Anatomy and Physiology Chapters 10+11+12+13

49. Which muscle types are amitotic?

Cardiac and skeletal muscle

21. What is an action potential? Where are they typically produced?

Long distance signals; axons

26. What is the purpose of the absolute refractory period?

time from opening of the Na+ channels until the resetting of the channels

19. What is the normal resting membrane potential?

70 mV in neurons

38. What is the normal length-tension relationship in the sarcomeres of skeletal muscle?

80%-120%

7. Describe a synchondrosis joint. What type of cartilage is used here?

A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones, they are all synarthrotic (rib and sternum)

11. What is a bursa? What can it separate?

A bursa is a sheath that acts as a ball bearing. It separates bones so they do not rub together.

What are the 3 structural classifications of joints?

Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

27. What is the relative refractory period?

Follows the absolute refractory period

?16. What is voltage? Current? Resistance? Be able to use Ohm's Law (V=I*R) to calculate voltage, current, or resistance given the other 2.

Voltage - measure of potential energy generated by a separate charge Current - the flow of electrical charge between two points Resistance - hindrance to charge flow

Why are voltage-gated calcium channels found on the sarcoplasmic reticulum? What is the trigger to open these channels? Why would we want to release calcium?

Voltage regulated Na+ channels open in the adjacent patch, causing it to depolarize the threshold.

35. What are neurotransmitters? Be able to recognize the major neurotransmitters and know examples of each class of neurotransmitters.

Bind to channel linked receptor and opens ion channels. Promote rapid responses. Ach neurotransmitters, Catecholamines, Indolamines, Amino acids, peptides, gases, lipids

35. What is the balanced chemical reaction for aerobic cellular respiration?

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 --> 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + ATP

2. What are the 2 divisions of the nervous system? What organs are part of each?

Central nervous system - brain and spinal cord, integration and command center Peripheral nervous system - paired spinal and cranial nerves carry messages to and from the CNS

5. Describe a syndesmosis joint.

Connected by fibrous tissue ligament, varies from immovable to slightly moveable; connects tibia and fibula and radius and ulna.

29. What is muscle tone?

Constant, slightly contracted state of all muscles

Describe the process of cross-bridge cycling. How are actin and myosin interacting? What is occurring?

Continues as long as the Ca2+ signal and adequate ATP are present. Cross bridge formation high energy myosin head attaches to thin filament. Working (power) stroke myosin head pivots and pulls thin filament toward M line. Cross bridge detachment ATP attaches to myosin head and the cross bridge detaches "Cocking" of the myosin head energy from hydrolysis of ATP cocks the myosin head into the high energy state.

28. What effect does myelin have on conduction velocity? What is salutatory conduction?

Continuous conduction in unmyelinated axons is slower than saltatory conduction in myelinated axons. Propagation of actions potentials along myelinated axons from one node of ranvier to the next node.

12. What is a dendrite? What is an axon?

Dendrite - short, tapering and diffusely branched. Receptive region of a neuron. Convey electrical signals toward the cells body as graded potentials Axon - knoblike axon terminals, secretory region of a neuron. Release neurotransmitters to excite or inhibit other cells. Conducting region of a neuron. Generates and transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body

22. In graded potentials, what is depolarization? What is hyperpolarization?

Depolarization - reduction in membrane potential, inside of the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential, increases the probability of producing a nerve impulse Hyperpolarization - an increase in membrane potential, inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential, reduces the probability of producing a nerve impulse

36. What is direct action? What is indirect action? Which neurotransmitters are associated with each?

Direct - neurotransmitter binds to channel linked receptor and opens ion channels; Cl- influx or K+ eflux Indirect - binds to a g protein linked receptor and acts through an intracellular second messenger; muscarinic, ach receptors

31. Describe the 4 ways muscles can get ATP during contraction.

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate, and myokinase, anaerobic pathway, aerobic respiration

10. What are the other names for the cell body of a neuron?

Perikaryon or Soma

?16. Describe and identify the major examples of the following joint shapes: plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball-and-socket. What range of motions are allowed by each (for example: ball-and-socket joints are multiaxial.because they allow flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and rotation).

