Anatomy Final Exam
epithelial tissue characteristics.....
AVASCULARITY - No blood vessels SHEETS & LAYERS - sheets of cells - single or multiple layers thick Regeneration of surface cells via stem cells
Abdominal
Abdomen
What parts does the Abdominopelvic Cavity include ?
Abdominal Cavity & Pelvic Cavity
which of the following Cranial Nerves is paired with the INCORRECT function?: - Chapter 16 Quiz A) Oculomotor - Accommodation B) Hypoglossal - Tongue Movement C) Abducens - Blinking D) Trigeminal - Perception of Touch on the Forehead E) Facial - Taste Perception
Abducens Nerve - Blinking - the Abducens Nerve controls the Lateral rectus Muscle, which is responsible for outward gaze options with CORRECT functions - A) Oculomotor - Accommodation B) Hypoglossal - Tongue Movement C) Trigeminal - Perception of Touch on the Forehead D) Facial - Taste Perception
describe the components of Hearing: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- HEARING - detection of sound (pressure waves) - COCHLEA - "snail-shaped" spiral tube that contains Hair Cells -- MODIOLUS - center where the Cochlea Spiral coils around (site of innervation by the Cochlear Nerve) -- within the Modiolus are sensory neurons of spiral ganglion that are attached to the Cochlear Nerve -- Hair Cells are embedded in the Spiral Organ - Sound Waves are transferred from the Tympanic Membrane to the OVAL Window - each tube has THREE sections - A) Scala Vestibuli - transfers sound waves from the Oval Window to the tip of the Spiral B) COCHLEAR DUCT - houses the Spiral Organ (hair cells) C) Scala Tympani - transfers sound waves from the tip of the Spiral to the ROUND Window
describe the Hair Cells: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- Hair Cells - the Inner Ear's sensory cells -- cells responsible for hearing -- in BOTH the Auditory System and the Vestibular System - IONOTROPIC Activation - Kinocilium moves, then opens ion gates in the Stereocilia
describe the "Lock and Key" Model of Hormones:
- Hormone RECEPTOR Activation is based on the Substrate SHAPE - if a Substrate fits (SPECIFIC SHAPE), it will set off the Receptor - DIAGRAM - Chemical Messengers (substrates) TO Receptors TO Response - Lock and Key Model = "if it fits, it works"
describe the Pituitary Gland:
- Hypophysis - attached to the Hypothalamus, via the Infundibulum - the Hypothalamus communicates differently with the Anterior and Posterior Pituitary 1. Anterior Lobe - releases SEVEN Peptide Hormones 2. Posterior Lobe - releases TWO Peptide Hormones
Bones change shape in response to strain
- Increased muscular development during exercise - Inactivity of bones can cause degeneration - After a few weeks, unstressed bones can lose ~1/3 mass; shape & density
Calcitonin
- Inhibits osteoclasts - Decreases circulating Ca2+ by: - Increases Ca2+ loss in urine - Removing Ca2+ from blood & deposit as bone
describe the INNER Layer of the Eye: - Special Senses - Vision
- Inner Layer - RETINA -- Pigmented Layer = OUTER Layer -- Neural Layer = INNER Layer - Photoreceptors - A) Rods = LIGHT B) Cones = COLOR - Bipolar Cells - directly communicate with Photoreceptors - Horizontal Cells - modulate communication of Photoreceptors and Bipolar Cells - Amacrine Cells - modulate communication of Bipolar Cells and Ganglion Cells - Ganglion Cells - bundles of these axons form the Optic Nerve
Stratum Spinosum
- Keratinocytes - Melanocytes - Langerhans: trigger immune response
Stratum Granulosum
- Last layer where cells have ________ - Kerinocytes @ this level start making keratin & keratohyalin - callus formation
describe the Arachnoid Mater: - Spinal Meninges
- MIDDLE meningeal layer - separated from the Pia Mater by the Subarachnoid Space - CEREBROSPINAL Fluid flows within this space - Arachnoid Trabeculae extends from the Arachnoid to the OUTER layer of the Pia Mater
describe the Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone: - produced by Corticotropes
- MOST ACTIVE in UTERO - also active in Young Children, Pregnant Women, and due to some diseases - targets Melanocytes and stimulates increases Melanin production in the Epidermis
describe the COMPONENTS of the Midbrain:
- Mesencephalon = Midbrain 1) Corpora Quadrigemina - two pairs of nuclei 2) Tectum Surface of the Midbrain - processing Auditory & Visual Stimuli - Inferior Colliculi - AUDITORY processing - Superior Colliculi - VISUAL processing 3) Walls and Floor of the Midbrain - consists of Nuclei of Reticular Formation - consists of a pair of nuclei - red nucleus and substantial nigra - involved in maintaining alertness, muscle tone, and limb position 4) Ventrolateral Surfaces - contain Cerebral Peduncles - attachment to the CEREBELLUM
Membranous Organelles
- Mitochondria - Nucleus - Endoplasmic Reticulum - Golgi apparatus - Lysosomes - Peroxisomes
Hair Color
- More melanin creates darker hair - Decreased production results in grey hair - influenced by : genetics/hormones/environmental factors White Hair: lack of melanin in hair shaft
Integumentary system functions
- Most visible & largest organ system - Protection from environment - Synthesize - Thermoregulation - Excretes some waste products - Lipid storage - Immune response - Sense stimuli: temperature, pressure, touch, & pain
Epithelial Maintenance & Renewal
- Must be replaced frequently due to exposure/use - disruptive enzymes - toxic chemicals - pathogens - mechanical abrasion - Replaced through time via continual division of stem cells near basal lamina
definition of Neurons:
- Nerve Cells responsible for the transferring and processing of information in the Nervous System - LOOSE ability to divide - the basic functional unit of the nervous system! -- a highly specialized cell
Blood Vessels
- Nutrient vessels: enter via nutrient foramen - Metaphyseal vessels - Epiphyseal vessels - Periosteal vessels
describe the FUNCTIONS of Interneurons:
- ONLY IN THE CNS! - situated between Motor Neurons and Sensory Neurons - FUNCTION - analyze Sensory INPUT and coordinate Motor OUTPUTS - can be Excitatory OR Inhibitory
Reproductive system
- Only w/o primary homeostatic role - Secondary sex characteristics
describe the Ovaries: - how hormones work in them
- Oocytes begin to develop within the Follicles - the Follicles and Oocytes mature, due to FSH - Follicular Cells produce Estrogens (mainly Estradiol) - mature eggs are ovulated, due to LH - after Ovulation, a follicle becomes a Corpus Luteum - preparation for pregnancy 1. PROGESTERONE - Endometrial Lining thickening - causes Mammary Tissue to prepare for Secretory Functions 2. RELAXIN - loosens the Pubic Symphysis - relaxes the Cervical Muscles - stimulates Mammary Gland development
