Conditioned emotional response
learning phobia: an example of classical conditioning in which the Unconditioned Response is an emotional response, like fear. • The CS, like a neutral bell, becomes associated with a fearful CR. (AKA Fear conditioning) • may lead to phobias—irrational fear responses.
Interference Theory, forgetting (2 types)
learning some info may disrupt retrieval of other info. • Proactive‐old interferes with new • Retroactive‐new interferes with old
Psilocybin
linked to psychiatric disorder, hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder
Delta waves
long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep
Anterograde amnesia
loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward, have difficulty remembering anything new, harder to form new information EX: looking at data your your open computer window, attending to it, you can access it, but soon as you close that window, stop thinking about it, the info is lost, because it never transferred to long term memory • Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long‐term memories.
Decay
loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used, for sensory memory and short term memory
In low-prejudice groups, what usually is the trend before and after discussion?
low prejudice before discussion. decrease in prejudice after discussion
Fixed ratio and fixed interval
lower resistance to extinction
What is the tendency to interpret situations as far more dangerous, harmful, or important than they actually are called?
magnification
Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine
mainly excitatory -- involved in arousal and mood
severe depression that comes on suddenly and seems to have no external cause is called?
major depression
anything that does not allow a person to function within or adapt to the stresses and everyday demands of life is called?
maladaptive
What is the actual content of one's dream called?
manifest content
Define: Information Processing Model
mechanics of how different information is processed through different stages (/systems) of memory - how memory works -- the most comprehensive and perhaps been the most influential over the last several decades -- storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in 3 stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval
State-dependent learning
memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state EX: fighting with someone it is easier to remember all of the bad things that person has done than to remember the good things,
** Creation of localized neural circuits
memories may create unique, useable pathways in the brain along which signals flow
Recall
memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues" to help pull the desired info from memory EX: recall and name all 7 dwarfs, essay, short answer, fill in the blank test
Mental Imagery
mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture like quality
Experimenter Effect (Way to Minimize)
experimenter's expectations can unintentionally influence the results of a study • Double blind study
Semantic memory
facts, general knowledge, relatively permanent, but can lose access, EX: language and formal education learned • Semantic memory: declarative memory containing general knowledge
Justice
fair treatment • Selection of research participants
Benzodiazepines minor tranquilizers
mild depressant effect that can lower anxiety and reduce feelings of stress EX: (Xanax, Ativan, Valium)
Ebbinghaus
first researcher to study forgetting, created list of nonsense syllables, Curve of forgetting and then distributed practice
Sensory Memory
first stage of memory, system in which info. From our senses enters the nervous system through the systems: eyes, ears, and so on, info. Also encoded into this as neural messages in the nervous system • Holds information from the senses for a very brief duration • Each sense has a sensory memory associated with it
The lack of emotional responsiveness is called?
flat affect
Behavioral Genetics
focuses on nature vs. nurture • Twin studies • Other designs
Irrelevant Information
focusing on irrelevant information
Principles of Test Construction
for a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill three criteria: - Standardization - Reliability - Validity
Ganglion Cells
form the optic nerve
Jack is learning to understand algebra. He loves to discuss philosophical issues with his friends, and is exploring various religious beliefs. Jack is in Jean Piaget's __________ stage.
formal operational
Reticular
formation, alertness, attention, activation system
impression formation
forming of the first knowledge a person has about another person
What feature of psychonalysis allows patients to talk about anything that comes into mind without fear of negative evaluation?
free association
Marijuana
mild hallucinogen with the active ingredient, THC • Most commonly used illegal drug • Endocannabinoids are chemicals play a role in regulating pleasure, memory, thinking, concentration, movement, coordination, sensory and time perception, appetite, and pain • Marijuana compounds (e.g., THC) act on receptors for cannabinoids
Barbiturates major tranquilizers
mild sleepiness to sedative to coma
the tendency to give little or no importance to one's successes or positive events and traits is called?
minimization
Parallel Distributed Processing Model (Explain)
model in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections, portions of networks activate simultaneously in the creation and storage info. Not in a sequential step by step, memory exist in a network and new info. -- LTM is organized in terms of related meanings and concepts
Levels-of-Processing Model
model of memory that assumes info. That is more deeply processed or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound of physical characteristics of the words or words, it will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time
Semantic Network Model
model of memory that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion with concepts that are related to each other stored physically near each other in the brain, explains different response times in accessing specific information EX: a canary is a bird, Fish has fins and gills, all animals
Cognitive perspective (Rescorla)
modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy (a prediction) about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus • Tone onset and shock vs. tone ending and shock -- an expectancy about the approach of US is adaptive because it helps us prepare for the future
Free Radical Theory
molecules with an unpaired electron, created as a by-product of various biological processes, damage cell structures.
major depression, bipolar disorder and SAD fall into what kind of disorder?
mood disorder
Depression, mania, and bipolar disorders are classified as what?
mood disorders
disorders in which mood is severely disturbed are called?
mood disorders
Alcohol
most commonly used & abused depressant that reduces inhibitions, leads to Alcohol Syndromes -- makes falling asleep faster, but disrupted sleep later in the sleep cycle, REMsleep • 23% of Americans report binge drinking in the past month. • 42.2% of college students report binge drinking in the past month. • Nearly 1⁄4 of all fatal car crashes for those above 21 years of age involve alcohol
** Superordinate
most general form or highest in status or a type of concept, ex: fruit
Medulla
most inferior; heartbeat, breathing, swallowing; basic functions
Explain how there is no single stream of consciousness.
multiple channels each handle its own tasks—people must organize their conscious experience
Descriptive Methods
naturalistic observation laboratory observation case study surveys
Everyone says 'oxblood' is the new color for Fall so you run out and buy a new oxblood moto jacket. This is an example of:
conformity
Potential issues with Experiments
confounds demand characteristics placebo effect experimenter effect
Define: Parallel Distributed Processing Model
connections and timing of memory processes -simultaneous processing of information across multiple neural networks, -- Artificial intelligence, related to connectionism: use of AL networks to explain the mental abilities of humans
Reliability
consistency -- A test is reliable when it yields consistent results each time it is given to the same individual or group of people, same scores again and again to the same people
Microsaccades
constant movement of the eyes; tiny little vibrations that people do not notice consciously; prevents sensory adaptation to visual stimuli.
** Neurogensis
constantly occurring in the hippocampus, formation of new neurons which contributes to sculpting of neural circuits that underlie and timestamp memory
Parietal
contain the somatosensory cortex: area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes; responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position
Temporal
contains -- primary auditory cortex - processes auditory info from the ears -- Auditory association cortex - interprets or makes sense of auditory information -- Some parts responsible for aspects of language
Substance abuse
continued use of a substance after several episodes in which use of the substance has negatively affected an individual's work, education, and social relationships
Schedules of Reinforcements
continuous partial
What kind of symptoms do people who have chronic schizophrenia demonstrate?
negative symptoms
Mirror Neurons
neuroscientists have discovered neurons in the brain of animals and humans that activate during observational learning
Gustatory transduction
conversion of food molecules into neural impulses
Imaginary Audience
convinced that everyone is paying attention to them
the need to consider the unique characteristics of the culture in which behavior takes place is called?
cultural relativity
Disorders found only in particular cultures are called?
culture-bound syndromes
The false beliefs that may accompany psychotic disorders are called?
delusions
Korsakoff's syndrome
dementia caused by vitamin B1 deficiency, inability to form new memories, memory loss, confabulation, hallucinations, negative physical effects, Progressive: can be fatal without treatment, but is Preventable
When a person is needy and wants others to make decisions for them, what kind of personality disorder do they have?
dependent
The dissociative disorder in which sufferers feel detached and disconnected from themselves, their bodies, and their surroundings is called?
depersonalization disorder
Research Methods of Psychology
descriptive methods (4) correlations experiments
Token Economy
desired behavior rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for something individual wants
Intellectual Theories (Controversy ?)
despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of intelligence, there is one large controversy: is it single overall ability OR several specific abilities
Volume (Loudness)
determined by amplitude (softer vs louder) -- Measured in decibels (dB)
Pitch (Frequency)
determined by the wavelength or frequency. (low, medium, high) -- measured in hertz (Hz) = wave cycles per second
David Wechsler
developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) {different age groups test}
Cross‐sectional
developmental research design where different participants of various ages studied at one point in time
Longitudinal
developmental research design where same participants studied at multiple time points
Volley Priciple
diff. frequencies cause the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, or take turns in firing. high-low pitch
** Means End Analysis
difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference EX: want certain kind of invitations for wedding, so took steps to try to match hers with the premade ones
A person fails to take responsibility for actions or for inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen to share the responsibility This is what kind of effect?
diffusion of responsibillity
What kind of therapy involves the therapist to be active?
directive
The type of schizophrenia in which behavior is bizarre and childish and thinking, speech, and motor actions are very disordered is called?
disorganized
Which type of schizophrenia is associated with frequent hallucinations, inappropriate affect, and disorganization in speech?
disorganized
I am teaching class and clearly in a bad mood. Ben thinks "this woman is a bad teacher with a crappy personality" and Andy thinks "maybe she's having a bad day and her roommate gave her a hard time this morning". Ben thinks of a ________cause and Andy thinks of a _________cause.
dispositional, situational
Shortly after killing a child while driving under the influence of alcohol, Jimmy unexpectedly wandered away from home. He was found several towns from his residence, was malnourished and taken to a local hospital. When the doctors asked his name, Jimmy did not know. It is likely that Jimmy has what type of disorder?
dissociative amnesia
The loss of memory for personal information, either partial or complete is what kind of dissociatve disorder?
dissociative amnesia
Dissociative amnesia, dissociative fuge, and depersonalization disorder are which type of disorder?
dissociative disorders
traveling away from familiar surroundings with amnesia for the trip and possible amnesia for personal information is what kind of dissociative disorder?
dissociative fugue
The disorder occurring when a person seems to have two or more distinct personalities within one body is called?
dissociative identity disorder (DID):
Spacing effect
distributed practice, tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it repeatedly than if we practice it in one large session
What are the four featuers of psychoanalysis?
dream interpretation free association resistance transference
Teratogens
drugs, chemicals, or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus.