Plane- nonaxial joints, flat articular surface, short gliding movements Hinge- uniaxial joints, movement alone a single place, flexion and extension only Pivot- Rounded end of one bone conforms to a "sleeve," or ring of another bone, uniaxial movement only. Condyloid- biaxial joints, both articular surfaces are oval, permit all angular movements Saddle- biaxial, allow greater freedom of movement that condyloid joints, each articular surface has convex and concave areas Ball-and-socket- multiaxial joints, the most freely moving of the synovial joints

9. What is craniospinal fluid? What cells line cavities filled with CSF?

Plasma with low protein and few cells. Ependymal cells

30. What are prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixators? Be able to identify the major examples of each in flexion/extension of the shoulder, hip, elbow, or knee.

Prime movers- major force for a specific movement Antagonists- oppose or reverse a particular movement Synergists- add force to a movement, reduce undesirable or unnecessary movement Fixators- stabilize a muscle's origin

40. What are the 5 parts of a somatic reflex arc?

Receptor, sensory neurons, cna, integration center, motor neuron and effector

36. Why do the muscles need extra oxygen after exercise?

Replenishment of oxygen reserves, glycogen stores, ATP and CP reserves, conversion of lactic acid to pyruvic acid, glucose and glycogen

What is a muscle twitch? What are the 3 phases of a twitch?

Response of a muscle to a brief, threshold stimulus. Latent period- event of excitation-contraction coupling Period of contraction- cross bridge-formation; tension increases Period of relaxation: ca2+ reentry into the SR; tension declines to zero

3. Describe the amount of movement allowed by each functional classification.

S- immovable, A- slightly moveable, D- completely moveable

x13. What is the myelin sheath? Which cells compose the myelin sheath? Where is each cell found?

Segmented protein-lipid sheath around most long or large diameter axons. Schwann cells compose myelin sheath.

?1. List the 3 functions of the nervous system.

Sensory input- information gathered by sensory receptors about internal and external changes Integration - interpretation of sensory input via interneurons Motor output- activation of effector organs (muscles and glands) produces a response

?39. Compare serial and parallel processing. What is a reflex arc?

Serial - automatic responses to stimli that always cause the same response Reflex arc - five essential components, receptor, sensory neuron, cna, integration center, motor neuron, and effector Parallel - input travels along several pathways, one stimulus promoted numerous responses, important for higher level mental functioning

10. Describe the unique structures in a synovial joint. Why are these modifications necessary?

Those joints in which the articulating bones are separated by a fluid containing joint cavity. All are freely movable diarthroses. all limb joints, and most joints of the body

?2. What are the 6 functions of muscles?

1.Movement of bones or fluids (e.g., blood) 2.Maintaining posture and body position 3.Stabilizing joints 4.Heat generation (especially skeletal muscle) Also: 5.Protect internal organs (abdomen) 6.Regulate body openings (mouth, eyes, anus)

?45. What are caveoli?

A lipid raft

13. Describe the process of local depolarization (end plate potential), depolarization, and repolarization.

ACh binding opens chemically (ligand)gated ion channels. Simultaneous diffusion of Na+ (inward) and K+ (outward). More Na+ diffuses, so the interior of the sarcolemma becomes less negative. Local depolarization=end plate potential. Repolarization- Na+ channels close and voltage gated K channels open. K+ efflux rapidly restores the resting polarity. Fiber cannot be stimulated and is in a refractory period until repolarization is complete.

12. Describe the events of the action potential at the muscle after being stimulated at the neuromuscular junction.

ACh effects are quickly terminated by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Prevents continued muscle fiber contraction in the absence of additional stimulation

29. What is multiple sclerosis? What is the cause of this disease? What tissues and cell parts are affected?

An autoimmune disease that affects young adults. Myelin sheaths in the CNS become nonfunctional scleroses.

