AMIND FINAL

Be able to identify which major ceremonies are connected to which Californian culture areas.

(1) mourning ceremonies; (2) initiation ceremonies connected with a secret society; and (3) a more varied group of dances and other observances which all, however, have in common the benefit either of the community or of the world at large, in that they cause a good crop of acorns and natural products, make the avoidance of rattlesnake bites possible, or prevent the occurrence of disease, earthquake, flood, and other calamities.

(Begin Week 11, Indian Nations Ch 4, The Plains) Be able to identify which tribes traditionally lived in the Plains culture area, and still have reservations there today (i.e., were not relocated in 1830s to Oklahoma. Many of the tribes in this section of the book traditionally lived in the Southeast, but were relocated to Oklahoma, so are included in this chapter as well as in the chapter on the Southeast.)

- Apache Tribe (also known as Ka-ta-ka)- Caddo Nation- Arapaho-Blackfeet-Lakota- Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lipan, Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains Cree, Sarsi, Sioux, Shoshone, and TonkawaArikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw (or Kansa), Mandan, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, and Wichita.

Be able to define term "riparian environment".

- In the Great Basin area riparian environments are particularly important especially as food sources- that is, river bank environments, although in desert regions the term tends to be used more broadly to include temporary water courses such as gullies and washes that receive run-off water from the mountains during the wet season. Even when these washes are dry, they tend to retain a higher moisture content in the soil. The result is an unusually lush vegetation compared with that on the surrounding land. See the cottonwood trees lining the arroyo in the picture on the right?

Be able to describe the particular hardship imposed on the Unanagan people during WWII - why were they relocated to internment camps, and how did this experience impact them?

- one of the darkest periods in Unangan history began in June 1942, when the Japanese bombed Dutch Harbor and invaded elsewhere in the aleutians → they took a small group of Unangan people off the island of Attu as prisoners of War → the u.s. response to the attack was to remove almost 900 natives from their Villages 70.elsewhere in the islands, transporting them on short notice via cramped ships to internment camps in Southeastern Alaska → - in the village of Atka, the people watched as US troops set fire their homes and church so the Japanese could not gain a foothold -Conditions were difficult in the internment camps, called "duration villages" some of which were in abandoned salmon canneries → with almost no medical care in the cold, damp camps, malnutrition and disease were rampant, especially among the elderly → the people were not permitted to return to their homes until after the war with Japan ended in 1945

Be able to describe the history of treaty rights to continue traditional subsistence activities such as fishing and sea-mammal hunting for PNW peoples in the 20th century. Why did many tribes in this culture area stage protests concerning these rights in the 1960s and 70s? How have they been impacted by the Boldt Decision?

- other legal victories in decades to come, such as the Boldt decision in Washington in 1974, restored to tribes ancestral lands and treaty protected fishing rights, providing some with new economic opportunities --In the sixties and seventies the Muckleshoot tribe became involved in what have been called the fish Wars, actively pressuring the government to recognize and implement the tribes fishing and hunting rights guaranteed in the original treaties - the Boldt decision of 1974 upheld the tribes rights. The tribe has been designated legal co-manager of the King County watershed, which recognizes the tribes ancestral fishing and hunting rights to the land and permits them to control those environments -The tribe has initiated efforts to restore the White River salmon passages and to Jones Creek, blocks Creek, and Charlie Jones Creek on the reservation --In the 1850s a series of treaties with PNW tribes established a legal framework for European American settlement of their lands. One of the concessions the tribes received in return was the right to continue to fish in their accustomed fishing places and to use customary fishing practices. → As Washington's population increased, large commercial and sports fisheries developed. As fish populations decreased, the State of Washington sought to regulate tribal fishing in the same way it regulated commercial and sport fishing. → Tribal fishermen opposed this regulation as a violation of their treaty rights. In 1974 the United States sued the State of Washington on behalf of Indian tribes to uphold the letter and spirit of the treaties. → The case was heard in U.S. District Court by Judge George Boldt, who decided that the tribes had the right to harvest an amount of fish equal to that taken by non-Indians. This decision is known as the "Boldt Decision."

Be able to identify which tribes are now known as the "Three Affiliated Tribes" currently living on the Ft. BERTHOLD (not Belknap) reservation, and what they have in common that distinguishes them from other predominantly more nomadic Plains tribes.

- the Arikara call themselves Sahnish, or "original People from whom all other tribes spring" -The Mandan, once divided into distinct bands, were known among one another by their band names: Is'tope, Nup'tadi, Ma'nana'r, and Awi'kaxa - the Hidatsa, Also divided into linguistically distinct clan and band groupings, were known by the other groups as "well-dressed men" or "people of the water" - geographically and linguistically independent at the time of initial contact with Euro-American culture, these three tribes lived along the Missouri River, hunting Buffalo and growing squash, corn, and beans

Be able to describe the events of the Pueblo revolt of 1680 and its impact on the Spanish.

- the arrival of the Spanish and what is now New Mexico changed life for all the indigenous people of the Southwest; the brutality and oppression that followed lasted 140 years - finally, in 1680, the natives of New Mexico rebelled; they drove the Spanish out of New Mexico for 12 years, the most successful Revolt of natives in what is now the United States - under the leadership of Tewa medicine man Pope, Chiefs from around the region met secretly over time to plan a coordinated, multifaceted military action → the central element of the plan was to cut off the smaller Spanish settlements from the Capitol in Santa Fe. The key was acting together - Runners were sent out to each of the villages with knotted yucca chords. As the sun rose each day, a note was untied. When the last not was untied, it would be time to act - the attacks came at sunrise on August 10th, 1680. The rebels destroyed all the outlying settlements, with very few escapees - most of those who survived gathered in Los Cerillos and at a settlement called La Canada. Soon the refugees made their way back to Santa Fe with a horrible news of the attacks, crowding into the buildings at the governor's residence - as another part of the plan, Puebloans pretended to side with the Spanish so that rumors could be credibly spread in Santa Fe about other attacks taking place to the South, especially along the Rio Grande in the village of Isleta → ysleta was a Pueblo that it always sided with the Spaniards and was also the headquarters of the lieutenant governor → when Governor Antonio de Otermin did not hear a word from his Lieutenant, he assumed that the village had fallen to the rebels;the governor did not know the messengers had been stopped before they could reach him - in Santa Fe, the rebels cut off the water supply to the government buildings. After two days in the summer heat, animal started to die, and people started to get sick - Governor Otermin decided to counter attack. As the Spaniards charged out of the government buildings, they surprised and killed many Indians. They continued on to a Pueblo stronghold nearby, killed Indians, gathered water, and returned to the Capitol Buildings with 47 Rebel captives → but they had not broken the Indian resistance. The 2000 Spanish refugees, hungry, sick, and humiliated, finally left Santa Fe on August 21st. They simply marched out of the city and the rebels let them go

Be able to identify what other countries Inuit people reside in, in addition to the US and Canada.