Information loss
due to decay within a second or so
If you've chosen to buy a fair-trade product from Body Shop because the packaging was so on trend you've most likely engaged in ____________________.
peripheral route processing
disorders in which a person adopts a persistent, rigid, and maladaptive pattern of behavior that interferes with normal social interactions are called?
personality disorder
Flynn Effect
phenomenon where in the past 60 years intelligence scores have steadily risen by an average of 27 points -- The effect is 1/3 point increase per year, about 3 points per decade
an irrational, persistent fear of an object, situation, or social activity is called? **Can be social phobia or specific phobias
phobias
Conditioned emotional responses
phobias are referred to as it, Watson's experiment on little Albert suggests that phobias might be learned through pairing a neutral or harmless stimulus with an unconditionally frightening event, thus causing the person to associate fear with the harmless stimulus, ex: pic on phone
Intermediate processing
phonemic encoding what a word sounds like
Memory Trace Theory
physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed • decay: loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used • disuse: another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear • memories recalled after many years are not explained by memory trace theory
** proximity
physical or geographical nearness
Hippocampus
plays vital role in learning and memory (for facts/knowledge) •Acetylcholine
Attitudes are often _________ of behavior unless the attitude is very specific or very strong.
poor predictors
The positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crisis is called?
post-traumatic growth
Maintenance Rehearsal
practice of saying some info to be remebered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in STM, content can be held or stored in STM -- Information loss occurs when (a) rehearsal stops, or (b) amount of information to be held exceeds capacity of STM o (STMs tend to be encoded in auditory form) o Interaction between working‐memory and STM (Using it so you don't lose it)
What are the postive symptoms of schizophrenia?
presence of inappropriate behavior; hallucinations, delusions, inappropriate thinking & behavior and disorganized speech.
Proactive interference
previously learned information interferes with the leaning new information, driving on right side of road, then have to learn how to drive on left side of road • memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information, old interferes with new
** Amygdala
probable location for emotional associations ex: fear
Missing a single night of sleep causes...
problems with concentration and simple task performance
The cerebellum is associated with ______ memories
procedural (implicit memories) • After being processed in the motor cortex, procedural memories appear to be stored in the cerebellum. (which is where learned movements are storedz)
Decision Making
process of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
Chunking
process of recording or reorganizing the info. organizing items into familiar manageable unit, or acronyms like OCEAN EX: a phone number in 3 parts instead of 10 separate bits of info.
Evidence of Cognitive
processes during operant learning, this evidence comes from rats during maze exploration, rats seem to develop cognitive maps or mental representation, by Tolman • Edward Tolman's experiments demonstrated latent learning, learning that is not immediately acted upon or expressed
The insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts is called?
psychoanalysis
When abnormality explanation is explained through repressed conflicts and urges that are fighting to become conscious?
psychoanalytic
The newer and more general term for therapies based on psychoanalysis, with an emphasis on transference, shorter treatment times, and a more direct therapeutic approach is called?
psychodynamic therapy
Conceptual Difficulties
psychologist believe that intelligence is a concept and not a "thing" -- When we think of intelligence as a trait (like height or hair color) we commit to an error called reification
any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life are categorized as?
psychologival disorders
The study of abnormal behavior is?
psychopathology
When an individual talks with a psychological professional, what kind of therapy are they in?
psychotherapy
Encoding
putting it in -- process of transforming information into stored memory, a form that can be used in the brain's storage systems EX: hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve
Random Assignment
randomly assigning participants to experimental or control group -- minimizes pre‐existing differences between the two groups -- gives each study participant an equal chance of being in the treatment or the control group
Acute schizophrenia develops ________ and recovery is ______.
rapidly, and better
** Which theory states that conflict between groups increases prejudice and discrimination?
realistic conflict theory
Bipolar Cells
receive messages from photoreceptors and transmit them to ganglion cells, which form the optic nerve
Retrieval steps
recovering it from memory stores,
Stereotype Threat
reduces the performance of individuals who belong to negatively stereotyped groups
Disuse
referring to LTM decay, use it or lose it, memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear, many factor must be involved tho,
Pragmatics
reflect practical aspects of communicating with others, or social niceties of language • Taking turns, talking to a friend vs. a parent... • Involves: Intonation (aka rhythm and emphasis) EX: how to take turns in a convo.
when the therapist restates what the client says rather than interpreting those statements, they are demonstrating which person-centered therapy element?
reflection
What are the four elements of person-centered therapy?
reflection unconditional postive regard empathy authenticity
Pancreas
regulates blood sugar
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcement of each and every correct responses will be more resistant to extinciton later on, reinforcing the desired response watch time it occurs, results in fast acquisition in the beginning, but less resistant to extinction later on, ex: gives dollar every night
Variable-ratio schedule
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of, non-reinforced, responses, the number of response to reinforcement changes from one trail to the next, hard to extinguish because of unpredictability, Produces high, steady rate of responding, no rest breaks following reinforcement because of unpredictability EX: gambling
Fixed-interval schedule
reinforces a response only after an interval of time has elapsed, always the same produces "scalloped" responding- an increased in responding as the reinforcement draws near and then back down EX: receive a paycheck once a week
Partial (Intermitten) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only some of the time, results in slower acquisition in the beginning, but shows greater resistance to extinction later on, ex: gives dollar every week
Negative
removing something
Wear-and-Tear Theory
repeated use and abuse of the body's tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage
Retroactive interference
new info interferes with accessing old information, using Mac book, then interferes with how I used to use a PC • memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information, new interferes with old
Are psychological disorders very common?
no they are statistically rare
What kind of therapy involves the therapists just being a neutral listener?
nondirective
Reasons for Conformity (2)
normative social influence informational social influence
Effortful Processing
novel information committed to memory requires effort, like learning a concept from a text
Chromosomal Disorders (3)
o Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21) o Klinefelter's syndrome (23rd pair is XXY) o Turner's syndrome (23rd pair missing an X)
Glia
o White Matter (More FATTY cells) o 90% of cells in nervous system o Supportive role: nutrients, repair damage, form myelin, get rid of waste...
Similarity
objects that are of a similar color, size, or shape are usually perceived as part of a pattern [ shape constancy ? ]
Memory
observer must be able to retain memory of what was done, may not have the occasion to use an observed behavior right away, therefore, must store a mental representation of it including steps,
Attention
observer must pay attention to the model's behavior and its consequences,
Classical Conditioning learning
occurs by the association between stimuli in our environment, mind naturally connect stimuli in sequence, if one precedes another we can learn to associate one event with other
Immediate Reinforcer
occurs closely to a behavior in time, Rat gets a food pallet immediately following pressing a bar
Higher order conditioning
occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the new neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus ex: finger snapped with sound of metronome before food, then only the finger will be that CS EX: dog, food, bell, snap makes saliva experiment
Stimulus Discrimination
occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus • tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the orginal conditioned stimulus because the similar one is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus EX: Your dog discriminates your car from others, only getting excited when your car pulls up the drive way
** Heritable of Intelligence
often thought of as our inherent potential for learning, about 50%, but doesn't mean that a specific individual's intelligence is 50% inherited, is only an average of group
Lesion Studies
only used in animal research -- electrical current strong enough to kill of the target neurons sent through the tip of a wire which is inserted into the brain
Shaping
operant conditioning procedure is which reinforces guide behavior closer towards the target behavior, ultimate goal, through successive approximations EX: rat shaped to search for landmines -- • The reinforcement of simple steps in behavior through successive approximations that lead to a desired, more complex behavior
** Schemas
organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event formed from previous experience with the object or event
Conditioned Stimulus
originally a neural stimulus that, it becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by after association or pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a condition response, black laundray on women, knocking to cue something, ex: dish with dog food is affective now
Our attitudes affect our ______ and vice versa.