26. Compare unfused and fused tetany.

An unfused tetanus is when the muscle fibers do not completely relax before the next stimulus because they are being stimulated at a fast rate; however there is a partial relaxation of the muscle fibers between the twitches. ... A fused tetanic contraction is the strongest single-unit twitch in contraction.

24. What are the 2 intracapsular ligaments in the knee?

Anterior and posterior cruciate joints

x38. What is a simple neuronal pool?

Arrangements of neurons, also known as neuronal circuits.

What cells compose the Blood-Brain Barrier? What is the function of the Blood-Brain Barrier?

Astrocytes Restricts the passage of various chemical substances and bacteria between the bloodstream and neural tissue itself.

?31. What are the 3 types of neural synapses?

Axodendritic- between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another Axosomatic- between the axon of one neuron and the soma of another Axoaxonic - axon to axon dendrodendritic - dendrite to dendrite Dendrosomatic - dendrite to som

33. Compare EPSPs and IPSPs. What chemicals are involved with each? What effect do they have on resting membrane potential?

EPSP - Binds to and opens chemically gated channels that allow flow of Na+ and K+ in opposite directions IPSP - Binds to and opens channels for K+ or Cl-

12. What is a tendon sheath? What can it separate?

Elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon.

Describe the arrangements of muscle fibers (cells), fascicles, and the muscle. Describe the endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium. Be able to recognize this arrange in a diagram.

Endomysium- fine areolar muscle tissue surrounding each muscle fiber Perimysium- fibrous muscle tissue surrounding fascicles )groups of muscle fibers) Epimysium- dense regular tissue surrounding entire muscle

1. What are the 4 special characteristics of muscle tissue?

Excitability, contractility, extensibility,elasticity

What chemical reaction in muscles is dependent on these structures?

Exercise

43. What is the overload principle?

Forcing a muscle to work hard promotes increased muscle strength and endurance, muscles adapt to increased demands, muscles must be overloaded to produce further gains

?27. What are the effects of increased intensity of stimulation in a muscle?

Fused (complete) tetany results

21. What are the 2 major ball-and-socket joints in the body? How do they differ in terms of mobility and stability?

Glenohumeral joints, Coxal joint.

Describe the movements and identify major examples: gliding, flexion/extension/hyperextension, dorsiflexion/plantarflexion, abduction/adduction, circumduction, rotation, supination/pronation, inversion/eversion, protraction/retraction, elevation/depression, and opposition.

Gliding- One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface Flexion/extension/hyperextension- bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint/reverse of flexion, movement of joint is increased/ extension beyond anatomical position Dorsiflexion/plantarflexion- up and down movement of foot Abduction/adduction- movement away from midline, movement towards midline Circumduction- movement describes a cone in space Rotation- the turning of a bone around its own long axis Supination/pronation- palm showing, back of hand showing Inversion/eversion- turning feet in, turning feet out

48. What is the embryonic origin of muscle tissue?

Head to toe, proximal to distal

8. Describe a symphysis joint. What type of cartilage is used here?

Hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of the bone and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage. Pubic symphysis of the pelvis.

?33. When is lactic acid produced? How many ATP are produced?

In the anaerobic pathway, produces 2 ATP

20. What are graded potentials? Where are they typically produced?

Incoming short distance signals; dendrites and somas mostly

41. What are the effects of aerobic, endurance exercise?

Increased muscle capillaries, number of mitochondria, myoglobin synthesis, greater endurance, strength and resistance to fatigue, may convert fast glycolytic fibers into fast oxidative fibers

9. Describe a synovial joint.

Joints in articulating bones separated by a fluid-contained cavity. Freely moveable, diarthrosis.