describe Cortical Integration: - Special Senses - Vision
- Optic Chiasma - partial crossover of the OPTIC NERVES -- each hemisphere receives a LATERAL Retinal Signal from its own side and MEDIAL Retinal Signal from the opposite side 1. signals are relayed to the Cortex and Brainstem by the Lateral Geniculate Nuclei 2. info arrives at the Visual Cortex of the Occipital Lobes 3. visual association areas integrate images to develop a composite of the entire visual field ; BINOCULAR VISION
Muscles of the pectoral girdle (11)
- Originates on axial skeleton - Inserts on scapula and clavicle - Stabilizes the scapula and moves it - Classified as anterior or posterior thoracic muscles
Appositional growth
- Osteoblasts in periosteum add bone matrix to surface - Forming circumferential lamellae on outer surface - Osteons are formed - Osteoclasts break down layer below endosteum to enlarge medullary cavity
Both endosteum & periosteum have
- Osteoblasts: produces matrix - Osteoprogenitor cells: produce osteoblasts - Osteoclasts : break down matrix
describe the Eye Accessory Structures: - Special Senses - Vision
- Palpebrae (eyelids) - Tarsal Plate - connective tissue supporting the Palpebrae - Tarsal Glands - sebaceous glands that keeps the Palpebrae from sticking - Lacrimal Caruncle - sweat and sebaceous glands - Conjunctive - epithelial lining of the eyelid -- Palpebral Conjunctiva - INNER lining of the EYELIDS -- Bulbar Conjunctiva - ANTERIOR portion of the Eye
Plasma Membrane
- Phospholipid bilayer - selective permeability
The Digestive System
- Processes food & absorbs nutrients water absorption - water absorption - removes waste from blood & immune function (secondary role)
Functions of Hair
- Protection from UV light - Insulation - Guards entrance to nose & ears - When touched, hair sends signal via root hair plexus - Contraction of arrector pili muscles; goose bumps
The Integumentary System
- Protects against environmental hazards ; helps control temperature
Epidermis
- Protects dermis from trauma , chemicals - controls skin permeability and prevents water loss - prevents entry of pathogens - synthesizes vitamin D3 - sensory receptors detect touch, pressure, pain , and temp.
uterus provides?
- Provides protection for embryo - Provides nutritional support for embryo - Provides a means to remove waste produced by embryo
describe Receptive Fields:
- Receptive Fields - area monitored by a SINGLE Receptor Cell - localization of a stimulus by the CNS depends on the SIZE of the Receptive Field -- LOW Acuity - large receptive fields have receptors that are spread far apart and the example is Skin on the Back -- HIGH Acuity - small receptive fields that have receptors close together and examples are Lips & Palms of Hands
describe a Reflex AND the process it goes through in the Spinal Cord:
- Reflex - an immediate INVOLUNTARY motor response - Reflex Arc - -- neural "wiring" of a single reflex -- BEGINS at a Sensory Receptor and ENDS at a Peripheral Effector - PROCESS OF A REFLEX - 1. Stimulation & Activation of a Receptor - putting hand on a hot stove 2. Activation of a Sensory Neuron - through the Dorsal Root 3. Information Processing in the CNS - exits through the Ventral Root steps 2 and 3 - the actual Reflex Arc 4. Activation of a Motor Neuron 5. Response by the Effector - removing ur hand from the hot stove
describe a Reflex Arc with the Afferent / Efferent Pathways:
- Reflex Arc - autonomic pathway that mediates a response to a stimulus - PARTS of a Reflex Arc - -- Sensory Receptor, Afferent Neuron, Integrating Center, Efferent Neuron, and Effector Organ 1. SOMATIC REFLEX - ONLY Skeletal Muscle 2. VISCERAL REFLEX - Smooth Muscle, Cardiac Muscle, Glands, and Adipose Tissue AFFERENT PATHWAY: 1. Sensory Receptors A) sensory receptors in your hand activated by the Fire 2. Sensory Neurons / Afferent Neurons 3. Integrating Center A) Brain, Spinal Cord, or Ganglia EFFERENT PATHWAY: 1. Integrating Center A) Brain, Spinal Cord, or Ganglia 2. Efferent Neuron / Motor Nerve 3. Effector Organs A) arm muscles / muscles or glands 4. Withdrawal Reflex
The Nervous System
- Relays / processes info for homeostasis & senses
describe the PROCESS of Somatic Motor Commands & Visceral Motor Commands to the Spinal Cord:
- SOMATIC Motor Commands - 1. STARTS in the Somatic Motor Center in the Spinal Cord -- goes through the Ventral Root and the Spinal Nerve 2. EXITS AT / GOES TO A) Skeletal Muscles of the Body Wall and Limbs -- through the Ventral Ramus B) Skeletal Muscles of the Back -- through the Dorsal Ramus - VISCERAL Motor Commands - 1. STARTS in the Visceral Motor Center in the Spinal Cord -- goes through the Spinal Nerve and Ventral Root also 2. EXITS AT / GOES TO A) Pre-Ganglionic Fibers to Sympathetic Ganglia innervating the Abdomino-Pelvic Viscera -- Rami Communicantes - White Ramus / Pre-Ganglionic AND the Sympathetic Nerve 3. goes THROUGH the Sympathetic Ganglion AND goes to - A) Post-Ganglionic Fibers to Smooth Muscles, Glands, and Visceral Organs in the Thoracic Cavity - Sympathetic Nerve B) Post-Ganglionic Fibers to Smooth Muscles, Glands, and Visceral Organs -- through the Gray Ramus / Post-Ganglionic AND Ventral Ramus C) Post-Ganglionic Fibers to the Smooth Muscles and Glands of the Back -- through the Gray Ramus / Post-Ganglionic AND Dorsal Ramus
Glial Cells that are NOT found in the CNS: - Chapter 13 Quiz A) Oligodendrocytes B) Schwann Cells C) Ependymal Cells D) Microglia
- Schwann Cells - Glial Cells that ARE found in the Central Nervous System - A) Oligodendrocytes B) Ependymal Cells C) Microglia
describe the Vagus Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- Sensory Functions - Information from Organs - Motor Functions - Sends Info to Organs - Sensory Origin - FROM Organs - Motor Origin - Medulla Oblongata - Sensory Neurons are in the Superior Ganglions AND the Inferior Ganglions
Membranes = Epithelia + Connective tissue
- Sheet of epithelial cells - An underlying connective tissue; mucous, serous, cutaneous , & synovial
describe the Olfactory Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- Smell (sensory) - origin - Olfactory Epithelium - Olfactory Nerves enter bundles called Olfactory Bulbs - Axons proceed to destination, via Olfactory Tracts
describe the ORGANIZATION of Gray Matter:
- Somas are organized into groups called Nuclei - Sensory Nuclei - transmit sensory info - Motor Nuclei - transmit "orders" effectors - Gray Commissure 1. Dorsal / Posterior Horns - Somatic Sensory & Visceral Nuclei 2. Lateral / Intermediate Horns - Visceral Motor Nuclei 3. Ventral / Anterior Horns - Somatic Motor Nuclei
What is Anatomical Position ?
