Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1

First law of thermodynamics

- States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change form

What is an example of systemic anatomy?

The study of the muscular system would require the understanding of all the skeletal muscles of the body

Point out the location and identify the "regions and quadrants of the peritoneal cavity"

* Look back at notes and DRAW it out

What is the optimal temperature for the human body?

- 37 degree Celcius or 98.6 degree Faranheit - Depending on the heat, if its too high or too low the enzymes in our body can denature, which will change the shape and function.

The cellular energy currency is...

- ATP !!! (adenosine triphosphate)

Define homeostasis

- Ability to maintain internal stability in an organism in response to environmental changes - = maintaining the physiological state

What is metabolism made up of?

- Anabolism - Catabolism

What are some examples of a negative feedback loop?

- Body temperature - Blood pressure - Shivering: The new change has to be reversed as well as bring the body system back to normal. - Eating spicy foods: When spicy foods are being eaten, the body sweats and then cools down. It eventually brings it back to a set point --> reverses.

Define computed tomography (CT scan)

- Bunch of x rays throughout --> creates a 3D image - Reveals very small details, bones and soft tissue can show tumor. - More radiation, but more of a detailed picture

What are some examples of a positive feedback loop?

- Childbirth - Increased clotting during blood loss

What does a PET-MRI Scan for Cancer do?

- Combines a PET scan and an MRI scan = detailed image

How is childbirth part of the positive feedback loop?

- Contraction of the uterus during childbirth causes the release of oxytocin, which stimulates stronger contractions of the uterus, causing more oxytocin release.

Define physiology

- Deals with the FUNCTIONS that keeps the body alive and to remain at homeostasis

Biosphere

- Ecosystem composed of living things

Describe the process in which oxygen is included in?

- Electrons are being passed and a proton is being placed in the mitochondria. Protons flow and a proton gradient is made by passing the electron. The last electron will go to the oxygen, and as a result, water will be made.

Macronutrients...

- Energy yielding (ex: carbohydrates and lipids) - Body building nutrients (ex: proteins)

How does ATP work?

- Every cell uses ATP to store and release energy. The cell stores energy in the process of anabolism, then moves the ATP molecules to the location where energy is needed, in order to fuel cellular activities. Then, the ATP is broken down (catabolism) and energy is released, which is used by the cell to perform a specific job.

Tissues

- Group of many similar cells that work together to perform a specific function

Organ system

- Group of organs that work together to perform major functions and meet the physiological needs of the body

Water...

- Humans are made up of 70-75% water

What is an example of DCS?

- In a carbonated drink, when the seal is removed, the pressure of the gas over the liquid is reduced. This results in bubbles as dissolved gasses (in this case, CO2) to come out of the solution in the liquid.

What is the original stimuli in the increased clotting during blood loss?

- In this case, the original stimulus were the platelets, which are used to stop the bleeding. During an injury, your platelets will cluster together at the site of the wound to act as a plug, sealing the blood vessels in a process called clotting to prevent excess blood from leaving your body.

Why is increased clotting during blood loss dangerous?

- Increased blood clotting is a huge problem because no baby would come out. When the bleeding is stopped, the original stimulus will no longer be there.

What is the importance of growth?

- It is the increase in body size. Humans, grow by increasing the number of existing cells (# of cells in human body is equal to 10^13), increasing the amount of deposit and increasing the size of existing cells. - = number, deposit, and size of existing cells - Fun fact: there is more bacteria than human cells

Adaptation...

- It is the process by which individuals become fitted to its environment

Define catabolism

- It is the process in which larger molecules are BROKEN DOWN into smaller molecules. When the breaking of materials happen, energy is released.

Define anabolism

- It is the process in which smaller molecules are COMBINED into larger substances. Our body is capable of building reactions by consuming energy from the foods we eat.

Acclimation...

- It is the process of adjustment that the respiratory system makes due to high altitudes

List the structural organization of the human body:

- Listed from smallest to largest - Subatomic particles - Atoms - Molecules - Organelles - Cells - Tissues - Organs - Organ system - Organism - Biosphere

Organisms

- Living beings that have a cellular structure capable of performing functions necessary for life

Which of the types of anatomy are specialization areas?