26. Why do cartilage injuries typically heal slowly?

Lack of blood supply

17. Compare gated and leakage ion channels.

Leakage - channels always open Gated: chemically gated - channels open with binding of a specific neurotransmitter Voltage gated - open and close in response to changed in membrane potential Mechanically gated - channels open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors

17. What are the 3 basic components of a lever. In a body movement, what structures will serve in each role?

Lever-rigid bar (bone) that moves on a fixed point or fulcrum (joint) Effort-force (supplied by muscle contraction) applied to a lever to move a resistance (load) Load-resistance (bone + tissues + any added weight) moved by the effort

25. What is a sprain?

Ligament is stretched or torn

11. Are the acetylcholine (ACh) receptors voltage or ligand gated?

Ligand-gated

How do muscles use motor units to avoid fatigue?

Motor units in a muscle usually contract asynchronously; helps prevent fatigue

15. What are the 3 structural classifications of neurons? What are the differences between them? What functions are performed by each (typical examples)?

Multipolar - 1 axon and several dendrites Most abundant, motor neurons and interneurons Bipolar - 1 axon and 1 dedrite on opposite sides of soma Rare - retinal neurons and olfactory neurons Unipolar - single short process that has two branches Peripheral - more distal branch often associated with sensory receptor Central - more proximal branch entering the CNS Most sensory neurons

What effect does depolarization have on the sarcoplasmic reticulum and terminal cisternae? What is released? Why?

Muscle fiber cannot be stimulated again, until repolarization is complete Ionic conditions of the resting state are restored by the Na+ K+pump Note: Once initiated, the action potential is unstoppable.

42. What are the effects of resistance exercise?

Muscle hypertrophy, increased mitochondria, myofilaments, glycogen storage, and connective tissue

4. What is the function of myoglobin? What is the function of glycosomes (glycogen)?

Myoglobin stores oxygen while glycosomes store glycogen.

What is a neuron? What is a neuroglia cell? What are the 6 types of neuroglia and what is the function of each?

Neuron - excitable cells that transmit electrical signals Neuroglia - supporting cells Astrocytes, Microglia, Ependymal cells, Oligodendrocytes, Satellite cells, Schwann cells

14. Describe the movements allowed by: nonaxial, uniaxial, biaxial, and multiaxial joints.

Nonaxial- slipping movement only Uniaxial- movement in one plane Biaxial- movement in two planes Multiaxial- movement in our around all three plans

4. Describe a suture joint.

Occurs between bones of the skull, middle age bones fuse, compromised of interlocking junctions completely filled with connective tissue fibers

13. Define origin and insertion in muscle attachments.

Origin - attaches to immovable bone Insertion - attachment to moveable bone

28. Describe the cause of the following types of arthritis: Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, Gout.

Osteoarthritis- most common arthritis, affects more women than men, 85% of americans get it, prevalent in aged people Rheumatoid- chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease, usually happens to people between 40-50 years of age Gout- deposition of uric acid crystals in joints, typically affects joint in big toe,

39. Compare the source of ATP in oxidative and glycolytic fibers.

Oxidative - use aerobic pathways Glycolytic - use anaerobic pathways

27. What is a subluxation?

Partial dislocation of a joint

9. Describe the sarcomere when relaxed. What changes during contraction? How do the thick and thin filaments interact? What happens to the lengths of the sarcomere? What about the A-band, I-band, H-zone, and Z-discs?

Shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on the thin filaments exceeds forces opposing shortening.In the relaxed state, thin and thick filaments overlap only slightly. During contraction actin slides past the myosin because myosin heads bind to actin, detach, and bind again, to propel the thin filaments toward the M line. As H zones shorten and disappear, sarcomeres shorten (the I band shortens, the Z discs move closer together), the muscle cells shorten, and the whole muscle shorten

Describe the events at the neuromuscular junction. What is released by the nerve? What does it do to the muscle cell?

Skeletal muscles are stimulated by somatic motor neurons. Axons of motor neurons travel from the central nervous system via nerves to skeletal muscles Each axon forms several branches as it enters a muscle Each axon ending forms a neuromuscular junction with a single muscle fiber

?40. What are the 3 muscle fiber types? To what types of exercises are each best suited?