- these people live in the polar regions of northern Alaska, where they call themselves inupiat; Canada, where Inuit is the preferred term; and Greenland, where they use Greenlander or Inuit - from Alaska, these people spread East along the northern coast of Canada and onward to Greenland, over-running earlier Dorset culture inhabitants and, in Greenland, the Norse

Be able to describe the importance of buffalo to Plains cultures.

-"wherever the buffalo went, so did the Plains Native Americans"Bison hunting was an activity fundamental to the economy and society of the Plains Indians. Mann discussed the evidence that Native Americans not only created (by selective use of fire) the large grasslands that provided the bison's ideal habitat but also kept the bison population regulated. --Almost everything was made from buffalo. This scene shows women curing and tanning hides. First they applied buffalo brains (which are acidic) to soften the skin, and then they scraped it with bone to clean it. This gender-linked labor was a lot of work, and the sale of hides to white settlers was lucrative, leading men to marry more than one wife. -Every inch of a buffalo was used for something- tribes depended on them in order to live on the Plains. When the federal government couldn't get tribes to remain on the reservations they were eventually forced onto, they embraced a policy of buffalo extermination, and the great herds quickly vanished, leaving Plains tribes dependent on government rations delivered to their barren reservations.

(Begin Week 15, Indian Nations CH 3 Arctic & Subarctic) Be able to explain the term Inuit as opposed to "Eskimo" and connect it to the appropriate Arctic peoples.

--Inuit, or Eskimo, people live along the edges of the North and West coasts of Alaska --Yupik and Inupiaq (or Inupiat, plural form) people (also called Eskimos, though this term means "raw meat eater" and is not their choice of label) and are related to Canadian Inuit people --Eskimo, people live along the edges of the North and West coasts of Alaska. -Inuit people live all along the Northern coast.

Be able to define the term "keystone species" and relate it to the role of American Indians in the New World.

-A phenomenon much like ecological release can occur when a species suddenly loses its burden of predators → The advent of mechanized fishing in the 1920s drastically reduced the number of cod from the Gulf of Maine to the Grand Banks. With the cod gone, the sea urchins on which they fed had no enemies left. Soon a spiny carpet covered the bottom of the gulf -In this region, cod was the species that governed the overall composition of the ecosystem → the fish was a "keystone" species: one that affects the survival and abundance of many other species. → keystone species have disproportionate impacts on their ecosystems -A species that exerts a large, stabilizing influence throughout an ecological community, despite its relatively small numerical abundance. -Other Keystone Species of the Americas: beavers and aspen trees

Be able to explain the concerns of the Mne Sosa intertribal water rights coalition.

-A survey conducted by the Mni Sose (Sioux word for "Missouri river") Coalition reported an average education level of a high school diploma for adult tribal members among the Missouri River Basin Tribes, which results in a lack of trained tribal professionals and technicians. Scarce resources are reflected in an annual average unemployment rate of 50 percent among the Missouri River Basin Tribes. The Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe report unemployment rates near 85 percent. -Tribal leaders are seeking legal, administrative, economic, and physical control over their significant water resources as a means to achieve a sustainable reservation economy, cultural well-being, and sovereignty of tribal people in the watershed. The Great Northern Plains tribes originally envisioned the concept of a water resource consortium as early as 1973. In January of 1993, they formally organized and recognized the Mni Sose Intertribal Water Rights Coalition.

Be able to identify the main periods of contact between Europeans/Americans and Alaska Native peoples.

-Aleut people came into contact with Russian fur-traders in 1760, were enslaved (to hunt sea otters), and nearly exterminated (along with the otters.)

Be able to compare and contrast the major cultural groups of Alaska Native people in terms of the natural resources they have access to, subsistence strategies, and social organization.

-Aleut people had social class stratification, like people in the PNW, but UNLIKE other Arctic peoples. Only upper class men could wear an elaborately decorated visor like this one. They are also matrilineal, like other tribes in Pacific Northwest culture area (just south of them). -They hunt sea mammals for the most part. Although fish are plentiful, they don't provide enough calories to live in the harsh climate of the Arctic circle. Yupik: --Fall is hunting season for land mammals. There are huge caribou herds all over the arctic tundra. Unlike European reindeer, they cannot be domesticated. Arctic people hunt them, but can't milk them (like Saami people in Lapland do with reindeer.) -Men hunt seals and walruses in kayaks when the weather is warm enough. See the inflated sealskin float? This is tied to the harpoon tip, so the hunter can track the animal in water after he hits it. --Eskimo people have bilateral social organization, and practiced village endogamy in the past. They also might have more than one spouse. A Yupik man might have as many wives as he could support. An Inupiaq or Inuit woman might have more than one husband, but this was rarer. A woman might marry her husband's brother or hunting partner. -Eskimo people had informal political organization. The best hunter would be recognized as an important man in the village because he could feed many families. Villagers only lived together about the half year. Inupiaq: --Whaling was the main subsistence activity for Inupiaq and other Inuit people. Whale migrations passed by in the winter, and everyone moved back to the village to take part. --In the spring and summer Inupiaq and Inuit people hunt walrus and seals, and fish. In the late summer and fall, they hunt caribou. Dene: -Dene people are matrilineal and traditionally lived in small bands, making seasonal rounds to fish in the summer and hunt moose and caribou in the fall.

Be able to compare the differences in ecologies and subsistence strategies across the various sub-culture areas of California.