- Standing with feet flat on floor - Hands are at side - Palms are facing forward (anterior)
Estrogen & Testosterone
- Stimulate osteoblast activity causing growth spurts during puberty - Maintain bone density in adults
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Stimulates osteoclasts & osteoblasts - Increases circulating Ca2+ by: -Increase Ca2+ absorption from small intestines - Reducing Ca2+ loss in urine
describe the PROCESS of a Stretch Reflex: - Spinal Reflex
- Stretch Reflex - Patellar and Postural Reflexes 1. Stimulus stretches a Muscle - a stimulus activates a receptor and the muscle spindle fibers are stretched 2. Activation of a Sensory Neuron 3. Information Processing in the Central Nervous System / Spinal Cord 4. Activation of Motor Neurons 5. Muscle (effector) contracts - response by the effector and the muscle contracts - the Reflex Arc starts at step two and ends at step four
Anatomy
- Study of external / internal structures - naming parts/ how they fit together - specific Anatomical structures have specific Physiological Functions
The Skeletal System
- Support & protection - Immunity , storage of Ca++, & feeding - forms blood cells
describe Synapses:
- Synapse - refers to the junction between a Neuron and another Cell / Tissue 1. Chemical Synapse (Vesicular) - ONE WAY MOVEMENT - uses Neurotransmitters -- example is Acetylcholine -- Motor End Plate of Skeletal Muscle 2. Electrical Synapse (Non-Vesicular) - ONLY in the CNS OR PNS - MOVE IN EITHER DIRECTION - between NEURONS - membranes are TIGHTLY bound - Action Potential travels from one to another, as Ions move
describe the Lacrimal Apparatus: - Special Senses - Vision
- TEARS are produced by Lacrimal Glands - TEARS - alkalime, watery secretions containing lysozymes and antibodies - Lacrimal Ducts empty at the Fornix of Conjunctiva and flow over the Ocular Surface - drain via Lacrimal Glands TO Superior & Inferior Lacrimal Punctae TO Lacrimal Canaliculi (tear ducts) TO Lacrimal Sac TO Nasolacrimal Duct
describe the Semicircular Canals: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- THREE Semicircular Canals -- Anterior, Posterior, & Lateral! - each Semicircular Canal encases a Semicircular Duct - at the BASE of each Semicircular Duct is an AMPULLA - Hair Cells are embedded in the Ampullary Crest - Ampullary Cupula - material that the hair cell cilia are embedded in - Endolymph Movement moves the Cupula --> MOVES CILIA
list the COMPONENTS of the Cerebellum:
- TWO hemispheres! (cerebellar hemispheres) - Folia Cerebelli - similar to the GYRI of the Cerebrum - anterior AND posterior lobes, separated by Primary Fissure - Vermis - narrow band of cortex that separates the hemispheres - Flocculonodular Lobes - balance EYE movement FUNCTIONS - - Proprioception / BALANCE - refining Skeletal Muscle Movements - LEARNED Reflexes
describe the functions of the Cerebrum:
- Telencephalon - conscious thought processes - intellectual functions and memory storage / processing - conscious regulation of skeletal muscle contractions (and subconscious) - SURFACES OF THE CEREBRUM - 1. Sulci - shallow grooves 2. Gyri - ridges 3. Fissures - deep grooves -- Longitudinal Fissure - separates the cerebral hemispheres
Stratum Lucidum
- Thick skin has Stratum lucidum - Stacks of dead cells - High amounts of keratin - Cells lack organelles & nuclei THIN SKIN LACKS STRATUM LUCIDUM
describe the Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone: - produced by Thyrotropes
- Thyroxine (T4) AND Triiodothyronine (T3) - targets the Thyroid Gland and stimulates the production of the Thyroid Hormones (T4, T3) FUNCTIONS - 1. Metabolic Rate 2. Body Temperature
The Cardiovascular System
- Transport of gasses & nutrients - Thermoregulation, pH balance, immune function, & endocrine function
describe the components of Motor Commands:
- Ventral Root! - Spinal Nerves from two branches - 1. Dorsal / Posterior Ramus 2. Ventral / Anterior Ramus - Spinal Nerves T1 to L2 have two additional branches - 1. White Ramus 2. Gray Ramus -- Rami Communicantes - white and gray rami are collectively JOINED - white & gray rami are associated with the Autonomic Ganglion of the Sympathetic Division -- Sympathetic Ganglia - deals with signals to AND from the Viscera
describe the Optic Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- Vision (sensory) - Retina (origin) - Optic Nerves from the Retina cross at the Optic Chiasma - continue to their destination via Optic Tracts
list the components of the Middle Ear: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- air-filled tympanic cavity - Auditory OSSICLE - Malleus, Incus, and Stapes 1. Auditory Tube / Eustachian Tube - connection between the Tympanic Cavity and the Nasopharynx to equalize AIR PRESSURE 2. Muscles - tension on the Ossicles and Tympanic Membrane to protect against LOUD noises - Tensor Tympani / Stapedius 3. Malleus ("hammer") - attached to the Tympanic Membrane and the Incus 4. Incus ("anvil") - intermediate to the Malleus and the Stapes 5. Stapes ("stirrup") - intermediate to the Incus and the Oval Window of the Cochlea
The Muscular System
- allows for locomotion - provide support - produces heat - storage of amino acids
Spongy Bone characteristics
- arranged in parallel struts - Trabeculae: branching plates - Trabeculae form an open network - Large trabecular can have osteons - Reduces weight of bones, but keeps strength
ductus deferens in male reproductive system (vas deferens)
- before entering prostate gland, expands into ampulla - ampulla joins excretory duct of seminal gland to become ejaculatory duct - ejaculatory duct empties into prostatic urethra
describe the CERVICAL Plexus:
- composed of Ventral Rami of C1 - C4 - consists of Cutaneous AND Muscular Branches - Cutaneous Branches - innervates the Head, Neck, and Chest - Major Nerves of the Cervical Plexus - 1. Lesser Occipital Nerve 2. Greater Auricular Nerve 3. Transverse Cervical Nerve 4. Supraclavicular Nerve 5. Phrenic Nerve
Neural Tissue
- conducts electrical impulses - carries information
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- consists of attached ribosomes - stores & synthesizes proteins - proteins moved via transport vesicles