Slow oxidative- marathon running Fast oxidative - sprinting Fast glycolytic - weight-lifting

44. How are smooth muscles different from skeletal muscles? Compare the cell shapes, the way they store calcium, the amount of connective tissue, how they are innervated, how they use calcium, etc.

Smooth - found in walls of most hollow organs, usually in two layers, a third layer is found in the stomach Skeletal -

47. What is hyperplasia? What muscles can grow by hyperplasia?

Smooth muscle cells can divide and increase their numbers.

5. What is the difference between somatic and autonomic motor systems? What are the effectors of each?

Somatic - conscious control of skeletal muscles Autonomic - regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands Sympathetic - short term survival Parasympathetic - long term survival

3. What is the function of the sensory (afferent) division? What type of messages are being sent?

Somatic afferent fibers - convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles and joints Visceral afferent fibers - convey impulses from visceral organs

32. Describe a typical chemical synapse. What type of receptors will be found on the postsynaptic neuron?

Specialized for the release and reception of neurotransmitters and reception of neurotransmitters Two parts, axon terminal and receptor region on postsynaptic neuron

34. What is necessary for aerobic respiration? How many ATP are produced?

Stored glycogen, glucose, pyruvic acid, and fatty acids. 32 ATP

What are the 3 functional classifications of joints?

Synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis

34. Compare temporal and spatial summation. How many presynaptic neurons are involved? How many postsynaptic neurons are involved? How many signals are being sent? Are they happening together in in rapid succession?

Temporal - one or more presynaptic neurons transmit impulses in rapid-fire order Spatial - postsynaptic neuron is stimulated by a large number of terminals at the same time

?6. Describe a gomphosis joint.

The peg-in-socket joint between a tooth and the alveolar socket, connection is the periodontal ligament

8. What are T-tubules? Why do muscle cells have them?

They are continuous with the sarcolemma. Ventricle muscle cells.

7. What are the (terminal) cisternae? What do they store? Why do they store it?

They form perpendicular cross channels. They store Ca2+ levels.

?6. What proteins make up the thin filament? What proteins make of the thick filament?

Thin- myosin Thick- actin

28. What is a threshold stimulus? What is recruitment?

Threshold- stimulus strength at which the first observable muscle contraction occurs. Recruitment- multiple motor unit summation; which brings more and more muscle fibers into action

What is the function of the motor (efferent) division? What type of messages are being sent? What direction are these messages moving?

Transmits impulses from the cns to effector organs

Describe the effects of high intracellular calcium in a skeletal muscle cell. What would the calcium bind to? What will happen?

Triggers excitation-contraction coupling, binds to troponin, when pumped in, contraction stops.

37. How do skeletal muscles get stronger over time? Why is recruitment important for strenuous exercise?

Undergo hypertrophy as a response to the stress of training. To be able to repair the muscle

25. What are the effects of increased frequency of stimulation in a muscle?

Unfused (incomplete) tetanus

?14. What is the difference between grey matter and white matter? What structures of the neuron are found in each?

White- dense collections of myelinated fibers, nerves and tracts Gray - mostly neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers, including ganglia and nuclei

What is a motor unit?

a motor neuron and all (four to several hundred) muscle fibers it supplies

?46. What is calmodulin? How does it use calcium?

a protein which binds calcium and is involved in regulating a variety of activities in cells.

18. What are the 3 types of gated channels? What opens each. Be able to identify examples of each. What directions will the ions flow? Is this active or passive transport?

chemically gated - channels open with binding of a specific neurotransmitter Voltage gated - open and close in response to changed in membrane potential Mechanically gated - channels open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors

Compare isotonic and isometric contractions.

isometric contraction : no shortening; muscle tension increases but does not exceed the load Isotonic contraction: muscle shortens because muscle tension exceeds the load

32. What is creatine phosphate?

phosphorylated creatine molecule that serves as a rapidly mobilizable reserve of high-energy phosphates in skeletal muscle and the brain to recycle adenosine triphosphate.