-All over California Native peoples depended on plants for many aspects of material culture such as clothing, houses, baskets, boats, etc. They didn't plant crops (like corn) or practice intensive agriculture as Southwestern tribes do, but they did nurture and harvest the plants they depended on. -As we have seen, agriculture is only one type of subsistence strategy. California's natural bounty was so great there was no need to plant crops- plant foods such as seeds, nuts, acorns, berries, roots and tubers were there for the harvesting and provided enough to feed everyone. -In northern California there were more forests, so wood was used to build houses. They did not have metal saws to cut it though, until contact. They used bone saws instead. Cedar bark, beaten to make it soft, was used for clothing. -Acorns were a major food source throughout all of California. They were ground and leached, then made into flour.

Be able to compare and contrast the origin of Athabascan cultures with those of other SW cultures.

-Archaeologists think Athabascans arrived in the Southwest approx. 1,000 AD, from Canada. Today they are the Navajo and Apache tribes -Apache peoples are related to Navajo people linguistically, but culturally they are different. They are both pastoralists, but Navajo people raise sheep, whereas Apache people raise cattle today and traditionally were nomadic raiders of other tribes who preferred horses to sheep -.Other Southern Athabaskan tribes followed different economic pursuits, although the Western Apache, like the Navajo, borrowed from Puebloan cultures and took up farming. Eastern Apaches were horsemen& raiders of livestock (and people for the slave trade), and ferocious warriors.

Be able to outline the Inuit perspective on whaling today.

-Beluga whales were the main type they hunted. They are not that big. Inupiaq culture has revolved around Beluga whales for centuries, and they have special permission to hunt them today, in limited quantities, using traditional technology. Click on this URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2005773.stmfor an Inuit perspective on whaling as a crucial part of their culture. Click here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaling#United_States to read about Inuit whaling and sustainability. → Arnold Brower Jnr, a whaling captain from Barrow in Alaska, told BBC News Online that the whale hunt plays a vital role in the lives of the Inuit, making up over half the meat that they eat. → Arnold Brower says that if the Inuit tried to make up the loss of whale meat by hunting other species, "we'd probably deplete the caribou stocks fairly fast".

Be able to explain how the Columbian Exchange led to a 90% decrease in American Indian populations.

-By knitting together the seams of Pangaea, Columbus set off an ecological explosion of a magnitude unseen since the Ice Ages. → Some species were shocked into decline (most prominent among them Homo sapiens, which in the century and a half after Columbus lost a fifth of its number, mainly to disease). -It brought diseases to the new world that they indians had never been exposed to

Be able to identify one way that tribal gaming plays a role in the development of tribal sovereignty.

-Economic development on reservations is very difficult. But one industry generates so much revenue that it can provide sufficient income for tribes despite the inequities of tax law and the disadvantages of most reservation locations. This source of income, for many California tribes, is tribal gaming. --the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act was passed by congress in 1988. IGRA's goals are to stimulate tribal self-determinacy and economic development. In California today, approx. 60 tribes are gaming tribes (out of 107 federally recognized tribes.) -Today, the tribal gaming industry is making it possible for many California tribes to develop their tribal infrastructures (courts, roads, utilities, waste management, etc.) and provide services (educational, health, housing, etc.) for their members. → Cultural sovereignty is also being developed through tribal museums and classes on tribal languages and traditional activities like basket-making, storytelling, etc. → The revenues shared with the state (in theory to be distributed to counties for expenses like rural road improvements) are huge, and some of this money goes to the state's general fund. Local governments in areas impacted by may apply to the state for a share of these funds. Whatever the future of Indian gaming in CA, right now the state is benefiting from it.

(Beginning of Week 10 Mann's CH 10: The Artificial Wilderness) Be able to define the term "Columbian Exchange" and give examples of things which were exchanged in each direction.

-Ever since 1492, the hemispheres have become more and more alike, as people mix the world's organisms into a global stew. → Thus bananas and coffee, two African crops, become the principal agricultural exports of Central America; maize and manioc, domesticated in Mesoamerica and Amazonia respectively, return the favor by becoming staples in tropical Africa. → Meanwhile, plantations of rubber trees, an Amazon native, undulate across Malaysian hillsides; peppers and tomatoes from Mesoamerica form the culinary backbones of Thailand and Italy; Andean potatoes lead Ireland to feast and famine; and apples, native to the Middle East, appear in markets from Manaus to Manila to Manhattan. → Back in 1972 Crosby invented a term for this biological ferment: the Columbian Exchange. The Columbian Exchange: From New World to Old World: Animals: Turkeys Llamas Alpacas Guinea Pigs Plants: Corn (Maize) Potatoes (White & Sweet Varieties) Beans (Snap, Kidney, & Lima Varieties) Tobacco Peanuts Squash Peppers Tomatoes Pumpkins Pineapples Cacao (Source of Chocolate) Papayas Manioc (Tapioca) Guavas Avocados Diseases: Syphilis From the Old World to New World: Animals: Horses Cattle Pigs Sheep Goats Chickens Plants: Rice Wheat Barley Oats Coffee Sugarcane Bananas Melons Olives Dandelions Daisies Clover Ragweed Kentucky Bluegrass Diseases: Smallpox Measles Chicken Pox Malaria Yellow Fever Influenza The Common Cold

Be able to outline the history of the federal government's first failed attempt at creating 18 treaties with CA tribes.

-In 1849 the federal government attempted to negotiate treaties for land with about 60 tribes (not all of them by far) - a total of 18 treaties were negotiated (in purple on this map). But California politicians lobbied Washington not to ratify these treaties, and instead they were sealed and stashed away in Sacramento for another 50 years, until the efforts of the Mission Indian Federation revived the issue in the early 1900s. Ultimately CA tribes received much smaller reservations than originally planned. → Indian reservations in California today- in pink. By the time the treaties were made public again in 1910, all the good land was taken by white settlers or mining or forestry companies. → Many California tribes were given very small reservations, also called rancherias, often in rocky barren areas where farming was impossible. In many cases water had also been diverted away to white-owned farms and/or cities. -A federal commission was appointed to re-examine Indian land claims and purchase lands for landless tribes. Some reservations were created on traditional lands (what was left of them), but other tribes were moved, sometimes for the second or third time, and often to shared reservations. For example, Cupeno people were forced to move from their tradition home at Warner's Springs to share the Pala rez with Luiseno people. No provisions were made at all for many small bands. Many tribes were never federally recognized at all, and are still fighting for recognition today. -There are more tribes and reservations in San Diego county than in any other county in the U.S.