our attitudes affect our actions our actions affect our attitutde
the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure is called?
overgeneralization
The sudden onset of intense panic in which multiple physical symptoms of stress occur, often with feelings that one is dying is called?
panic attack
The disorder in which panic attacks occur frequently enough to cause the person difficulty in adjusting to daily life is called?
panic disorder
The type of schizophrenia in which the person suffers from delusions of persecution, grandeur, and jealousy, together with hallucinations is called?
paranoid
The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions:
parasympathetic division -- maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy sympathetic division -- prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress
Hypothalamus (2 Types)
part of the brain that plays role in hunger by responding to levels of glucose and insulin in the body • Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) • Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
Orbital Frontal Cortex (OFC)
part of the brain's activity reflects taste and smell of food ... More pleasant=more activity ... Satiety=less activity
Demand Characteristics (Way to Minimize)
participants change their behavior based on what they perceive the experiment to be about • Deception
Psychoanalytic explanations point to _______ _______ and ______ that are trying to come into conscious as the cause of anxiety disorders
repressed urges and desires
Psychoanalytic explanations point to what as the cause of dissociative disorder?
repression of memories, seeing dissociation as a defense mechanism against anxiety.
Practical Intelligence
required to use information to get along in life; person adapts to environment, changes, or selects a new one so can succeed EX: street smarts
Encoding steps
requires attention, 3 storage systems of memory, SM: neural messages, ST: rehearsed over and over to keep in memory, LT -- elaborative rehearsal
When a patient becomes reluctant to talk about a certain topic, they are displaying what?
resistance
Non-REM sleep
restful sleep Voluntary muscles are not paralyzed (can move around in bed and kick)
Intonation
rhythm and emphasis to use when communicating with others EX: 1) Right?? 2) Right!!! and 3) Righttttt
Closure
people are inclined to overlook incompleteness in sensory information and to perceive a whole object even where none really exists [ shape constancy ? ]
Social-Cognitive Theory (Evidence)
people who are hypnotized are not in an altered state of consciousness but are playing the role expected of them in the situation, does NOT mean they are "faking it" even the participants themselves are unaware that they are playing a role Evidence • Playing an expected role, social role. Participants 'unaware' of role playing • "An authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people‐hypnotized or not‐to perform some unlikely acts." (Milgram, 1974)
Blind observers
people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias)
** Abuse recovered
people who report recovered memories of abuse seem to fall into two different categories
Storage steps
period of time will depend on the memory system being used, SM: <1-4 seconds, ST: about 20 seconds, LT: more/less permanently
Reinforcement
strengthening behavior
The explanation of disorder that assumes a biological sensitivity, or vulnerability, to a certain disorder that will develop under the right conditions of environmental or emotional stress is called?
stress-vulnerability model
Shallow processing
structural encoding, emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus, An approach to memorization that involves focusing on the superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the typeface in which it's printed
Amotional distress or emotional pain is also known as?
subjective discomfort
Abnormal behavior is chracterized by?
subjective discomfort, maladaptive traits
Experimental Group
subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the IV
Subliminal Stimuli
subliminal or "below threshold stimuli" are those just strong enough for our sensory receptors to pick them up, but not strong enough for us to be able to detect them
Insight
sudden perception of a solution to a problem, suddenly comes to mind EX: an "aha!" moment
Insight Learning
sudden understanding of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly, determined that it couldnt be gained throuh trial and error learning alone ex: eureka a previously unsolvable puzzle suddenly becomes clear and obvious, monkey used water as a tool to get treat, by Kohler's Smart Chimpanzess
Place Theory
suggests that different sound waves stimulate the basilar membrane at different and specific places resulting in perceived pitch. high pitch
Semantics
rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences derived from morpheme EX: adding -ed (a morpheme) to the word laugh means it happened in the past MIND: "I don't *mind*." vs. "*Mind* your manners." vs. "He lost his mind." READ: "Loving to *read*, the girl *read* three books last week."
Loners who are cool, distant, and unwillling and unable to form close relatioships with others have what type of personality disorder?
schizoid
What is the severe disorder that accounts for hald of the admissions to mental hospitals?
schizophrenia
People who have difficulty forming relationships, engage in odd and eccentric behavior and tend to hold magical beliefs have what kind of personaloty disorder?
schizotypal
Long-Term Stability of IQ (Stable Intelligence)
scores become stable after about seven years of age (Angoff, 1988; Deary et al., 2004)
Testes and Ovaries
secret sex hormones such as testosterone or estrogen
STM and Declarative
semantic and episodic, new memories likely consolidated in hippocampal region, then stored in different areas of the cortex including the frontal and temporal lobes,
Olfactory Receptors
send neural signals related to smell directly up to the olfactory bulbs
Information Processing Model includes 3 stages:
sensory short term memory long term memory
Others Factors related to sleep include:
serotonin body temperature Adenosine
** Impact of Environment
several studies indicate that IQ scores are not fixed but can be modified with an enriched environment, Adoption and Early intervention
Cognitive theorists see schizophrenia as?
severely irrationial thinking
Sexual desire disorders and paraphilias are classified as what?
sexual and gender identity disorders
Bahrick (1984)
showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retention of Spanish over longer durations, up to 50 years
the social or environmental setting of a person's behavior is called?
situational context
Narcolepsy REM
sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day with out warning • Slip into REM sleep during the day or fall asleep due to excessive sleepiness • Also problematic is the issue of cataplexy: loss of muscle tone; REM paralysis too
Adaptive Theory of Sleep - Define - Explains what - Evidence
sleep is a product of evolution, animals and humans evolved different patterns to avoid being present during their predators' normal hunting times, we want to stay safe from predators -- Explains: why we sleep when we sleep -- Evidence: Relationship b/w amount of time particular animal's sleep and status on the food chain, to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active, when we do
Restorative Theory of Sleep - Define - Explains what - Evidence
sleep is necessary for physical health -- Explains: why we sleep in general -- Evidence: most bodily growth and celluar repair occur at night in deepest stages of sleep, why we need to
Serotonin
sleep regulation -- Levels increase throughout day, associated with sleepiness
Chronic schizophrenia is ______ to develop and recovery is _______.
slow, doubtful
Why does group polarization happen?
social comparison and informational social influence
When you run harder with your running group this is an example of ___________ but when you couldn't give a crap about your group project for Chem lab this is an example of____________.
social facilitation, social loafing
Social Interaction
social interactions with others, or the positive or negative relationships between people; how we interact with others
The fear of interacting with others or being in social situations that might lead to a negative evaluation is called?
social phobia
Prosocial behavior
socially desirable behavior that benefits others
Hypochondiasis and conversion disorder are classified as what?
somatoform disorders
Meta‐analysis
special type of quantitative review of a research literature
The fear of objects or specific situations or events is called?
specific phobia
Altered State of Consciousness
state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity (as compared to walking consciousness) EX: daydreaming, hypnotic state, meditative state, increased alertness, divided attention, and sleep, drugs, alcohol
Walking Consciousness
state in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized, and the person feels alert
Hypnosis
state of consciousness in which a person is especially susceptible to suggestion, * has four elements
Social categorization can lead to what?
stereotype
Nightmare
takes place during REM sleep, and people usually remember theirs,
Define: Drug Tolerance Withdrawal
• Drug Tolerance ‐ A person finds they need larger and larger doses of the drug to feel the same effect that they received the first time they used. • Withdrawal ‐ Symptoms begin to occur when lack of the drug is present. Body is adjusting to the absence of the drug.
In Erikson's Human Development Stages, • Each stage ______ • and has Identity to ______
• Each stage contributes to the next • Identity to relationships
Elements of Emotion (2)
• Facial expressions -- seems to be universal, can vary across different cultures -- display rules • Labeling Emotion -- Interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label
William James
• Functionalism:
Aggression Hypothesis: How did Konrad Lorenz see aggression?
• HYPOTHESIS: Aggression is a reaction to Frustration • Konrad Lorenz saw aggression as an instinct for fighting to promote the survival of our species
Explain when and what was the shift of focus for psychologists
• In the early days of learning, researchers' focus was on behavior. • In the 1950s—and more intensely in the 1960s—many psychologists were becoming aware that cognition, the mental events that take place inside a person's mind while behaving, could no longer be ignored (early 1980's increasing focus on function of behavior rather than simply form of behavior what it looks like)
Genes: Our Codes for Life How many chromosomes are in a cell and explain the different pairs
• In the nucleus of each cell are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) containing DNA. • 22 of the pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both males and females • 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females. Females have 2 copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.
Activation‐Information‐Mode Model
• Information gathered while awake can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams
Neuropsychologists give tests that assess domains such as:
• Intelligence • Language • Memory • Judgment and decision making ~ Gives Diagnosis, feedback/recommendations, treatment
Typically lost Short term memory How long does STM last?