describe the ORGANIZATION of White Matter:
- consists of columns of Axons (funiculi) - Anterior White Commissure 1. Dorsal White Column 2. Ventral White Column 3. Lateral White Column A) Sensory Tracts - Ascending Tracts B) Motor Tracts - Descending Tracts
describe the FIBROUS Layer of the Eye: - Special Senses - Vision
- consists of the Sclera and Cornea - provides Protection and Attachment Sites for Extra-Ocular Muscles - contains structures associated with Focusing (Cornea) -- Cornea - modified transparent Sclera and is Avascular -- the outer surface of the Cornea is covered by a thin, stratified squamous epithelium - the inner surface is covered by a simple squamous epithelium
describe the Adrenal Glands:
- consists of two structural regions! ADRENAL CORTEX (superficial) - 1. Zona Glomerulosa - Aldosterone production - reduces water and ion loss 2. Zona Fasciculata - Cortisol, Cortisone, and Corticosterone (stress hormones) 3. Zona Reticularis - limited production - Libido, Hair Growth, Muscle Growth, and Blood Cell Formation ADRENAL MEDULLA (deep) - - TWO types of Chromaffin Cells -- produces Epinephrine AND Norepinephrine
arteriole BP change via?
- construction/dilation of arterioles; afferent&efferent - renin = precursor for angiotensin; raises BP - erythropoietin = regulate density of RBC's
describe the COMPONENTS of the Pons:
- contains Sensory Nuclei AND Motor Nuclei of Cranial Nerves A) Vestibulocochlear B) Glossopharyngeal C) Vagus D) Accessory E) Hypoglossal - Reflex Centers - A) Cardiovascular Centers - Cardiac and Vasomotor B) Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers, Nuclei (rhythmic breathing) - Apneustic and Pneumotaxic Centers
Muscular Tissue
- contracts to produce movement - includes skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
describe the Oculomotor Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- controls Extra-Ocular Eye Muscles (NOT Superior Oblique or Lateral Rectus) AND Ciliary Muscles (motor) - Mesencephalon (origin) - Oculomotor Nerves have Autonomic Fibers that synapse in Ciliary Ganglion
describe the Abducens Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- controls Lateral Rectus (motor) -- responsible for outward gaze - Pons (origin)
describe the Trochlear Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- controls the Superior Oblique Eye Muscle (motor) - Mesencephalon (origin) - innervates only a single muscle - operates through the pulley-like trochlea
describe the FUNCTIONS of Sensory Neurons:
- convert external stimuli from the environment into internal electrical impulses - PNS TO CNS - Afferent 1. Somatic Sensory Neurons A) Exteroceptors - provide information about the environment B) Proprioceptors - monitor position and MOVEMENT 2. Visceral Sensory Neurons A) Interoceptors - monitor INTERNAL ORGAN ACTIVITY
describe the functions of the Cerebellum:
- coordinates Somatic Motor Function - adjusts output of Somatic Motor Centers, resulting in Smooth Operation - coordinates complex somatic motor patterns - adjust outputs of other somatic centers in the brain and the spinal cord
Epithelial Tissue
- covers exposed surfaces - lines internal passageways and chambers - produces granular secretions
Stratum Corneum
- dead cells - sebaceous & sweat glands maintain these cells
describe the STEROID Hormones:
- derived from CHOLESTEROL - PASSIVELY Diffuse into cells, due to their NON-POLAR structure DIAGRAM - - Cholesterol TO Pregnenolone TO Aldosterone & Cortisol AND Testosterone (an androgen) TO Estradiol (an estrogen)
describe the AMINE Hormones:
- derived from TYROSINE OR TRYPTOPHAN -- two amino acids! DIAGRAM - - Tyrosine TO Catecholamines (Dopamine, Norepinephrine, or Epinephrine) OR Iodothyronines (Thyroxine or Triidothyronine) - Tryptophan TO Melatonin
describe the PEPTIDE Hormones:
- derived from strings of AMINO ACIDS DIAGRAM EXAMPLES - - Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) - Insulin
primordial follicle
- develop into primary ovarian follicles - divide to create multiple layers of granulose cells that surround primary oocyte
describe the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB):
- due to Astrocytes A) blood vessel endothelial lining is highly interconnected by tight junctions - ONLY LIPID-Soluble Material can pass freely from the blood to cells of the brain and cells of the spinal cord - WATER-Soluble Material can only pass via action of very specific transport mechanisms B) four major regions where the BBB is different - Hypothalamus - Capillaries in the Pineal Gland - Capillaries in the Choroid Plexus - Capillaries in the Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
describe the FOUR Nerve Plexuses:
- each nerve plexus is associated with an interwoven network of nerves -- plexus mean "to braid" -- different subdivisions of the spinal cord 1. Cervical Plexus 2. Brachial Plexus 3. Lumbar Plexus 4. Sacral Plexus
describe Receptor Sensitivity:
- each receptor has a characteristic sensitivity! -- leads to Receptor Specificity -- Specificity is due to the structure of a receptor and / or from the presence of accessory cells or structures - examples of Receptor Specificity - 1. Free Nerve Endings - simplest receptors! - respond to a variety of stimuli 2. Receptors of the Retina - very specific! - ONLY respond to light
describe the Thermoreceptors: - types of stimulus for the general senses
- exists as Free Nerve Endings - in the Dermis, Skeletal Muscles, Liver, and Hypothalamus - Cold Receptors are MORE numerous than Hot Receptors - Phasic Receptors (adapts rapidly to a stimulus) - IONOTROPIC - very active when temp changes, BUT quickly adapt to a stable temp
Connective Tissue
- fills internal spaces - provides structural support - stores energy
describe the Thyroid Hormones:
- follicles are line with T Thyrocytes -- contains COLLOID -- T Thyrocytes secrete Thyroglobulin and Iodine into Colloid, which forms Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) - C Thyrocytes - produce Calcitonin (CT) -- REDUCES plasma calcium levels
What do cells do ?