Be able to explain the impact which the federal policy period of Allotment had on Plains tribes' reservations.

-In 1887 the federal government passed the General allotment Act, which gave the government the power to divide up reservations and redistribute the land approx 50-150 acres to each family in the tribe, for farming purposes. This left a LOT of "leftover" reservation land, which was opened up to white settlers.The Billings Gazette said: "the sooner the Crows are allotted, the better for themselves and for the nation; particularly for the citizens of Montana." → Crow people removed allotment survey stakes and fought all efforts to establish them. Indian agents were unsuccessful in getting the Crow to take possession of their "homesteads." At the same time, whites continued to intrude on the reservation. The Billings Gazette stated that "the Crows were setting fire to their grazing lands to keep trespassing white stockmen off Crow Ranges..." → "Leftover" or unalloted reservation land was opened to white settlement. So much for Jackson's promise only 30 years earlier to leave all lands West of the Mississippi "Indian Territory" forever.

Be able to discuss the impact of the federal policy of Termination on California Indian peoples.

-In 1953, the federal government announced a new policy: "Termination" of tribes, or an end to federal responsibility for meeting the provisions laid out in many, many treaties. Tribes all over the country were encouraged to volunteer for this new terminated status (in exchange for various empty promises.) -In California, this process involved convincing tribes to vote on a plan to divide communal tribal property into parcels to be distributed to members. Distributees would receive title to their lands and be free to sell it and be obliged to pay property tax from that time forward. -Promises were made to upgrade squalid housing, pave roads, build bridges, construct water projects and even provide college scholarships in return for a vote to terminate tribal status. Between 1958 and 1970 over 40 rancherias and reservations were terminated. -Chronically high unemployment rates soon forced many to sell their lands. Many BIA services like health and education were abruptly ended for all Indians in the state. -More than fifty tribes in California remain unrecognized by the federal government. Over 80,000 individuals are affected. This is the largest group of unrecognized tribal groups and individuals of any state in the United States. To date, 31 rancherias and reservations have reversed the disastrous termination process.

Be able to explain the reasons for and results of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA.)

-In 1958, Alaska became a state, and nearly 1/3 of it's land was declared "state land" although no treaties were ever signed, and Native territories were not clarified. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) created 13 native corporations, each with a limited territory. But Alaska has no reservations*. Each tribe received a share of close to a billion dollars instead. → There is only 1 reservation, belonging to a mixed tribal community who opted not to take part in ANCSA.

Be able to define the term "two-spirit person."

-In most Plains cultures, like others in North America, there was also another accepted gender- a "third gender" which combined the qualities of men and women. These "two-spirit people" (or "berdaches" (the anthropological term) were highly respected, and were often also medicine people. -intersex, androgynous people, feminine males and masculine females -Rather than emphasising the homosexuality of these persons, however, many Native Americans focused on their spiritual gifts.-were often also medicine people.

Be able to outline the Federal government's rationalization for removing Southeastern tribes to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) as well as the contradictions inherent in this rationalization.

-Jackson's argument for the Removal Act was that Eastern tribes were still "primitive hunters" who would be better off some other place away from Western civilization. -The Removal Act resulted in the relocation of 45,000 Native Americans, and the opening for settlement by whites of 25 million acres in the Southeast.

Be able to explain the connection between crest art and family genealogy (social organization).

-Kwakiutl house front. Families which could afford to richly decorated their homes with carved crest art, which also signified their genealogy, telling what clan and moiety the family belonged to. This house belongs to the Raven clan- see the raven at the top? -In the Pacific Northwest and Southeastern Alaska, many tribes developed elaborate forms of art which represented family or clan crests. Clans were grouped into two larger groups called moieties (cf. below) such as the Wolves and the Ravens. -This meant that every member of these societies belonged both to a clan as well as a moiety. → Each tribe had two moieties, typically the Eagles and the Ravens. → Within these groups were many, many clans, such as the Killer Whales, Grizzly Bears, Frogs, Wolves, and many more. This is why totem poles have so many animal faces on them - they need to represent the family crests for both spouses' moieties and clans. Totem poles and other kinds of crest art also tell stories. -Crest art typically represents a story, or oral tradition. Often the story is part of a family's history. This art illustrates the story of "Kats," the man who married a grizzly bear wife. This story is "owned" by the bear clan, who believe Kats was their ancestor. → Bear wife "has" Kats. Notice how in some representations Kats and/or his wife are in human form, but sometimes bears. To Tlingit people, they were both, so the distinction didn't really matter- it was the artist's choice.

Be able to define the term "ecological release" and explain its relevance to the dramatic decrease in American Indian populations.

-Others stumbled into new ecosystems and were transformed into environmental overlords: picture-book illustrations of what scientists call "ecological release." → In ecological release, an organism escapes its home and parachutes into an ecosystem that has never encountered it before. The majority of such escapees die rapidly, unable to thrive or reproduce in novel surroundings. → Most of the survivors find a quiet niche and settle in, blending inconspicuously with the locals. → But a few, finding themselves in places with few or none of their natural enemies, look around with the hopeful incredulity of juvenile delinquents who discover the mall's security cameras are broken—and wreak havoc. → In their home ecosystems these species have, like all living things, a full complement of parasites, microbes, viruses, and insect predators to shorten and immiserate their lives. Suddenly free of this burden, they can burst out and overwhelm the landscape -Ecological release occurs when a species is introduced to an environment other than its native habitat, the foreign species will either establish a local population, or die out from the region. -Ecological Release: So-called "killer bees"—Africanized honey bees—are a late example of the success of Old World immigrants. Brought from South Africa to Brazil in 1956, the aggressive African bees soon escaped and interbred with the docile European bees (which had themselves been introduced to the New World by European settlers in the 1600s). The resulting hybrid "killer bees" have traveled north at about 200 miles a year (arriving in the U.S. Southwest in 1990), threatening beekeepers' swarms and attacking livestock, pets, and people.

Be able to identify the subsistence strategy most suited to this culture area, and its relevance for Great Basin tribes' social organization.