• LOST: memory seems to rapidly decay or disappear, to remember new memories, old ones must be erased by formation of newly formed neurons, rehearsal loss or amount held exceeds capacity of STM • LASTS: about 12-30 seconds without rehearsal, susceptible to interference.
Criticisms of Maslow's Hierarchy: (3)
• Little scientific support • Some 'self‐actualized' may have forgone some of the basic needs • Not true in all cultures
What does the correlation coefficient represent?
• Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: • the direction of the relationship (sign) • the strength of the relationship (number) • Range: ‐1 to +1 -- The closer to 1 OR ‐1 the stronger the relationship. -- The closer to 0 the weaker the relationship • Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable.
Psychiatrists
• Medical degree/medical specialty •Psychiatrists go to medical school and then specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders • Often uses medication as treatment -- Psychiatric Social Worker: trained in the area of social work and usually possesses a master's degree in that discipline (focus more on environmental conditions that have impacted mental disorders, like poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse)
Describe how people think: (3)
• Mental Imagery • Concepts • Problem Solving and Decision making
Important Note: A single study is limited in the information it provides. It is needed for what 2 studies:
• Need for replication studies • Need for studies testing alternate hypotheses
Compare night terrors to nightmares
• Nightmare takes place during REM sleep • Night terror takes place during non‐REM sleep (so children can thrash about) • People usually remember their nightmares whereas they don't usually remember night terrors
****** Psychological Science at Work: Mozart Effect
• Numerous attempts at replicating the effect, often unsuccessful • Attempts to look at the duration of the effect • Attempts looking at the effect of other types of music • -- Arousal and pleasantness?
Describe the various types of drugs and how they alter consciousness
• Out in nature vs. created in the lab • Effects on the brain and the rest of the body • Many drugs currently illegal used to be legal • Many drugs make people feel really good (Neural basis) • Many drugs make people feel so good their life revolves around the drug • Quitting drugs can make people feel really bad (Neural basis)
Visual Perception
• Perception -- The method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion
4 Elements of Hypnosis
• Person told to focus on what is being said • Person told to relax and feel tired • Person told to accept suggestions • Person told to use vivid imagination
Explain how all 3 theories of hearing & pitch perception are correct...
• Place theory best explains how we perceive high-pitched sounds (>1000Hz), and • Frequency theory best explains how we perceive low-pitched sounds (<1000Hz) • Volley theory best explains how we perceive moderate to high pitches, between 40 Hz to about 4000 Hz.
Sampling
• Population: entire group of people or animals the researchers is interested in • Representative sample: randomly selected sample of subjects for a larger population EX: Wanting to survey US college freshmen about politics, you select a randomly representative sample by selecting a certain # of college freshmen from many different colleges in US
Correlation: Direction
• Positive correlation: variables are related in the same direction -- As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. • Negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction -- As one increases, the other decreases.
Using Reinforcement successfully: OR (Recommendations for a good reinforce):
• Potent reinforcer • Often primary reinforcers • Deliver it immediately after the behavior • Deliver it continuously after the behavior (at least initially) •Reinforce only the desired behavior
7 Modern Perspectives of Pyschology
• Psychodynamic • Behavioral • Humanistic • Cognitive • Sociocultural • Bio-psychological Perspective • Evolutionary Perspective
Babies Physical Development: Motor development:
• Reflexes: a set of innate involuntary behavior patterns o Provide information about health of NS o Grasp, startle, rooting, stepping, sucking
Babies Physical Development: Newborn senses: (3)
• Senses well developed at birth include taste, touch, smell • Hearing functional but not fully developed • Vision is least functional sense at birth
Therapy
• Some psychologists (e.g., school, counseling, clinical) are trained in psychological interventions/therapy. • Some other professions also do psychotherapy, sometimes from specific perspectives: EX: Social workers, marriage and family therapists • Some of these professions require a master's degree (vs. a doctoral degree). • With a few exceptions, psychologists are not allowed to prescribe medication ("pharmacotherapy").
Combing Drugs: Stimulant + Stimulant Depressant + Depressant Various Together
• Stimulant + depressant: impairs ability to tell how intoxicated you are; increased chance of overdose • Depressant + depressant: death (suppresses heart rate/breathing) • Various drugs all together: can result in death
How does classical conditioning work?
• Stimulus substitution (Pavlov) • Cognitive perspective (Rescorla) ( & Biological preparedness )
Edward Titchener
• Student of Wundt, translated many of Wundt's works into English • *Structuralism* - Study consciousness by trying to understand its smallest, most basic elements • Introspection of thoughts as well as physical objects
Animals & Language
• Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas. • Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.
Case Study (Descriptive Method) Advantage: Limitation:
• Study of one individual in great detail Advantage: ◦ Tremendous amount of detail ◦ Rich source for hypothesis generation Limitation: ◦ Findings may not generalize to others
Extinction Burst
• Sudden and temporary increase in behavior that was previously reinforced at the beginning of extinction • Can also result in aggressive behavior or other attempts to obtain the reinforcer
Naturalistic Observation (Descriptive Method) Advantage: Limitations & Ways to Minimize:
• Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment Advantage: realistic picture of behavior Limitations and Ways of Minimizing: ◦ Observer effect [behave different knowing being observed] -- Participant observation (observer part of the observed group, reduces observer effect) ◦ Observer bias [see what expected to see] -- Blind observers (don't know research question, reduces observer bias) ◦ Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold.
Amygdala
• a complex structure with many different nuclei and subdivisions, whose roles have been investigated primarily through studies of fear conditioning • emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala by both a fast, crude "low road" (subcortical) and a slower but more involved cortical "high road"
Alzheimer's Disease
• anterograde amnesia is primary memory difficulty • retrograde amnesia can also occur as the disease progresses • procedural memory generally intact
Dominant vs. Recessive Genes
• dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait • recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene
What did Researchers Latané and Darley find out about the bystander effect?
• found that people who were alone were more likely to help in an emergency than people who were with others • One bystander cannot diffuse responsibility
Fetal alcohol syndrome
• intellectual disability and physical, facial deformity • Affects cognitive functioning, speech, movement, social skills • Decreased muscle tone and poor coordination • Heart problems but is preventable
Constructive processing
• memory retrieval process in which memories are "built," or reconstructed, from the past from information stored during encoding • with each retrieval, memories may be altered, revised, or influenced by newer information (NOT a mental videotape) { LTM is a constructive process }
Five steps in making a decision to help: (Diffusion of Responsibility)
• noticing • defining an emergency • taking responsibility • planning a course of action • taking action
Immediate effect of Marijuana
• relaxed, mildly euphoric • some feel anxious, panicky • sensory distortion • depersonalization/de‐realization • distortions in time perception • disruptions in learning and memory • impaired coordination • Increased appetite
Elizabeth Loftus' Research
• showed that what people see and hear about an event after the fact can easily affect the accuracy of their memories of that event • demonstrated that eyewitness testimony is not always reliable (Eyewitness Memory) • Memory is not like a tape recorder
3. Saturation (purity)
• weather or how much mixture of wavelengths
2. Brightness (intensity)
•Amplitude - height of the wave, how high or low wave is
Weber's Law: Example
• Suppose you presented two light bulbs each with an intensity of 100 units to an observer. Then you asked the observer to increase the intensity of one of the light bulbs until it was just noticeably brighter than the other. • If the brightness needed to yield the just noticeable difference was 108 units then the observer's difference threshold would be 8 units (i.e., ΔI = 108 - 100 = 8). • The Weber fraction equivalent for this difference threshold would be .08 (i.e., ΔI/I = 8/100 = .08) • You can now predict the difference threshold needed for a light bulb of any other intensity value
Applications of Classical Conditioning
• Systematic Desensitization • Aversion therapy Evaluative conditioning, Conditioned emotional, Conditioned taste aversion, and Vicarious Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
• Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to CS with the CR (EX: person afraid of dentist drill get scared by any drill noise) • What we learn in one specific situation or with one specific stimulus carries over, or transfers, to a different situation or stimulus • The more similar the new stimulus is to the original CS, the greater the likelihood of generalization. • Examples: Little Albert, bell and snap of finger
High Intelligence
tend to be healthy, socially well adjusted, and have high academic and vocational success, but it does not guarantee these things; they are significantly different and have IQ 135 or above { EX: Terman's termites & William Shockley }
Automatic processing
tendecy of certain kinds of info. to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding, *unconscious encoding* of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings EX: flashbulb memory
Encoding specificity
tendency for memory of any kind of info. to be improved if the physical surroundings available when the memory is being retrieved, as the time of encoding are also context cues EX: goes in room and forget what you had walked in there to do so one would go back to the room they started in to use their surrounding as a cue for remembering
Mental Sets
tendency for people to persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past EX: solutions that worked in past tend to be the ones people try first, and are often hesitant or even unable to think of other possibilities
Biological Preparedness
tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea with only one or few pairings due to survival value of the learning
Observer bias
tendency of observers to see what they expect to see
Observer effect
tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for evidence that supports our preconceptions while ignoring evidence to the contrary EX: people who believe that the they are good multitaskers and can drive safely while texting and driving but don't remember any near missed accidents cause of
Stimulus Generalization in Operant
tendency to view stimuli that are similar as the same cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Ex: child says dada to get attention from father then trys it with every man and gets no attention, at preschool Malcom gets stars for lining up quickly, when he goes to his new school, he lines up quickly, expecting to receive a star
Creative Intelligence
that generate novel ideas/new ways of solving problems, or find creative ways to perform tasks (divergent thinking) EX: find creative new ways to do things
Delayed Reinforcer
that is delayed in time for a certain behavior, a paycheck that comes at the end of a one month period, we may be more inclined to engage in small immediate reinforce, watching TV, that large delayed reinforces, getting A in a course, which requires consistent study, Small reinforcements with shorter time is usually preferable than larger reinforcements with longer time,
Unconditioned Stimulus
that is orgigianl , naturally occuring automatically/naturally triggers a response, no learning, getting hit with pillow ex: dog food
What did Milgram's obedience experiment show?