- form all body structures - preform all body functions - produced by division of preexisting cells
describe the Olfactory Sensory Neurons: - Special Senses - Smell
- form the Olfactory Nerve - Apical End contains multiple Cilia that project beyond the Epithelium and into the Nasal Cavity - the Cilia is covered by MUCUS from the Olfactory Glands - Receptor Cells are replaced REGULARLY by the Regenerative Basal Cells in the Olfactory Epithelium - Olfaction = Metabotropic!
list the components of the Thalamus:
- forms the WALLS of the Third Ventricle - Thalamic Nuclei are EGG-shaped Thalamic Nuclei: 1. Anterior Nuclei - part of the LIMBIC System 2. Medial Nuclei - relay info to the Frontal Lobe 3. Ventral Nuclei - relay info to the Parietal Lobes 4. Posterior Nuclei - relay info to the Occipital Lobe AND auditory & visual 5. Lateral Nuclei - adjust activity in Cingulate Gyrus and Parietal Lobe
describe the Vitreous Humor: - Special Senses - Vision
- gelatinous material in the Posterior Cavity - supports the Eye shape - supports the Lens position - supports the RETINA by pushing the Neural Layer against the Pigmented Layer - Aqueous Humor can flow across the Vitreous Humor and Retina!
describe the functions of the Pancreas:
- has BOTH Exocrine and Endocrine Functions 1. EXOCRINE Functions - produces Digestive Enzymes 2. ENDOCRINE Functions - produces Hormones - consists of Pancreatic Islets -- FOUR major cell types - Alpha, Beta, Delta, and F Cells
epididymis of male reproductive system?
- head = receives spermatozoa via efferent ducts - body = coiled tubes pass through body - tail = tubes begin to uncoil to become a single tube ductus deferens * recycling center for damaged or old spermatozoa
Cytosol contains
- higher concentration of K+ irons & lower concentration of Na+ ions compared to ECF - Intracellular negative charge , extracellular is positive - high concentration of protein - all quantity of carbohydrates - large reserve of amino acids & lipids
Intercellular connections functions
- holds cells together - prevents passage of chemicals, water, pathogens, gap junctions, CAMs, tight junctions, hemidesosom, & proteoglycans - also bind cells to basal
The Lymphatic System
- immune function & water balance - aids in absorption of nutrients - defense against infection & disease - returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream
Stratum basale
- in the deppest , Basel layer - attachment to base lamina - Contains epidermal basal ( stem ) cells,melamocytes, and Merkel cells Melanocytes Merkel cells: touch sensors Basal cells: become kerinocytes
Microvilli
- increase SA - chun ECF - microfilament support
urine storage reflex?
- increases sympathetic activity - stretch receptors in bladder signals sympathetic reflex - inhibit detrusor muscle - stimulates contraction of internal and external urethral sphincters
describe the POSTERIOR Pituitary Gland:
- innervated by Nerves from the Hypothalamus - Hormones released by Hypothalamic Neurons are called Neurohormones Posterior Pituitary Hormones - 1. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) - increases water Absorption by Nephrons - increases Blood Pressure AND Blood Volume 2. OXT (oxytocin) - Females - induces labor and milk - Males - prostate secretions during ejaculation
describe the Integrative Centers of the Cerebral Cortex:
- integrate complex sensory stimuli and motor responses! Some Interpretive Areas: 1. Broca's Area - speech center AND controls breathing patterns for speech 2. Prefrontal Cortex - predicting consequences of actions 3. Wernicke's Area - language comprehension AND analytical area 4. Receptive Speech Area - adjusts speech based on sound input 5. Frontal Eye Field - coordinates eye movements
describe the functions of the Spinal Cord:
- integrates and processes information - functions with the brain - can function as an Independent Integrating Center - growth STOPS at about age 4 - terminates at L1 or L2 at Conus Medullaris - Cauda Equina - extensions of the Dorsal & Ventral Roots that go TOWARDS the Lumbar & Sacral Segments - ENLARGEMENTS - Cervical & Lumbar -- expanded areas to control limbs
describe the BRACHIAL Plexus:
- larger AND more complex than the Cervical Plexus! - components go from large to small 1. Spinal Cord 2. Ventral Rami / Roots - go from C5 to T1 3. Trunks A) Superior B) Middle C) Inferior 4. Divisions A) Anterior B) Posterior 5. Cords A) Posterior B) Lateral C) Medial 6. Nerves - Major Nerves of the Brachial Plexus - 1. Axillary Nerve 2. Musculocutaneous Nerve 3. Radial Nerve 4. Ulnar Nerve 5. Median Nerve
describe the functions AND components of the Limbic System:
- located between the Cerebrum and the Diencephalon, and is Superior to the Corpus Callosum - establishes EMOTIONAL states - links Conscious Functions with Unconscious Autonomic Functions - facilitates MEMORY STORAGE and Retrieval 1. Limbic Lobe 2. Cingulate Gyrus 3. Dentate Gyrus 4. Parahippocampal Gyrus 5. Hippocampus
describe the Thymus Gland:
- most active in Young Children, and will recess in size after puberty - produces THYMOSIN -- mixture of several diff hormones -- targets LYMPHOCYTES, causing Maturation and Differentiation into T Cells
microtubules
- move organelles - churn - cell movement - essential for mitosis
describe the SACRAL Plexus:
- nerves are directly coming off of the Sacrum! - Nerve Roots of the Sacral Plexus - A) L5 B) S1 C) S2 D) S3 E) S4 F) S5 G) CO1 - Major Nerves of the Sacral Plexus - 1. Gluteal Nerves A) Superior B) Inferior 2. Pudendal Nerve 3. Sciatic Nerve A) Tibial Nerve B) Fibular Nerve -- branches of the sciatic nerve 4. Posterior Femoral Cutaneous Nerve
Hair follicles & Hair are found everywhere except
- palms - soles of feet - sides of fingers & toes - lips - Portional of genitalia (glans penis , clitoris, inner surface of labia major , labia minora)
what happens when there is an erection of the penis?