-People in the Great basin area were mainly nomadic foragers who made a seasonal round from one food source to another. Small family groups came together infrequently for winter camp and ceremonial gatherings. These Shoshone women were photographed in 1868. These women look like they did not want their picture taken (they are hiding their faces.) - People in this culture area congregated in times and places of resource abundance and dispersed when resources were less available. From spring through fall, people traveled in small family bands, fishing and gathering green plants. Late in the summer, they would process and store seeds and dried meat and fish. During the late fall, several family bands would gather to harvest ripe pine seeds, also a storable staple. People gathered together in large groups during the winter, usually in the mountain foothills or river valleys near firewood, water, and game, and subsisted primarily on stored foods. - Baskets were important for collecting and winnowing seeds. In this culture area it was easier and more fruitful to simply gather seeds and other plants than to try and grow them (except near lakes and rivers). So hunting, fishing and gathering were a wiser form of economic activity than agriculture, but could only support relatively small scale nomadic societies.

Be able to give an example of the role which men's societies played in Plains cultures.

-Plains tribes had many men's societies (a little like fraternities) which served important social purposes, including managing the hunt and generally policing everyday life. There were also some women's societies. Elder's societies were the most prestigious, but membership had to be earned (through honorable behavior.) --traditionally, young men danced to find inspiration through a vision (Sun Dance was largest plains ceremony)

Be able to explain how the natural resources in this culture area led to the development of elaborate social organization, wealth, and art.

-Salmon fishing is the most important subsistence activity throughout the entire culture area. -The abundance of salmon also made it possible for so many people to live here, and to develop elaborate societies (as seen in social stratification and art, among other things) since they had a comparatively high degree of wealth, due to rich natural resources such as salmon and wood. Other food sources included lots of other fish, sea mammals, deer, elk, caribou, berries, root vegetables, pine nuts and various greens. → PNW people, like those in most of California, did not need to develop agriculture, as it was more economical to fish, gather and hunt these foods. --Pacific Northwest societies were relatively wealthy, living an area where salmon and other fish and sea mammals were plentiful. They had stratified class systems. We know this man is a chief because he is holding a symbol of his rank- a "copper", which has his family's genealogy etched on it. His nose labret also signifies his class.

(Beginning of Week 13, Indian Nations Ch 7, The Northwest Coast/Pacific Northwest Cultures) Be able to explain the reason for the intensity of intertribal trade and contact within the central and southern regions of the PNW.

-The Central region includes the Kwakiutl (or Kwakwaka'wakw), the Makah, the Nootka (or Nuu-Cha-Nulth) and many others, along the coast of British Columbia in Canada. → This area was densely packed with tribes prior to contact with Europeans, and a hopping center of trade with tribes as far away as the Plains and into Canada, both before and after contact, due to the many rivers and waterways (the early equivalent of highways,) which go deep into the interior forests. -The Columbia river was a major trade area for tribes as well as Europeans, who used the Chinook trade jargon to communicate

Be able to explain why the "five civilized tribes" were given this label by the dominant culture.

-The Five Civilized Tribes (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole) lobbied successfully against the Dawes Act of 1887, which divided tribally owned lands into individual allotments and opened up millions of acres to American homesteaders --These early stratified societies were eventually replaced by smaller scale societies, including many different tribes. → The most powerful of these, by about 1800, became known as the "Five Civilized tribes:" the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Cherokee, and Seminole. → These five tribes had assimilated many aspects of European culture over 200 years of contact, including European farming methods (plantation farming), literacy, and European forms of government and law. → The Cherokee tribe had a written constitution and newspaper written entirely in Cherokee, and had also largely converted to Christianity. -Most powerful tribes; These five tribes had assimilated many aspects of European culture over 200 years of contact, including European farming methods (plantation farming), literacy, and European forms of government and law.

Be able to explain how the geography of the Great Basin area is related to its name.

-The Great Basin culture area is bounded on the West by the Sierras and the East by the Rockies. Mountains keep out the wind from the Pacific, as well as the clouds and the rain. It's hot and dry for the most part, except for the higher elevations and around its many lakes.

Be able to discuss factors which influenced the movement of some tribes, such as the Cheyenne, which historically lived in the Northeast, to the Plains.

-The Plains is a complex culture area, because most tribes moved onto the Plains from other areas due to European encroachment on their traditional lands - In 1833, Colonel William bent persuaded many Cheyenne people to live on the Arkansas River in southeast Colorado around bent's Fort, While others stayed in Wyoming - they had no Central home-base and roamed the beautiful open Plains - they became close allies to the Arapaho through peace and warfare, but were strident enemies of the Sioux and Assiniboine → nevertheless, because alliances were essential to survival, and 1840 the Cheyenne and Sioux made permanent peace and fought enemies together. with the addition of the Arapaho, they made a formidable Trio - the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 laid out territory for many of the tribes, including the Cheyenne → the treaty provided a reservation that encompassed approximately half of Colorado and some of Wyoming, Kansas, and Nebraska → unfortunately, the area was in the route of Westward Expansion, settlement, and Mining. Therefore, conflict was inevitable - in 1857, troops were sent to control the Cheyenne, who fought as fervent Patriots for their land → Colonel Edwin V Sumner and his men killed a number of Chiefs and destroyed 200 lodges, causing outrage and retaliation from the Cheyenne → as the fighting spread, the government called a treaty meeting in 1861 at Fort wise, Colorado → the Cheyenne were now skeptical about such deals, and only six tribe members signed the treaty that took away most of the land designated for them earlier, leaving the tribe with an insignificant tracked in Colorado Massacre at Sand Creek - the government asked the Tsethasetas (Cheyenne) and some are opposed to take part in a meeting on November 24th, 1864, under Army protection at a place that will live in infamy-- Sand Creek, Colorado → more than 500 tribal members attended - The Indian leader, the respected Chief Black Kettle, flew the u.s. Stars and Stripes from his teepee, as well as a white flag of truce → Despite the pledges of safety, Colonel John M chivington ordered his troops to attack, even though some of his men begged him not to assault Friendly Indians. The attack was Bloody, with atrocities committed upon Indian men, women, and even babies - the indiscriminate Slaughter did not break the Cheyenne, but instead inflamed their thirst for Revenge → less than six weeks later, Warriors attacked a military stage and burn the town of Julesburg, Colorado - after a peaceful few months, on October 14th, 1865, a treaty Council gave the shy and a small reservation partly and Kansas and Oklahoma, but the wording in the treaty rendered it almost meaningless - the armed conflicts continued for more than a decade of bloody confrontations, broken promises, and repeated betrayals - although the Cheyenne fought hard, they were outnumbered, and in the summer of 1877, many of them were moved to Oklahoma - on September 9th, 1878, about 300 Cheyenne escape and headed north → in spite of many battles along the way, the group was soon captured and taken to Fort Robinson, Nebraska → at that point, they numbered less than 150 → Freezing and starving, they managed to briefly escaped again, but many were killed → on January 22nd, 1879, surrounded by four companies of Cavalry, 19 brave warriors with their women and children refuse to surrender, and 23 people were killed → fewer than fifteen got away. On March 25th, the last band was taken prisoner. They were placed at Fort Keough, Montana, and then in 1884 were given a tiny reservation on the Tongue River in Montana -Today about 4,000 tribe members live on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, with headquarters in lame deer, Montana, and another 5,000 live elsewhere -Cheyenne- Pressure from their enemies( Assiniboine and Cree) who were armed with guns and the hope of an easier life as buffalo hunters