that personality, time, culture, and place are not a factor in obedience
Emotional Intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand and use emotions (Salovey and colleagues, 2005). 1) Perceive: recognize emotions in faces, music, stories 2) Understand: predict emotions, how they change and blend 3) Manage: express emotions in different situations 4) Use: utilize emotions to adapt or be creative
Bottom Up processing
the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception (normal pyramid, start at large bottom and go up to tip at the top) -- detect specific features of stimulus -- combine specific features into more complex form -- recognize simulus
Behavior modification
the application of operant conditioning, sometimes classical conditioning, techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior EX: token economy, or time out
Mnemonics
the art or practice of improving or of aiding the memory • Effortful • Elaboration • Provides multiple routes to retrieval
autobiographical memory
the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story (usually after age three)
Long term memory (LTM)
the memory system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently, includes general facts and knowledge, person facts and even skill that can be performed. 2 types: Procedural/Nondeclarative (implicit) Declarative Memory (explicit)
** Subordinate
the most specific category or lowest in status of a concept, ex: Granny smith apple
Cerebellum
•Control of involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement; voluntary movements that happen in rapid succession.
Limbic System (HOME)
•Homeostasis (keeps things functioning in normal range e.g. temperature) •Olfaction - smell •Memory •Emotion
Cleaning Synapse
•Neurotransmitters in the synapse are either... (a) reabsorbed into the sending neurons through reuptake (b) diffuse or (c) are broken down by enzymes. These process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action. -- This process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action
Brain Stem
•Part of Central NS that connect the cerebral Consists of: -- medulla -- pons -- reticular formation
Autonomic Nervous System
•Part of the Peripheral N.S. that controls the involuntary muscle, organs, glands -our automatic functions -- has 2 divisions
Somatic Nervous System
•Sensation •Voluntary Muscle movement OR -- sensory pathway: comprises all nerves carrying messages from the senses to the Central NS, containing afferent neurons -- motor pathway: all nerves carrying messages from the Central NS to the voluntary, skeletal smiles of the body, containing efferent neurons
Endocrine System
•The body's "slow" chemical communication system •Communication carried out by hormones
Laboratory Observation (Descriptive Method) Advantages: Limitations:
•Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting Advantages: ◦ Control over environment ◦ Allows use of specialized equipment Limitations: ◦ Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior ◦ Can be difficult to generalize findings to "real world" situations
1. Color (Hue)
•Wavelength - length of wave, distance between wave peaks
schemas
•concepts of frameworks in which we organize and interpret information •Mental concepts that are expanded as child experiences new situations -- Assimilation -- Accommodation
Critiques of Kohlberg (2)
◦ Artificial situations (Reflect actual real-world behavior?) ◦ Sampling issues (Males)
Preconventional morality
◦ first level ◦ child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior, NOT intentions or wider societal code EX: "It is wrong to steal the drug to save your wife because you might get caught." "It is right to steal the drug because people might think you are a hero for saving your wife."
Conventional morality
◦ second level ◦ child's behavior is governed by conforming to society's norms of behavior EX: "It's wrong for Mr. Heinz to steal because it's against the law. Mr. Heinz wants society to approve of his actions, so he doesn't steal the drug." "It's right to steal because Mr. Heinz means well by trying to help his dying wife. He'll pay the druggist the money when he is able, or accept the consequences for stealing the drug."
Postconventional morality
◦ third level ◦ person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual ◦ may disagree with accepted social norms EX: "It's not wrong for Mr. Heinz to steal because human life must be preserved and life is worth more than personal property. " "Heinz should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not make his actions right."
Fixed-ratio schedule
the number of responses required for reinforement is always the same reinforces a response only after a specified number of, non-reinforced, responses, after reinforcement, there is a pause in responding EX: coffee card after certain number of punches get one free, little pause, Post
social role
the pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position (violent TV, movies, and videos are related to aggression)
Thorndike's law of effect
the principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences, behavior having desirable consequences tends to be repeated whereas behaviors that leads to undesirable consequences tends not to be repeated -- that states that "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation."
persuasion & Key Elements (4)
the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation Key Elements: source of the message, the message itself, the target audience, and the medium
Scaffolding
the process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable
social influence
the process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of an individuals -- the ways in which a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior can be affected by others
Frequency Theory
the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch. low pitch
Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished CR when it returns, in a weaker form, when organism is exposed to the original CS after a rest period, if CS persists alone the CR becomes extinct again, bringing the sound back in CC, • After a rest period an extinguished CR spontaneously recovers. If CS persists alone becomes extinct again.
Spontaneous Recovery Classical
the reappearance of an extinguished CR when organism is exposed to the original CS after a period of not being exposed to the CS
Spontaneous Recovery Operant
the reappearance of an extinguished behavior when reinforcement is provided again after a period of no reinforcement, ex: Justin used to ask for candy all the time until Mom stop getting it and then like months later Mom buys it for him and he then again starts to ask everyday
Positive reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a adding a pleasurable stimulus EX: getting a hug or paycheck, the daughter getting the candy from mom, stickers for engaging in boring psychological testing, clickers for attendance
Negative Reinforcing
the removal escape form or advoidance of an unpleasant stimulus EX: stopping the taser is negatively reinforcing for me because removing pain, parent engages behaver to get nagging to stop, addiction to pain killers to remove that negative feeling, mom is negatively reinforced because she brought the candy to stop daughter from crying, taking aspirin for a headache is negatively reinforced: removal of headache!, using drugs when experiencing withdrawal symptoms, cleaning a house to get rid of a mess
Syntax
the rules for ordering words into grammatically correct, sensible sentences EX: In English syntactical rule, adjectives come before nouns; the white house. In Spanish it is reversed; casa blanca (the house white). (Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.??)
Social psychology
the scientific study of how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of others
Note on Overeating: Calories‐in‐Calories‐out VERSUS Good‐calories‐bad‐calories
• The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.... • The body is an open (not isolated) system. • Different process (enzymes, systems, etc.) to metabolize (or not) various macronutrients (carbs, fats, proteins) • More to obesity than overeating & lack of self‐control
Short term memory (STM) (Includes)
• The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used (thing or place into which info. is put) second stage of memory regarding incoming sensory messages important enough to enter consciousness move from sensory memory to this, STM. Includes: -- Working memory system -- Selective Attention -- Rehearsal maintenance rehearsal
Prenatal Development: Embryonic Stage
• The period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which major systems, organs and structures of the body develop. • End of 8 weeks: embryo is about 1‐inch long, weighs about 1/7 of an ounce and has primitive eyes, nose, ears, lips, teeth, little arms and legs, hands, feet, fingers, toes, as well as a beating heart.
Spontaneous recovery...
• The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
Explain how both color vision theories are right...
• The receptors that do the first stage of processing seem to follow the principles outlined in Trichromatic Theory. In later stages of processing, cells in the retina and the brain seem to follow the principles outline in the Opponent Process Theory.
According to James Gross, what cognitive efforts can we use to regulate emotional responses?
• WORKS: Reappraisal (or Distraction) • NO WORK: Suppressing emotions
Circadian Rhythm
the sleep-wake cycle which last about a day or about 24 hours - involving the Suprachiasmatic nucleus of the Hypothalamus, pineal gland and melatonin
Trichromatic Theory
theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green. -- light of any color can be matched by the additive mixture of these 3 primary colors -- most known facts about color blindness are explained well (EX: staring at Green American Flag, flash to white screen and temporarily see normal US flag )
The treatment methods aimed at making people feel better and function more effectively are called?
therapy
How do behaviorists exaplain anxiety disorders?
they are learned through both postive and negative reinforcement
Corpus Callosum
thick bundle of neurons that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres
Functional Fixedness
thinking about objects only in terms of their typical or most common uses EX: looking for screw driver in house by all alone you could use a butter knife or a key in your pocket, because we only think of those in terms of cooking or unlocking,
Critical periods
times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of an infant. When certain body structures develop.