- parasympathetic nerves are activated - smooth muscles in arterial walls relax - arterial vessels dilate and vascular channels within erectile fill with blood
describe the Pineal Gland (Pineal Body):
- part of the Epithalamus - contains Neurons, Glial Cells, and Special Secretory Cells - Pinealocytes -- Pinealocytes produce Melatonin - MELATONIN -- slows the maturation of Sperm, Oocytes, and reproductive Organs -- helps to set the Circadian Rhythm (daily rhythms) -- production rate rises at night AND declines during the day
describe the Visual Pathway: - Special Senses - Vision
- path of photons! 1. light waves pass through the CORNEA 2. passes through the AQUEOUS HUMOR 3. passes through the Pupil 4. passes through the LENS 5. passes through the VITREOUS HUMOR 6. Lens focuses image on some part of the Retina 7. Depolarization of Photoreceptors 8. signal is transmitted to the Brain, via the Optic Nerve
describe the Higher-Order Functions:
- performed by the Cerebral Cortex 1. involves communication between the Cerebral Cortex areas and other areas of the brain 2. involves conscious AND unconscious information processing 3. functions are subject to modifications and adjustments
describe the functions of the Mesencephalon / Midbrain:
- processes Visual and Auditory data - maintains consciousness and alertness - involved with the Reflexive Somatic Motor Responses to stimuli - damage to the midbrain can result in memory loss, because it destroys the pathways
describe the Parathyroid Glands:
- produce Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - PTH INCREASES blood calcium ion levels -- REDUCES urinary excretion of calcium ions -- stimulates kidneys to produce Calcitriol, which will increase the intestinal absorption of calcium ions -- stimulates Osteoclasts to remove calcium from bones
Melanin characteristics
- produced by melanocytes - synthesized & stored in melanosome - melanosome enter keratinocytes - Melanocyte density is stable, type & amount melanin under genetic control Moles : Overgrowth of melanocytes Albino : DN produce melanin
list the components of Tactile Receptors: - type of Mechanoreceptors
- provide Sensations of Touch, Pressure, and Vibrations (functions) 1. Fine Touch & Pressure Receptors - DETAILED info about Location, Shape, Size, and Texture of a Stimulus 2. Crude Touch & Pressure Receptors - provides GENERALIZED info about Stimulus Location - TWO Structural Classes - 1. Unencapsulated Tactile Receptors - dendrites without a connective tissue wrapping 2. Encapsulated Tactile Receptors - dendrites with a connective tissue wrapping
list the functions of the Nervous System:
- rapid communication within the body - control & adjusts activity of the body - provides swift, but BRIEF, responses to stimuli to maintain Homeostasis -- long term regulation is by the Endocrine System - acts as an INTEGRATION for Reflex Arcs: Somatic & Visceral - interpretation of "special" senses - Memory, Learning, Thought, Personality, Consciousness, Communication, and Emotion
describe the Spiral Organ: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- receptor organ for hearing! - rests on the Basilar Membrane between the Cochlear Duct and the Scala Tympani - Hair Cell Cilia is connected to the overlying TECTORIAL Membrane -- Basilar Membrane is attached to the lining of the Cochlear Duct -- sound waves moving through the SCALA TYMPANI cause the Vibration of the Basilar Membrane
describe the functions of the Pons:
- relays information to the Cerebellum and the Thalamus - regulates Somatic Motor Centers AND Visceral Motor Centers
describe the functions of the Medulla Oblongata:
- relays information to the Thalamus and the Brainstem - regulates Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, and Digestion - relay station at the base of the brain
Reticular layer
- restricts spread of pathogens penetrating epidermis - stores lipids - attaches skin to deeper tissues - sensory receptors detect touch, pressure, pain, vibration, and temp - blood vessels assist in thermoregulation
describe the Aqueous Humor: - Special Senses - Vision
- secreted by cells of the Ciliary Body - facilitates NUTRIENT / WASTE Transport and cushions the Cornea - enters the Posterior Cavity - flows through the Pupil area - enters the Anterior Chamber - drains through the Scleral Venous Sinus - enters into Venous Circulation
describe the Nociceptors: - types of stimulus for the general senses
- sensitive to Extreme Temp, Physical Damage, and Chemicals from Injured Cells -- a strong stimuli can set off all three 1. Fast Pain - "prickling pain" - sensations reach the CNS quickly - associated with deep cuts / similar injuries 2. Slow Pain - "burning pain" - sensations reach the CNS slowly - associated with the SAME injuries as Fast Pain, but with a delayed onset and they last longer 3. Referred Pain - painful sensation from Visceral Organs that is perceived as coming from another region - pain in the Heart, Lungs, and Pelvic & Abdominal Organs
describe the Mechanoreceptors: - types of stimulus for the general senses
- sensitive to STRETCH, Compression, Twisting, or the Distortion of the Cell Membrane - IONOTROPIC - Tactile Receptors, Baroreceptors, and Proprioceptors
describe the Vestibular Complex and Equilibrium: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- sensory neurons located in the Vestibular Ganglia - sensory fibers from the ganglia form the VESTIBULAR NERVE (branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve) - Motor Commands descend via the Vestibulospinal Tracts of the Spinal Cord Vestibular Nuclei - located between the PONS and the Medulla Oblongata - integrate sensory info from each side of the head - sends info to the Cerebellum, Cerebral Cortex, and Motor Nuclei within the Brainstem & Spinal Cord - Cranial Nerves involved are the Oculomotor, Trochlear, Abducens, and Accessory Nerves
describe Neuronal Pools: - and the TYPES of Neuronal Pools