(Begin Week 14, Indian Nations CH 5 the Southwest & Great Basin) Be able to identify the 4 cultural/linguistic groups of the Southwest culture area

-The SW culture area has 4 contemporary traditions (at least): Pueblo: (Hopi and many, many others, over 20) O'odham: (Tohono and Akimel) Athabascan: (Navajo and Apache) Yuman: (Cocopa, Havasupai, Hualapai,Yavapai, Mojave, Quechan, Maricopa)

Be able to explain how climate change affected these tribes, about 1100 AD.

-The ancestors of many southwestern tribes farmed along the Gila river, and built canals that were miles long. As Mann discusses, recurring mega-ninos about 1100 AD washed away these canals, making agriculture impossible for the next 300 years or so. At that point, the ancient Hohokam civilization broke down and its Yuman population moved away, probably back to California, leaving only O'odham people where they had been. By studying their language, linguists have found it reflects a lot of Yuman influence. --In 1100 AD a climate shift combining severe drought as well as more snowfall in the winters (Mann calls them meganiños) occurred all over the SW, and spring flooding created problems for irrigation systems. The Anasazi left most of their territory and moved eastward along the Rio Grande (where most Pueblo tribes are today.)

Be able to describe the impact of the Mission Period on the various culture areas of California.

-The first was the Mission Era, which began in San Diego, under Father Junipero Serra. This era lasted approx. 70 years, from 1760 to 1830, when Mexico gained its independence and the Spanish returned to Spain. It mainly affected Indians along the coast and in So. CA, as the map below shows. → Contact with Europeans occurred during the Mission era, which was devastating for most Californian tribes.The Spanish not only brought new diseases, but also cattle which ate up all their food staples. Indian "neophytes" (baptized Indians) were forced to labor for the missions and not allowed to leave.. If they tried to, they were tracked down and whipped. Click here to read an article about the Kumeyaay attack on the San Diego Mission in 1775: http://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-history/40-spanish-contact.html -Although the padres thought they were developing rancherias (towns and farms surrounding each mission) for the benefit of Indian peoples, this did not happen when they (the padres) were forced to leave as a result of the Mexican revolution in 1821. Instead, the missions and rancherias (fields of crops, orchards, cattle ranches, etc.) went to wealthy Mexican aristocrats rather than the Indian converts who had built them up over the years. Many California Indians continued to work on these ranches, as cowboys and servants, and were considered Mexican citizens under Mexican law at the time. But this changed when the US took over California with the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. The US did not consider them to be American citizens, and they would not gain this right until 1924. And so, they basically became unofficial slaves, without any legal recourse to protect their lives or their lands.

Be able to describe the impact of the gold rush on California Indian peoples.

-The second major event which was disastrous for California native peoples was The Goldrush, Which began in 1848. Changes brought on by the massive influx of gold miners affected the way Indians had traditionally procured their food, leading to raiding of mining camps for food, and the miners retaliated with violence. → The Goldrush affected Northern CA Indian peoples more so than Southern CA, but gold mining also went on in SoCal (Julian was established due to gold being found there.). Between 1850 and 1880, over 100,000 CA Indians died, largely due vigilante campaigns to exterminate them. By 1851, the California governor supported a policy of Indian extermination in response to problems caused by miners. → The Federal government subsidized this murder of California Indians by providing bounties on dead Indians (or their body parts.) This genocide lasted until approx. 1870.

Be able to explain the forms of resistance which Southeastern tribes took to being relocated, especially the Cherokee.

-The state of Georgia passed laws contradicting the laws of the Cherokee constitution, and violating the Cherokee Nation's sovereignty. → The Cherokee tribe went all the way to the Supreme Court, no less than three times, in their efforts to settle the question of their sovereignty on their own lands, as well as the right to remain on them. -The 1830 Removal Act authorized the federal government to renegotiate treaties with all tribes east of the Mississippi for new lands in "Indian territory" (Oklahoma). It did NOT give the US government the authority to relocate them without renegotiating these treaties. → The Cherokee knew this, and resisted, using legal means, but Andrew Jackson forced them to leave, in spite of the fact that the new treaty was signed by an illegitimate group of tribal leaders Other quizlet: -pointed to the Treaty of Hopewell (1785); established borders between the United States and the Cherokee Nation, offered the Cherokees the right to send a "deputy" to Congress, and made American settlers in Cherokee territory subject to Cherokee law.- negotiated treaty of 1819-1827- adopted a new constitution-The Cherokee National Council advised the United States that it would refuse future cession requests and enacted a law prohibiting the sale of national land upon penalty of death.-After Major RidgeHand-colored lithograph of Major Ridge, a Cherokee leader who helped establish the Cherokee system of government. The soldier, politician, and plantation owner is remembered for signing the Treaty of New Echota (1835), which ceded Cherokee lands to the U.S. government and authorized Cherokee removal.-After Major Ridge signed away Cherokee land, Chief Ross gathered 16,000 Cherokee signatures against the treaty, proving that the majority of the tribe was not in agreement

Be able to compare and contrast the cultures and subsistence strategies of early, sedentary Plains cultures with those of later, pastoralist cultures.