- Macroscopic/gross anatomy - Microscopic anatomy - Microscopic anatomy includes cytology (cells) and histology (tissues)

Organs

- Made up of 2 or more tissues. Each organ performs 1 or more functions.

Subatomic particles

- Made up of protons, neutrons and electrons

Atoms

- Made up of the subatomic particles

When would controlled hypothermia be used?

- Often used during an open heart surgery as it decreases the metabolic needs of the brain, heart, and other organs. As a result, this reduces the risk of damage to those organs. - When controlled hypothermia is used, the patient is given medication to prevent shivering.

Define X-ray

- One x-ray after another--> very detailed image

Nervous System

- Organs include: brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves - Function: 1) Detects and processes sensory information 2) Activates bodily responses

Skeletal System

- Organs include: cartilage, bones and joints - Function: 1) Supports the body 2) Enables movement (with muscular system)

Male reproductive system

- Organs include: epididymis, testes - Function: 1) Produces sex hormones and gametes 2) Delivers gametes to female

Integumentary System

- Organs include: hair, skin and nails - Function: 1) encloses internal body structures 2) it is a site of many sensory receptors

Cardiovascular System

- Organs include: heart, blood vessels - Function: 1) Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues 2) Equalizes temperature in the body

Urinary System

- Organs include: kidneys, urinary bladder - Function: 1) Controls water balance in the body 2) Removes wastes from blood and excretes them

Female reproductive system

- Organs include: mammary glands, ovaries, uterus - Function: 1) Produces sex hormones and gametes 2) Supports embryo/fetus until birth 3) Produces milk for infant

Respiratory System

- Organs include: nasal passage, trachea, lungs - Function: 1) Removes carbon dioxide from the body 2) Delivers oxygen to the blood

Endocrine System

- Organs include: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands and testes - Function: 1) Secretes hormones 2) Regulates bodily processes

Muscular System

- Organs include: skeletal muscles and tendons - Function: 1) Enables movement (with skeletal system) 2) Helps maintain body temperature

Digestive System

- Organs include: stomach, liver, gallbladder, large intestine, small intestine - Function: 1) Processes food for use by the body 2) Removes wastes from undigested food

Lymphatic System

- Organs include: thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels - Function: 1) Returns fluid to the blood 2) Defends against pathogens

Atmospheric Pressure

- Pressure helps blood gas stay dissolved. - Atmospheric pressure can also help with our ability to breath--> to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

What are all the different types of directions?

- Prone= face DOWN lying DOWN - Supine= face UP lying DOWN - Anterior (ventral) = front - Posterior (dorsal) = back - Superior= always found cranially, towards the head or crown - Inferior= always goes caudal or downward towards the toes. - Medial= towards the middle of the body - Lateral= away from the middle of the body - Proximal= closer to the trunk. They are the points we locate close to where they originate= near the torso. - Distal= farther from the trunk - Superficial= points we see close to the surface, more external (ex: skin) - Deep= goes inward, they are away from the surface, deeper inside. (ex: brain)

Negative Feedback

- REVERSES a change from the set point

Which of the types of anatomy are approaches of studying anatomy?

- Regional anatomy (ex: abdomen) - Systemic anatomy (ex: muscular system)

What is anatomy?

- Scientific study of the body's structures - Some are very small structures and can only be observed through a microscope

What are serous membranes?

- Serous membrane lines the pericardial cavity and reflects back to cover the heart. This is similar to the same way that an under inflated balloon would form two layers surrounding a fist

Cells

- Smallest unit of a living organism

Define ultrasonography

- Sound waves - Deals with the fetal growth and development - Least invasive

Define macroscopic/gross anatomy?

- Study of the larger structures of the body, visible at the naked eye - With our naked eye, we can see external and internal structures - For ex: the brain (internal structure)

How does controlled hypothermia help in medical treatment?

- The body will eventually cool down, the heart is stopped and the heart-lung pump is used to maintain circulation to the patient's body. The heart is cooled further and is maintained at 60 degree F for the rest of the surgery. - This very cold temperature helps the heart tolerate its lack of blood supply during the surgery.