- small, organized groups of Neurons - classified by their function or how they relay information 1. Divergence - information to multiple neurons from one neuron - Visual Information TO MULTIPLE BRAIN CENTERS 2. Convergence - input to one neuron from multiple sources - SKELETAL Muscle Control from Various Sources 3. Serial Processing - simple relay - pain perception 4. Parallel Processing - a single stimulus elicits different responses in different TYPES of effectors 5. Reverberation - Positive Feedback Loop continues until it is stopped by an Inhibitory Loop / Interneurons -- generating a cough, sneeze, etc. -- feeling like you have to sneeze until it stops
describe the Spinal Meninges:
- specialized membranes that provides Protection, Physical Stability, and Shock Absorption - continuous with Cranial Meninges - A) Dura Mater B) Arachnoid Mater C) Pia Mater
Function of testosterone in males
- stimulates spermatogenesis - primary sex organs increase in size and function - promotes sperm maturation - maintains accessory organs - develops secondary sex characteristics (facial hair, etc) - stimulates growth and metabolism - stimulates sexual behavior and sexual drive (libido)
describe the Baroreceptors: - type of Mechanoreceptors
- stretch receptors that monitor changes in shape of organs due to PRESSURE! - Locations - A) Stomach B) Small Intestine C) Urinary Bladder D) Carotid Artery E) Lungs F) Large Intestine
Golgi apparatus
- synthesis & packaging of secretions - Packing of enzymes for use in cytosol - Renewal & modification of cell membrane
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- synthesizes lipids , steroids, & carbohydrates - storage of Ca++ - Detoxification of toxins
describe the ANTERIOR Pituitary Gland:
- the Hypothalamus releases hormones into the Primary Plexus that will control the Anterior Lobe Tissues - FIVE CELL TYPES - Primary Plexus TO Portal Vessels TO Secondary Plexus - Hypothalamic - Pituitary Axis (diagram) FIVE TISSUE TYPES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND - 1. Thyrotropes 2. Corticotropes 3. Gonadotropes 4. Lactotropes 5. Somatotropes
describe the components of motion of the Ultricle & Saccule: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- the Ultricle & Saccule have Maculae - Maculae use Otoliths - OTOLITHS - crystals above the Gelatinous Layer -- Otoliths have more INERTIA than Endolymph - ULTRICLE - Horizontal Motion - SACCULE - Vertical Motion - resistance to movement allows for the sensing of Velocity, Acceleration, and Gravity
describe the LUMBAR Plexus:
- the nerves are actually directly off of the Lumbar Plexus! - Nerve Roots of the Lumbar Plexus - A) T12 B) L1 C) L2 D) L3 E) L4 - Major Nerves of the Lumbar Plexus - 1. Iliohypogastric Nerve 2. Ilio-Inguinal Nerve 3. Genitofemoral Nerve A) Femoral Branch B) Genital Branch 4. Femoral Nerve 5. Obturator Nerve 6. Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerve
describe the Dura Mater: - Spinal Meninges
- tough, fibrous, and the OUTER layer of meninges - stabilizes the spinal cord within the vertebral canal - Cranial and Sacral Attachments STABILIZE the longitudinal axis of the spinal cord - Epidural Space - space BETWEEN the Dura Mater and Lining of Vertebral Bones -- where you're given an epidural - Coccygeal Ligament - Dura Mater BLENDS with the Film Terminale
list the Cerebral Lobes:
- two hemispheres are separated by a Longitudinal Fissure! 1. Frontal Lobe - conscious control of Skeletal Muscles 2. Occipital Lobe - perception of Visual Stimuli 3. Partietal Lobe - conscious perception of Touch, Pressure, Vibration, Pain, Temperature, AND Taste 4. Temporal Lobe - conscious perception of Auditory & Olfactory Stimuli - deep is Insula
describe the Chemoreceptors: - types of stimulus for the general senses
- typically METABOTROPIC! - detect small changes in the Concentration of Chemicals - respond to Water-Soluble or Lipid-Soluble Compounds - FOUND IN - A) RESPIRATORY Centers of the Medulla Oblongata B) Carotid Arteries (carotid bodies) C) Aortic Arch (aortic bodies)
Plasma composition
-92% water -7% plasma proteins -1% other solutes
Plasma Proteins
-Albumins -Globulins -Fibrinogen -Other regulatory proteins (proenzymes, hormone, enzymes)
Two semilunar valves
-Aortic valve -Pulmonary valve -PASSIVE
Control of capillary flow
-Arteriovenous anastomoses -Thoroughfare channels -Metarterioles
Blood Pressure at a specific point equation variables
-BF: Blood Flow; volume of blood flowing through a vessel (mL/min) -BP: Blood Pressure; force per unit area exerted on a vessel wall (mm Hg) -R: Resistance; opposition to flow, friction blood encounters
Cardiac output equation variables
-CO: Cardiac output; amount of blood heart pumps per unit time -SV: Stroke Volume; amount of blood heart pumps each beat -HR: Heart Rate; # of heart contractions per unit time
Spleen consists of
-Capsule -Red pulp -White pulp
Donor/recipient compatibility
-Cross-reaction -Agglutination -Hemolysis
Intercalated Discs
-Desmosomes -Gap Junctions -Functional syncytium
Whole body blood pressure equation variables
-MAP: Mean Arterial Pressure; mean blood pressure for several cardiac cycls (mm Hg) -TPR: Total Peripheral Resistance; opposition to flow, friction blood encounters; sum of resistance to flow from all blood vessels from aorta to vena cava -CO: Cardiac output
Cardiac Muscle
-Myogenic -Highly dependent on aerobic respiration -Very high amount of myoglobin & mitochondria -One nucleus per cell -Highly vascularized -Short t-tubules -Intercalated discs: gap junctions & fascia adherens -Branching Arrangement
Moderator band
-ONLY RIGHT VENTRICLE -Fights overexpansion of right ventricle -Will stimulate anterior papillary muscle & septal papillary muscle
Blood Composition
-Plasma (liquid matrix) -Buffy coat (thrombocytes/platelets; leukocytes/white blood cells) -Erythrocytes (red blood cells
How someone can be exposed to Rh antigens
-Pregnancy: Rh- mother, Rh+ fetus -Blood transfusion
Diastole
-Relaxation -Passive filling of chambers
Thrombocytes' role in blood clotting
-Release chemicals & enzymes to initiate clotting process -Clump together to form a platelet plug using fibrin -Contain actin & myosin that function to contract clot
estrogen functions?