-These first settlers of the Plains lived in mound-houses, and were sedentary farmers who practiced intensive agriculture, and also hunted buffalo on foot, until horses arrived with Europeans.

Be able to give and explain one example of cultural syncretism between Spanish colonial culture and a southwestern indigenous culture.

-Today, examples of cultural syncretism are obvious in many of the pueblos, and found in both missions and some ceremonies, such as the matachines dance, which originally came from Spain and was part of the Catholic Mardi Gras ceremony. the matachines dance is performed both at Pueblos as well as some neighboring Spanish towns in New Mexico, at Christmas. -Another good example of cultural syncretism is at Zuni pueblo, where the interior of the Mission is painted with giant Zuni kachinas (like these.)

Be able to identify which major annual ceremony is practiced by Inuit peoples.

-Winter is the ceremonial season. The most important annual ceremony for Eskimo people is the "bladder ceremony." Traditionally, they believed that the soul of animals is in the bladder, so they save all the bladders from animals caught that year and release them back into the ocean during this ceremony, so they can be reborn into new bodies. → They also dance wearing masks, to act out the upcoming hunts, and enact the animals who will decide to give themselves up if the hunter is deserving enough.

Be able to define the term "pastoralism" and connect it to the appropriate SW cultures.

-branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock. It is animal husbandry: the care, tending and use of animals such as camels, goats, cattle, yaks, llamas, and sheep (Navajo, Apache) --Athabascan tribes are related linguistically- their languages are similar and belong to the Athabascan language family. They are also all pastoralists, and raise horses and sheep as a major part of their subsistence activities.

Be able to explain the relation between crest art and oral tradition.

-crest art typically represents a story or oral tradition. Often the story is part of a family's history

Be able to describe the forms of resistance taken by California Indians against the Spanish and/or the Americans.

-disrupted trade routes and industry - attacks on both the Spanish soldiers and the Franciscan missionaries; setting the missions on fire -killed priests

Be able to discuss how the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) has impacted Arctic peoples in Alaska.

-the Aleut Corporation Is one of the 12 Alaskan native corporations formed after the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 → as part of that settlement the aleut received 19.5 million-dollars, 70,789 acres of surface land, and 1.57 million acres of subsurface estate -- like most North Slope villages, Nuiqsut's economy is based primarily on substitutes hunting and fishing → however, nearly one-third of the workforce is employed in the private sector, mostly by the Kuukpik Corporation (the ANCSA village corporation) And the construction industry that has evolved as a result of project initiated by the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation -Nuiqsut sits on the Westbank of the Nechelik channel of the Colville River. It is an isolated community at the center of a vast tundra or permafrost region, characterized by low banked Meandering streams, marshy sloughs, and shallow freshwater lakes covering as much as 75% of its total surface area

Be able to identify the two other major cultural groups of Native Alaskans.

1. Aleut people, who live on the Aleutian chain of Alaska, are culturally fairly different, having absorbed more of the Pacific Northwest cultures' influence. 2.Dene people, In the center of Alaska, which is subarctic climate. Dene people speak Athabaskan languages and are linguistically related to Navajo and Apache peoples.

Be able to identify the various sub-culture areas within the "culture area" (the only one which is also a state) of California

1. The Northwest overlaps with the PNW culture area. 2. The Northeast is more mountainous. 3. The Central Valley &mountains were shared by many neighboring cultures. 4. The Great Basin area is considered a separate culture area entirely. 5. The South coastal culture area was very different in economy and social structure. See the Chumash section of this lecture. 6. The South desert area has a lot in common with theSouthwest culture area

Be able to explain why related Southeastern tribes have reservations in both their traditional Southeastern territories as well as in Oklahoma.

1819- The oconaluftee people separated from the Cherokee Nation and remained in North Carolina- Some cherokee groups hid from federal soldiers and avoided removal-others lived on reserves in georgia, tennessee, and alabama

Be able to identify the effects of timber clear-cutting and contemporary " aquaculture" (or fish farms) on subsistence fishing and other traditional activities, for the Kwakwaka'wakw people.

Clear-cutting affects the rivers and lakes where salmon live. The machines that are used to cut down trees pollute the surrounding bodies of water. The dams built for the tree cutting contributed to the assault on the environment. The Kwakwaka'wakw people had a spiritual way of hunting salmon in which they would honor the animal before consuming it. Now, the animals are contaminated and carry disease preventing the Kwakwaka'wakw from hunting the salmon.

Be able to identify the tribal groups of San Diego county

Here in San Diego county there are 20 different tribes. Most of them belong to the Kumeyaay nation, from San Pasqual and Santa Ysabel on down stretching into Baja CA, where there are five more Kumeyaay communities. North of the Kumeyaay are Luiseño tribes: Pechanga, Pala, Rincon, La Jolla, Pauma and San Luis Rey. North of them are Cahuilla people. Los Coyotes is the only Cahuilla tribe in SD county. -San Luis Rey is the only non-federally recognized band in San Diego county

Be able to identify the First Nations groups in this culture area- those who reside in Canada

Innu are a First Nations (Indian) group located in northeastern Quebec and central Labrador.

Be able to discuss how social status was achieved through the redistribution of wealth in PNW societies

Potlatches- nobles acquired wealth and redistributed goods freely to guests at potlatches, held on special occasions.-nobles traced their high status to ancestral spirits

Be able to explain the "Pristine Myth" and its connection to the Columbian Exchange.

Pristine Myth: -The myth persists that in 1492 the Americas were a sparsely populated wilderness, -a world of barely perceptible human disturbance. → - There is substantial evidence, however, that the Native American landscape of the early sixteenth century was a humanized landscape almost everywhere. → Populations were large. Forest composition had been modified, grasslands had been created, wildlife disrupted, and erosion was severe in places. Earthworks, roads, fields, and settlements were ubiquitous. → With Indian depopulation in the wake of Old World disease, the environment recovered in many areas. → A good argument can be made that the human presence was less visible in 1750 than it was in 1492.

Be able to identify at least one form through which California tribes may express cultural sovereignty.