EEG, electroencephalograph
to record brain wave activity and determine what stage people are in
Time out
to reduce undesired behavior by removing individual from the attention of others that reinforces it, negative punishment
The tendency for a patient or client to project positive or negative feelings for important people from the past onto the therapist is called?
transference
discrimination
treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong -- behavioral part of prejudice attitude
Sleep deprivation symptoms
trembling hands inattention staring off to space droopy eye lids general discomfort including emotional symptoms (i.e., irritability, depression, regulation issues)
Amygdala
two almond shaped neural clusters linked to emotion, especially fear.
** Memory Fails: Organic
two forms of memory disorders caused due to physical causes, Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia
Intrinsic motivation
type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner • Early research suggested that external motivation undermined internal motivation • More recent suggests that external motivation can complement internal motivation
Convergent thinking
type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer by using previous knowledge and logic EX: a pencil and pen both can write, that's it tho.
the warmth, respect, and accepting atmosphere created by the therapust for the client is called?
unconditional postive regard
Unconditioned response
unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus, reflex, ex: salivation to the food only
Response (output)
unrehearsed information will be lost in about 12 to 30 seconds
Misinformation effect
while accessing memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent, construct memories using both stored and new information, incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event EX: eye witness to crime changes story after hearing someone else's story • Tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself
Ivan Pavlow
who accidentally demonstrated classical conditioning, actually studying digestion, with dog salivating, lead to work of Watson and Skinner, dog with tone of metronome Pavlov example: food (UCS) and drooling (UCR) • No learning needs to occur for a dog to drool when it sees food. • Thus, this response is unconditioned
** Gradual recovery
with assistance of suggestive therapist techniques, lower corroboration
Cortilization
wrinkling of the cortex Allows a much larger are of cortical cells to exist in the small space inside the skull.
Influences on Development: (3)
{All have personal development!} -- Biological Influences EX: shared human genome, individual genetic variations, prenatal environment, sex-related genes, hormones, and psychology -- Psychological Influences EX: gene environment interaction, neurological effect of early experiences, responses evoked by own temperament, gender, etc., beliefs, feelings, and expectations -- Social-Cultural Influences EX: parental and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, cultural gender norms
What kind of working models does the Attachment Theory create?
{Special bond formed with caregiver early in life} Creates: ◦ Basis for all future relationships ◦ "from the cradle to the grave" ◦ Can change based on life experiences ◦ Unconscious expectations
Content Validity vs. Predictive Validity
~ Content: *extent* a test measures a particular behavior or trait that it claims to ~ Predictive: *function* of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait
Sperling's Procedure
~ Iconic Memory • Showed people an array of letters very fast • Cued to remember a certain row AFTER seeing the letters (partial report) • People could remember almost the whole row • This showed that people could remember more than they could report.
~ Piaget did not believe that everyone would reach ______ ~ Studies have shown that only about ____ of all adults in the United States reach this stage in thinking
~ formal operational thinking ~ half
William Stern
~ introduced the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) {young kids} IQ score = MA/CA X 100 IQ score = mental age/chronological age X 100
Erikson
~ offered 8 major "crises" we all must pass through ALSO asked: -- How do we "discover ourselves?" -- What are the pivotal points is our lives that shape who we become?
Correlation: Size
• A clustered, close picture is correlations of -.04 showing a weak correlation • A scattered cluster with a best fit line sloping downward is correlation of -.37 showing a negative correlation • A scattered cluster with best fit line sloping upward is a correlation of .61 showing a positive correlation
Long‐term alcohol abuse can led to health issues including:
• Alcohol‐related dementia • Korsakoff's Syndrome • Physical issues: (liver disease, heart disease, osteoporosis)
Cooing Stage
• At about 2 months the infant begins to make vowel‐like sounds. EX: like oooo and aaaa}
Basic vs Applied research
• Basic research -- research for the sake of gaining scientific knowledge EX: How do patients with Alzheimer's disease experience emotion? • Applied research -- research aimed at answering real-world, practical problems EX: How can we use the intact emotional responses of some Alzheimer's patients to improve their quality of life?
Two‐Word Stage
• Before the 2nd year (at around 1 ½), a child starts to speak in two‐word sentences. ~ AKA telegraphic speech ~in which the child speaks like a telegram (only nouns and verbs). Contains only essential content to carry meaning EX: "go car" = "I would like to go for a ride in the car."
Babbling Stage
• Beginning at 4‐6 months the infant spontaneously utters various sounds, adding consonant sounds to the vowel‐like sounds to form phonemes EX: like ah‐goo, ba‐ba‐ba, ma‐ma‐ma or da‐da‐da.
One‐Word Stage
• Beginning at or around the first birthday (12 months), a child starts to speak one‐word and makes family adults understand him/her. ~ AKA Holophrases ~ Whole phrases will be communicated in one word. EX: The word doggy may mean look at the dog out there.
Recommendations for making punishment most effective:
• Best when applied immediately so that relationship between unwanted behavior and punishment is clear • Should be consistent (always follow though and similar intensity each time) • Immediate effect of suppressing behavior (explains negative reinforcement for parent) • Does not teach appropriate behavior • Can lead to negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) • Some types of punishment model aggression
Cognitive Dissonance in the brain...
• Cognitive dissonance of food choices • Larger difference between belief and behavior led to greater brain activity in prefrontal cortex • Same areas that are involved in difficult cognitive tasks
Correlation and Causation
• Correlation does not prove causation! EX: ice cream sales and drowning -- Since ice cream sales go up and drowning also go up, they have a positive correlation BUT this doesn't prove ice cream is causing the drownings. -- If variables are causally related, a correlation won't tell you which variable is the cause and which is the effect. EX: self‐esteem and school performance
Developmental Research Designs (3)
• Cross‐sectional • Longitudinal • Cross‐sequential
Nature: Genetics (3)
• DNA: (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism • Gene: section of DNA having a certain sequence (or ordering) of chemical elements • Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
What happens when emotion regulation fails?
• Deficits in behavioral and brain markers of emotion regulation in Major Depression, despite preserved cognitive control
Operational Definition
• Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured • Specifically naming the operations (steps/procedures) that the experimenter must use to control or measure the variables in the experiment EX: Intelligence, Depression, Aggression EX: measuring aggressive behavior in children after violent cartoons, would do by making a checklist such as hitting, pushing, etc.
Pros and Cons to Instinct Approaches
• Describes human behavior, but does NOT explain WHY such behaviors exist • Forced psychologists (Behaviorists) to acknowledge the importance of hereditary factors
How do we form Attitudes? (4)
• Direct contact with the person, situation, object, or idea (EX: eating vegetables) • Direct instruction from parents or others (EX: being told smoking is bad, or that you will like a certain movie) • Interacting with other people who hold a certain attitude (EX: if you peer group likes playing a certain sport) • Vicarious conditioning: watching the actions and reactions of others to ideas, people, objects, and situations (EX: you see that you mother is afraid of dogs)
Psychologists
• Doctoral degree & specialized training in one or more subfield of psychology • Clinical, counseling, developmental, cognitive, social, biological, personality • Some psychologists do basic research; others do applied research; some do both.
Examples of Critics of Multiple Intelligences
• Does being clumsy or tone deaf mean you have a lack of intelligence? • Should all our abilities be considered intelligences?
Treating Insomnia: Sleep Hygiene
• Don't lay in bed for more than 20 minutes • Keep a regular sleep schedule • Use the bed for sleep only • Avoid using alcohol to fall asleep • Avoid using caffeine and nicotine around bedtime • Avoid (or limit) napping • Create a good environment for sleeping (dark, cool, no distracting noises) Treatments : Don't drink or eat before bed, taking meds fro pain, deal with anxiety during the day, keep reg schedule and only use bed for sleeping, go to a sleep clinic,
Classical Conditioning & Drug Overdose
• Drug (US) and the user's body attempts to counteract effects of the drug (UR) • Setting (neutral) gets paired with drug (US) and setting becoming a CS • Setting (CS) leads to user's body trying to counteract drug (CR) • For drugs that show the development of tolerance, the CS generally elicits physiological and behavioral changes that are opposite to or compensate for the drug effects
CHAPTER GUIDE: CH 1: 77 terms - CARDS 3-79 CH 2: 78 terms - CARDS 80-158 CH 3: 92 terms - CARDS 159-251 CH 4: 105 terms - CARDS 252-357 CH 5: 103 terms - CARDS 358-461 CH 6: 114 terms - CARDS 462-576 CH 7: 102 terms - CARDS 577-679 CH 8: 110 terms - CARDS 680-790 CH 9: 70 terms - CARDS 791-861 CH 12: 102 terms - CARDS 862-964 CH 14: 94 terms - CARDS 965-1059 CH 15: 25 terms - CARDS 1060-1085
Chapter 1: Science of Psychology Chapter 2: Biological Perspective Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception Chapter 4: Consciousness Chapter 5: Learning Chapter 6: Memory Chapter 7: Cognition Chapter 8: Development Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion Chapter 12: Social Psychology Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders Chapter 15: Psychological Therapies