Compare and contrast chemical levels of organization from the human body's level of organization.

- The chemical levels of organization are: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. - The human body's level of organization are: organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ system= make up an organism (human being).

What are cavities membranes?

- The largest cavities are the thoracic (enclosed by the rib cage), abdominopelvic (largest cavity AKA peritoneal cavity) and cranial (enclosed by skull) cavities.

Which molecule extracts more energy? The carbohydrates or the lipids?

- The lipids!!!

What are all the different types of body planes?

- The sagittal plane divides right and left sides--> it is a vertical plane. - if it is EVEN, it would be called midsagittal or median plane - if it is UNEQUAL, it would be called parasagittal plane (or longitudinal section) --> located within the left or right side of the median. - Parasagittal plane is the cutting from the side - The frontal plane (coronal) divides into front and rear - The transverse (or horizontal) plane divides into upper and lower portions (cross sections)

Regional Anatomy

- The study of 2 or more things related to each other (interrelationship) located in a specific body region - The examination of specific external and internal REGIONS (head, chest, abdomen) - For ex: muscles, nerves and blood vessels work together to provide a specific function

Microscopic Anatomy

- The study of structures that can only be seen with a microscope - It can deal with the SAME structure, but at a different scale - For ex: neuron cells that make up the brain

Systemic Anatomy

- The study of structures that make up a specific body system and work together to perform a unique body function. - The examination of DIFFERENT SYSTEMS of the body - With this approach, you get to see the relationship between the organs that belong to the same body system

How are all the branches of anatomy similar?

- They all focus on the study of the body's structures and how they all work together

Sagittal Plane (midsagittal)

- This describes: midsagittal

Decompression Sickness (DCS)

- This occurs when pressure is reduced. When this happens, less gas will remain dissolved.

Organelles

- Tiny functioning units that are part of the cytoplasm

What is our basic functions as humans?

- To consume energy and molecules in the food we eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, help our body functions and build/maintain our body structures.

Molecules

- Two or more atoms combine (for ex: water molecules). They are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.

Define positron emission tomography (PET)

- Uses a tracer to show both normal and abnormal metabolic activity. - You can see lots of activity here!!!

Define magnetic resonance imagining (MRI)

- Uses radio waves, a powerful magnet, and a computer to make series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. - Radiopharmaceutical ingested with short radioactive half life - Discovered tumors

Anatomical Terminology...

- Using anatomical position as a standard "body map" and precise anatomical terminology= reduces medical errors

Positive Feedback

- Very unusual - INTENSIFIES a change in the body's physiological condition rather than reversing it, until the set point is reached. - This process is problematic as it makes something BIGGER and BIGGER. As a result, the body can overreact. - In this case, when the body shivers, the temperature will go lower and lower (this doesn't happen in this loop because that could be a huge problem).

Micronutrients...

- Vitamins and minerals

What is hypothermia?

- When your body reaches an abnormally low body temperature

X-rays were discovered by

- Wilhelm Rontgen

What is anatomical position?

- when you point out to an EXACT location of pain

A pure substance or _______ contains atoms, which are made up of protons, ________, and ____________ or subatomic particles.

1) - Element 2) - Electrons 3) - Neutrons

What are the 6 functional characteristics of human life?

1) - Organization--> organization and hierarchy of cells and tissues 2) - Metabolism--> internal chemical reactions, catabolism/anabolism, generates wastes 3) - Responsiveness--> sense and react to stimuli 4) - Movement--> at all levels of organization 5) - Development and growth--> change in form or function 6) - Reproduction--> formation of a new organism

The human body is made up of multiple different body systems. Organ systems are made up of ______ that work together.

1) - Organs

Compare and contrast oxygen versus carbon dioxide for human life.

1) - Oxygen: Key component that keeps the body alive and it is needed to produce ATP. It is also the final electron carrier 2) Carbon Dioxide: We breath in O2 and release CO2 (waste gas).

Cells make up ________, _____________ make up organs, _________ make up organ system

1) - Tissues 2) - Tissues 3) - Organs

What are the three types of nutrients?

1) - Water 2) - Macronutrients 3) - Micronutrients