Self-determination as a federal policy means that tribes are now encouraged to run all of their own government affairs without any interference from the US government. But this is difficult to do, for example instituting tribal courts, police, schools, health centers, etc., with very limited economic development.

(Beginning of Week 9 --> Indian Nations CH 2, the Southeast) Be able to identify which European nations invaded Southeastern tribal lands.

Spain & France

Be able to explain how the Pick-Sloan plan has impacted tribes in this culture area.

THE PICK-SLOANE PLAN -The Missouri River and its tributaries are an immense natural resource. They drain one-sixth of the Nation. The 530,000 square-mile basin is more than 2,300 miles long. Missouri River fisheries generate about five million recreational visits each year valued at $175 million. Despite historical and legal rights to the water, the 25 tribes in the area have not participated fully in the benefits of the Pick-Sloane plan, nor were they consulted in its construction. -Twenty-three percent of the 1,499,759 acres taken for the construction of the dams and reservoirs under the Pick-Sloan plan were tribal lands. Although the federal government promised irrigation development and participation in the electricity generated, the tribes are just beginning to receive some of these benefits. -Filling the dams involved flooding which made a lot of native americans have to relocate created new ecosystems to which plants and animals have been forced to adapt.

Be able to outline the content of the 1850 Act for the Protection of CA Indians and its impact on California Indian peoples

The 1850 "Act for the Government and Protection of Indians" -Although California entered the Union in 1850 as a "free state," state laws had been passed making the indenture of Indians the equivalent of slavery. The 1850 "Act for the Government and Protection of Indians" made it legal for whites to keep Indian children as 'apprentices," illegal for Indians to be unemployed, legal for whites to indenture Indians when jailed, and impossible for Indians to testify in court against white people, so they could not turn to the law for help when these laws were abused. -So, if vigilantes came to an Indian village, they could legally arrest all the adults, take the kids as slaves, and then indenture the adults to the white ranchers or miners who bailed them out (because they needed labor.) This was an improvement over the alternate (and also legal) practice of killing all the adults for bounties, hence the wording "Act for the Government and Protection of Indians."

Be able to describe the events leading up to and following the internment of the entire Navajo Nation at Fort Sumner in the 1860s.

The Navajo Long Walk -After many years of bloody fighting between the Navajo and the US, Army General James Henry Carleton thought he had a solution: subjugate the Indians and move them from their land in the four corners area - he set up a military post and reservation in Eastern New Mexico called Fort Sumner and Bosque Redondo - in 1863, he ordered frontiersmen and military officer Kit Carson to round up the Indians. The Navajo fought back, but the Army destroyed their Farms, homes, and livestock - in January 1864, amid snow and bitter cold, Carson class in Arizona's Canyon De Chelly what's up band lead by navajo leader Barboncito → more than 200 Navajo eventually surrendered there - in the ensuing months, across Navajo land, thousands more turned themselves in, hoping for food, shelter, and peace - they were marched on foot to Fort Sumner, a journey of 300 to 450 miles. Along the way, many died of starvation, disease, or exhaustion - eventually, as many as 9000 Navajo, along with about 500 Mescalero Apache, were at Bosque Redondo-- far more than Carleton had planned for - conditions were miserable. Crops failed, and people starved. Hundreds escaped, but nearly a third died. Carleton was removed from his post in 1886

Be able to explain the significance of potlatch ceremonies in PNW culture.

The PNW culture area shares some cultural traits with other Pacific Rim cultures, including similar art styles, masked dance dramas,and celebratory feasts or "potlatches." This is likely due to contact, from boats traveling across the Pacific. If you haven't seen the movie "Whale Rider," about Maori culture in New Zealand- go see it! --Potlatches were traditional ceremonies held for important events such as weddings, funerals, naming ceremonies, etc. and were hosted by wealthy families who would give away much of their wealth to their guests. → Importantly, however, the guests were also wealthy. Remember, these societies were socially stratified. Through redistributing wealth, a family could increase in social status. → The guests were often their distant relatives. → In a way, potlatches became super-competitive affairs, in which the well-to-do strove to outdo each other. Of course, this is frequently seen today in mainstream American culture among people with too much money. But at the time, potlatches were banned by US and Canadian governments partly because Europeans just couldn't grasp the whole social motivation. → These massive celebrations also took Native employees away from their jobs for many days, and that was probably the real reason they were banned.

Be able to identify which " First Nations" tribes live across the border in Canadian Plains culture area.

There were eight principal tribes of First Nations who inhabited Canada's plains. Of these, the Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, Gros Ventre and Plains Cree spoke languages belonging to the Algonkian language family. The Assiniboine and Sioux spoke languages belonging to the Siouan family. The Sarcee spoke an Athapaskan language.

Be able to give an example of a change affecting a species other than man in the Americas following the dramatic decrease in American Indian populations.

With few Native Americans left, the American landscapes were no longer being regulated. "Not only did invading endive and rats beset them, but native species, too, burst and blasted, freed from constraints by the disappearance of native americans"

Be able to identify the economic pursuits of Southeastern tribes during this period (prior to removal: 1700-1850).

mainly corn; agriculture

Be able to identify who the Unangan people are - what other name are they known by, and where do they live?

the Unagan People (previously known as the Aletus) have long lived in the Aleutian Islands, the 1300 mile long chain that stretches from the Alaska Peninsula West almost to Russia → there are more than 160 named islands, and the territory also includes the pribilof islands to the north - the Unangan language branched off from the Eskimo-Aleut family about 1000 BC - although the weather in the islands is generally temperate, not Arctic, the water is cold and fog is common - there are few trees or land dwelling animals, so they have always looked to the Sea for their livelihood → traditionally fishermen puddled among the islands in baidarka, animal skin covered kayaks

Be able to explain what the "Chinook trade jargon" was and who used it.

→ The Chinook trade jargon was a pidgin (a reduced form of Chinook language proper) which everyone used for trade purposes. The word "potlatch" is from this jargon. The original Chinook word is "palaach." The term "potlatch" shows obvious English influence.

Be able to identify the roles that Pope and Diego de Vargas played in the Pueblo Revolt and its aftermath

→ finally, in 1692, Don Diego de Vargas arrived in the Rio Grande Valley for what became known as the Spanish reconquest. DeVargas took the land back for New Spain in a more peaceful manner than his predecessors