Stimulus input of Smell
Chemicals
Stimulus Input of Taste
Chemicals from food molecules
** Who did the doll study with the black doll and the white doll?
Clark and Clark
4 ways of Learning
Classical Operant conditioning Cognitive learning theory Observational learning,
Application of studying cognition: Neuropsychology
Clinical neuropsychology is a specialization within clinical psychology that focuses on brain‐behavior relationships. > Primary training is in clinical psychology: -- Psychopathology, therapy, personality, measurement -- Additional training in neuroanatomy, neuroscience, and neuropsychological assessment (NOT to be confused with: neurologists, neuroscientists)
Sociocultural Perspective
Combines social and cultural psychology - Social psychology: study of groups, relationships, social influences on behavior - Cultural psychology: study of cultural values and norms, or standards of behavior -- Cross‐cultural studies: contrast/comparisons of a behavior/ issue studied in at least two or more cultures
>> Open Monitoring e.g., Mindfulness Meditation
Concentrate attention on one's moment-to-moment awareness in a nonjudgmental way
>> Focused Attention e.g., Transcendental Meditation
Concentrate on a specific object, image, sound, or bodily sensation, like breathing
Hearing Impairment
Conduction Hearing Impairment Nerve Hearing Impairment
3 Forms of Social Influence
Conformity Compliance Obedience ( and Group Influence )
Outer ear
Consists of pinna that collects & funnels sounds.
Occipital
Contain: Primary Visual Cortex - processes visual information from the eyes Visual association cortex - interprets or makes sense of visual information
LSD (acid)
Creator of LSD - Albert Hofman "trips" can last 10-12 hrs. and produce extreme perceptual & emotional changes • "an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors" • "a miraculous, powerful, unfathomable reality"
Critical Thinking (4)
Critical Thinking 1. There are very few "truths" that don't need to be subjected to testing. 2. All evidence is not equal in quality. 3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority does not make everything that person claims automatically true. 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.
Collectivistic cultures
Cultures that stress strong social ties, interdependence, and cooperation EX: Japanese, chinese
Individualistic cultures
Cultures that stress the needs of the individual over the needs of the group EX: American, British
An eight-year-old boy threatened to tell his parents when given only one of the three candy bars he and his ten-year-old brother were told to share. The older child then broke his brother's bar in half and gave him two pieces. This satisfied both children because they each had two pieces. Identify the cognitive stages of these children and the disadvantage that allows the younger child to be cheated.
Even though the younger child is 8, he is still in the preoperational stage because he lacks the ability to conserve. The older child is in concrete operations. The older child understands the just having two pieces of candy does not necessarily mean that they are both getting equal amounts of candy.
Biological explanations of anxiety disorders include?
Evolutionary basis for anxiety Chemical imbalances in the nervous system—in particular serotonin and GABA systems.
Milgram's Obedience Shock Experiment: Experimenter Comments & Results
Experimenter Comments At the beginning of the experiment: "Although the shocks can be extremely painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage" When the learner begins to protest: "Teacher, please continue." With later protests: "I will take full responsibility. Please continue." "You have no choice." Results • 62 % (26 of 40 participants) delivered all shocks. Even after the "learner" stopped responding • 75% (30 of 40 participants) delivered at least one shock after the learner said "get me out of here! I refuse to go on!" at 150 volts
Facial feedback hypothesis
Facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion
Explain significant of the Phineas Gage story
Famous *case study* of Phineas Gage, who accidentally, had a large metal rod driven through his head and suffered a major personality change as a result -- Example of case study being the best research method in some situations by being the only way to get certain kinds of information
>> Approaches
Focused Attention, and Open Monitoring
lens
Focuses the light rays on the retina -- Through visual accommodation, process by which the eye's lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina
Types of Concepts
Formal and Natural
psychoanalysis
Freud -- theory based on Freud's ideas that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push/repress all threatening urges or desires, which cause nervous disorders [focuses on early childhood experiences]
Why do we dream?
Freud's Manisfest content is what is actually in the dream like a tub with water vs. latent content which is the hidden and expressed in symbols like the water meaning the waters of birth and tub might mean mother's womb • According to Freud: wish fulfillment • People's repressed conflicts and events cause them problems • Dreams are symbolic representations of past conflicts, desires, and events stemming from childhood • Manifest content versus latent content EX: opening locked door at the end of a hallway
John Watson: Little Albert study
Freud: phobias are the result of unconscious conflicts -- Watson believed he could create a phobia using the conditioning technique discovered by Pavlov -- Took baby, "Little Albert," and taught him to fear a rat by making loud, scary noises every time a rat appeared until just seeing the rat made the baby cry/fearful
Paiget's Preoperational Stage > Developmental Phenomena:
From age 2 to about 6 -7, cognitive stage of representing things with words and images; use intuitive rather than logical reasoning — too young to perform mental operations: > Developmental Phenomenon: Egocentrism, & Conservation Issues (Centration & Irreversibility), Pretend Play, & Language Development
Main Lobes of the Brain
Frontal Lobe (front) Parietal Lobe (middle top) Occipital Lobe (middle bottom) Temporal Lobe (back) [then cerebellum underneath, with brain stem beneath that]
Tolman's classic experiment
G 1: always reinforced for success, G 2 never reinforced for success, G 3 not reinforced until 10th day for success; all with latent learning with rat exp.
What is some considerable research support for Spearman's g?
Gc and Gf (Cattell's theory)
Leptin
Hormone that signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full
Insulin & Glucagon
Hormones secreted by the pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the bloodstream
Müller-Lyer Illusion
Illusion of line length that is distorted by inward‐ turning or outward‐turning corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length to appear to be different
Weber's Law
In humans, difference thresholds (experienced as a just noticeable difference) increase in proportion to the size of the stimulus Two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount), to be perceived as different. Weber fraction: k = ΔI/I.
Normal Curve
In standardization tests, a bell shaped curve/pattern establishs a normal distribution of scores on a tested population -- Scores are most frequent around the mean or average
Deep processing
In the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus
Glucagon
Increases the level of glucose in the bloodstream
Models of Memory
Information Processing Model Parallel Distributed Processing Model Levels of Processing Model
Inner
Innermost part of the ear consists largely of the cochlea, a fluid filled, coiled shaped tunnel that contains receptors for hearing
Other sleep disorders
Insomnia and Sleep Apnea
Pavlov
Interested in reflexes • Discovered that reflexes could be learned/conditioned aka *conditioning* EX: observing dogs & metronome - At first, Pavlov turned metronome on, feed dogs, caused saliva (natural response) - Then, metronome caused saliva before being feed, a learned reflexive response (aka conditioning)
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving
Irrelevant info Functional Fixedness Mental Sets Confirmation Bias
REM Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy and REM behavior disorder
Need for affiliation
Need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others -- to control others, to get desired things dones
Need for achievement
Need involving a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, both realistic and challenging ones -- strive to excel and succeed, achieve in relations to a set of standards
Need for power
Need to have control or influence over others -- friendship, good relationship
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it. -- They can have an excitatory or inhibitory effect.
Types of LTM
Non-declarative Memory (implicit) Declarative Memory (explicit)
Quasi-Experiment Designs
Not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups EX: Effect of alcohol exposure in utero on children's school performance; Schizophrenia and cognitive performance
The disorder in which intruding, recurring thoughts or obsessions create anxiety that is relieved by performing a repetitive, ritualistic behavior (compulsion) is called?
OCD
Basics of Sensation
Sensation is the process by which information from the outside world enters the brain -- Information enters by way of activation of the sensory receptors on the various sense organs -- When sensory receptors are stimulated, they convert the different types of environmental stimuli into neural activity -- Can consciously or unconsciously sense stimuli based on the strength of the stimulation -- To help manage the large amount of environmental stimuli available, our brains/bodies selectively attend to those stimuli deemed most salient, often ignoring stimuli that do not change through sensory adaptation or cognitive habituation
Vestibular Sense
Sense of movement, balance and body position • Processed by vestibular organs in the inner ear • Otolith organs for sensing translations • Semicircular canals for sensing rotations
Kinesthetic Sense
Sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other • Processed by proprioceptors in the skin, joints, muscles, and tendons
Piaget's Theory Of Cognitive Development: Four Stages
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational
Nutrition
Severe malnutrition increases the risk of birth complications and neurological deficits
deindividuation
The loss of self awareness and self restraint or a lessening of one's sense of personal identity and personal responsibility • groups or crowds can offer a sense of anonymity or arousal
Psychological Dependence (+/- Reinforcement?)
The feeling that a drug is needed in order to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being + Positive (and negative) reinforcement: positive reinforcement is tendency of a behavior to strengthen when followed by pleasurable consequences
Body temperature
The higher the body temperature, the more alert we are; the lower the body temperature, the sleepier we are
Infantile amnesia
The inability to retrieve memories from much before age three • autobiographical memory: personal life memories (usually after age three)
centration
The inability to see the other features of an object and just focus on one feature instead
egocentrism
The inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes; see world only from their point of view -- EX: child covers his eyes and says, "you can't see me" or holds something up to the phone thinking the person on the other end can see it
Nature
The influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Nurture
The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
normative social influence
The influence resulting from a desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval -- A person's desire to gain approval or avoid rejection. > Respecting normative behavior, because price may be severe if not followed.
informational social influence
The influence resulting from willingness to accept other's opinions about reality Group may provide valuable information. - When the task is difficult or you are unsure, it makes sense to listen to others.
groupthink
The kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned
Retina (in depth)
The light‐sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing photoreceptor rods & cones plus layers of other neurons (bipolar & ganglion cells) that process visual information.
** interpersonal attraction
The liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person
Howard Gardner
Theory of Multiple Intelligences -- proposed the existence of different kinds of intelligence > 9 kinds of intelligneces
James-Lange theory
Theory of emotion in which a physiological reaction that leads to the labeling of an emotion
Common sense theory of emotion
Theory of emotion in which a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal
Cognitive arousal theory
Theory of emotion in which both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced
Cannon-Bard theory
Theory of emotion in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time
Incentive approach
Theory of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties
Arousal theory
Theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation
Self-Determination theory (SDT)
Theory of motivation in which the social context of an action has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action EX: autonomy, competence, relatedness
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation
Theory of motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal
Incentive
Things that attract or lure people into action
Transduction
This process of converting outside stimuli into neural activity with sensory receptors • Taste (gustation): food molecules • Vision: light (photons) • Hearing (audition): sound waves • Touch (somatosensation): pressure & temperature • Smell (olfaction): molecules in the air • Others...
Factors that influence Perception
Top down processing Bottom Up processing
Mapping Function
Trade Off (Brain activity during a task) - timing - localization Magnetoencephalography (MEG): uses devices that are very sensitive to magnetic fields called superconducting quantum interference devices Electroencephalogram (EEG): fairly harmless way to study activity of the living brain to record electrical activity of the cortex just below the skull - Event Related Potential (ERP): results in the measurement of the response of the brain related to the stimulus event itself Positron Emission Tomography (PET): person is injected with a radioactive glucose Functional Magnetic resonance Imaging (fMRI): only shows structure, in which the computer tracks changes in the oxygen levels of the blood information about where oxygen is being used in the brain over an image of the brain's structure
Light: Transduction & Phototransduction
Transduction: transformation of stimulus energy into a neural impulses Phototransduction: conversion of light energy into neural impulses that brain can understand
Cornea
Transparent tissue where light enters the eye.
Approaches to problem solving
Trial and Error Algorithms Insight Heuristics
Robert Sternberg
Triarchic Theory -- agreed with Gardner, but suggested only 3 kinds of intelligence rather than 9 Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003)
Episodic memory
events experienced by a person, updated and revised constantly • Episodic memory: declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others
How well people think
Variations among people in thinking ability
Serial position effect
when your recall is better for the first and last items, but poor from the middle items on a list, primacy=first, recency=last
Give examples of using meaningfulness
While reading, asking yourself, "what do I already know about this?" • Making connections to your life EX: personal examples of flashbulb memories
Fuctionalism
William James -- Study the function of consciousness‐how the mind allows people to work, play, adapt to new circumstances
Sigmund Freud
Worked with patients whose complaints had no identifiable physical cause • Focused on the role of the unconscious - Where unwanted urges and desires are pushed towards • *Psychoanalysis*: therapy based on Freud's ideas - Focus on early childhood development; psychosexual stages - Dream interpretation: "The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind."
objective introspection
Wundt -- process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities EX: place object, like rock, in student's hand and have student explain everything he was feeling from holding the rock -- all sensations by the rock
Terminal Buttons
where the axon ends; form connections/junctions with other neurons/cells
** Alterations of the strength of specific synaptic connections
enhancing the availability and release of neurotransmitters at specific synapses
Somesthetic Senses
the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses -- "soma" = body -- "esthetic" = feeling
Zone of proximal development
the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with help of a teacher
Extinction in Classical
the disappearance or weakening of a learned response CR following the removal or absence of the US ex: Justin had learned to blink CR when she heard a snap Cs, but since the air puff US has stopped following the snap this learned response has gone away
Extinction in Operant
the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal of a reinforce ex: when Justin goes to her smart friend's house she brings her hw with her, often this results in her friend doing her hw, when her friend grows tired of this, she stops doing the hw so Justin stops bringing it
bystander effect
the effect that the presence of other people has on the decision to help or not help -- help becomes less likely as the number of bystanders increases -- Kitty Genovese
attachment
the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver early in life
Encoding failure, forgetting
the failure to process info into memory, it doesn't get pass the sensory memory, we cannot remember what we did not encode, occurs when decay happens from our sensory or short term or working memory, • We cannot remember what we did not encode (would only last 20s - STM duration) EX: the stop signs and pennies experiment in class
Olfactory Cilia
the hair‐like structures located in the upper portion of the nasal passages and are responsible for smell.
irreversibility
the inability of the young child to "mentally reverse" an action
Acquisition
the initial stage in classical conditioning during which an association between a NS and an US is formed ex: bowl (NS) is associated with the dog food (US)
object permanence
the knowledge that an object exists even when it not in sight -- Major Accomplishment of sensorimotor stage -- Children younger than 6 months do not display object permanence yet.
Stimulus Discrimination in Classical Conditioning
the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other similar stimuli that do not signal the US is coming Ex: you dog has learned to get Excited when your car pulls up and no one else's pulls up in the driveway
Imitation
the learner must be capable of reproducing the model's behavior
Motivation
the learner must have the desire or motivation to perform the behavior
Operant Conditioning
the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses
Phonemes
the smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language EX: bat, has 3 phonemes B-A-T and chat has 3 phonemes CH-A-T •English has about 40 different phonemes, there are 869 different phonemes through all languages •All of us are born with the ability to recognize all phonemes, but this diminishes as we get older
Morpheme
the smallest unit that carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word EXAMPLES: playing = consist of "play" and "ing" s = plural meaning previewed = pre.view.ed (relearn or learned)
Sound Wave
the stimulus input -- vibrations of the molecules of air that surround us
social facilitation
the tendency for the presence of other people to have a positive impact on the performance of an easy task -- positive influence of others on performance
Visual Perception: Size Constancey
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance (size on retina gets smaller)
Visual Perception: Shape Constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
Gestalt: Figure-Ground
the tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background EX: black and white photo of white looking like a column or chalice while the back background looks like 2 faces facing each other [ shape constancy ? ]
Visual Perception: Perceptual Set
the tendency to perceive things a certain way because previous experiences or expectations influence those perceptions
Cognitive Universalism (Piaget)
the theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Vygotsky)
the theory that the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person's thoughts
Problem Solving
the thoughts and actions required to achieve a certain goal, (when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways) EX: how to cut recipe in half
Top down processing
the use of pre‐existing knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole (upside down pyramid, start with large at top and go down with tip at bottom) -- formulate perceptual hypothesis about the nature of the stimulus as a whole -- select and examine feature to check hypothesis -- recognize stimulus
Independent Variable
the variable in an experiment that is manipulated by experimenter
Dependent Variable
the variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment
primacy effect
the very first impression one has about a person tends to persist even in the face of evidence to the contrary
Eardrum
vibrates when sound waves hit
Reification
viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing
Iconic Memory
visual sensory memory lasting a fraction or <1 sec. and is lost by masking Capacity: can view everything in sight at that moment
REM paralysis
voluntary muscles are paralyzed
Short vs Long Wavelength for Frequency/Pitch
wavelength: distance from peak of one wave to peak of the next (peak meaning middle of hump on squiggly) -- Short wavelengths = high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds) -- Long wavelengths = low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)
EEG & Sleep Stages: -- Beta waves
waves on EEG shown when people are awake and alert -- very small and fast waves
EEG & Sleep Stages: -- Alpha waves
waves on EEG when people are relaxed and drowsy, state of relaxation or light sleep -- waves are slightly larger & slower
Punishment
weakening behavior
Source monitoring error
when a memory derived from one source in misattributed to another, might be a contributor to misinformation effect
assimilation
when children try to understand new things in terms of schemas they already have -- incorporating new experiences into our current understanding (schema).
High Motivation
when encoding leads to more effort to attend to organize information in ways that facilitate recall
** Sudden and unexpected recovery
when one encounters a relevant retrieval cue, higher corroboration
accommodation
when we are able to alter old schemas to fit new information -- The process of adjusting a schema and modifying it