-Stimulates bone & muscle growth - Maintains female secondary sex characteristics - Affects sex-related behaviors & drives - Maintains function of reproductive glands & organs - Initiates repair & growth of uterine lining
Vasculature makeup
-Systemic venous system: 64% -Pulmonary circuit: 9% -Heart: 7% -Systemic arterial system: 13% -Systemic capillaries: 7%
Two AV valves
-Tricuspid (right) valve -Bicuspid/Mitral (left) valve -ACTIVE
Heart Valves
-Two AV valves: atria to ventricle; prevent backflow into atria -Two semilunar valves: prevent backflow into ventricles
Medium-sized vein
-adventita is largest layer -contains elastic fibers & smooth muscle -one-way valves are present -found alongside muscular arteries -ex., radial vein / tibial vein / popliteal vein
Large vein
-adventita is thickest layer & contains some smooth muscle -intima & media are very thin -no valves -ex., Sup / Inf vena cava
If Hematocrit is low
-anemia -blood loss -micronutrient deficiency -chronic infection
Pericardial Cavity
-between epicardium (visceral) & parietal layer -Pericardial fluid reduces friction while heart pumps
Eosinophils
-bilobed nucleus -attack objects marked with antibodies -involved with allergies and/or parasites -secrete compounds that reduce inflammation
Type AB
-blood has RBCs with both A and B surface antigens -no anti antibodies - AB+ universal recipient
Type O
-blood has RBCs with no surface antigens -contains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies - O- universal donor
Type A
-blood has RBCs with surface antigen A only -contains anti-B antibodies, will attack B type surface antigens
Type B
-blood has RBCs with surface antigen B -contains anti-A antibodies, will attack A type surface antigens
Venous valves
-blood returning to heart from lower extremities fight gravity -many medium veins have valves -valves compartmentalize blood in veins
Lymphatic tissue & lymph nodes are high in concentrations where:
-body is more susceptible to injury or invasion -base of limbs; inguinal & axillary regions -large production of fluid or presence of fluid; mammary tissues & salivary glands
Functions of primary lymphatic structures
-cause differentiation of lymphocytes resulting in: T cells, B cells, & NK cells
Continuous capillaries
-complete endothelial lining -most common -single cell lined
Red pulp
-contains large quantities of RBCs & macrophages -macrophages ID & engulf damaged or infected RBCs
bacteria in the vagina
-contains normal population of bacteria that feed off cervical mucous - creates an acidic environment (reduces growth of many pathogenic organisms and reduces sperm mobility)
Types of Capillaries
-continuous -fenestrated -sinusoid
Systole
-contraction -forced movement
Lymphatic trunks
-convergence of deep & superficial -lumbar trunks -intestinal trunks -bronchomediastinal trunks -subclavian trunks -jugular trunks
If Hematocrit is high
-dehydration -polycythemia -lung/heart disease
Lymphopoiesis
-differentiation of lymphoid cells into lymphocytes -lymphoid stem cells will also travel to peripheral lymphatic tissue (thymus, spleen, lymph nodes)
Leukopoiesis
-differentiation of myeloid cells into leukocytes -Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs): hormones that stimulate leukocyte production
Types of Capillary exchange
-diffusion across endothelial cells -diffusion through gaps between adjacent endothelial cells -diffusion through pores -vesicular transport
Cardiac Skeleton
-each cardiac cell is wrapped in an elastic sheath -each muscle layer is wrapped in a sheet -Fibrous sheets also encircle base of pulmonary trunk, ascending aorta, & valves
Characteristics of arteries
-endothelial lining has pleated folds -thin elastic fibers in media -external elastic membrane surrounding media -internal elastic membrane surrounding intima
Characteristics of veins
-endothelial lining is smooth -many have one-way valves to prevent backflow
Erythropoiesis
-erythrocyte formation -in Red marrow -requires Vitamin B12, amino acids, & Fe -erythropoietin
Visceral Serous Pericardium
-exterior of heart -epicardium
Sinusoid capillaries
-flattened -incomplete endothelial lining -pores and large gaps -slow blood movement -diffusion of very large solutes
White pulp
-forms lymphoid nodules -can respond to antigens or pathogens in blood
Functions of secondary lymphatic structures
-front line defense -consist of lymphocytes & B cells
Blood types
-genetically determined -based on RBC surface antigens -antibodies produced against non-self antigens -donor/recipient compatibility
Erythropoietin (EPO)
-glycoprotein hormone secreted by kidneys & liver in response to low O2 -Hypoxia: low O2 -stimulates erythroblast & stem cell division rates -speeds up Hb formation
Coronary Veins
-great cardiac vein -middle cardiac vein
Granulocytes
-have cytoplasmic granules -neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Structure of a lymph node
-hilium: where vasculature/nerves enter/exit -capsule: multiple afferent vessels; one efferent vessel -subscapular space: many dendritic cells -outer cortex: includes germinal center / contains B cells -paracortex: contains T cells -medulla: contains B cells and macrophages
cardiac action controlled via
-hormones -neural control: visceral reflex arcs; autonomic -sympathetic -parasympathetic
Globulins
-immunoglobulins: antibodies -transport globulins: transport hormones, lipids, & ions
Fenestrated capillaries
-incomplete endothelial lining -rapid fluid & solute diffusion
Lymph
-interstitial fluid -lymphocytes -macrophages
Monocytes
-large cells; kidney-shaped nucleus -use chemotaxis -attracts fibroblasts to encase pathogen in collagen -produce scar tissue
Spleen
-largest lymphatic organ -attached to left side of stomach via gastroplenic ligament -visceral surface has hilium -stores Fe & RBCs -activates B cells & T cells -will destroy old/damaged RBCs
Elastic arteries
-largest of arteries (1 inch) -contain elastic membranes in media & intima -very resilient, tolerate pressure changes during cardiac cycle -recoil during diastole helps propel blood forward -ex., aorta / brachiocephalic trunk / pulmonary trunk
Thymus
-lies posterior to manubrium of sternum -consists of two thymic lobes (left & right) -consists of numerous lobules separated by septa -consists of cortex and medulla -epithelial reticular cells are scattered throughout thymus
Ventricles
-lower chambers -send blood out
Thoracic duct drains
-lymph inferior to diaphragm: Abdomen/Both legs -left side of body superior to diaphragm: arm/torso/neck/head -trunks: left & right lumbar trunks/intestinal trunks/left bronchomediastinal trunk/left subclavian trunk/left jugular trunk
Lymphatic capillaries VS vascular capillaries
-lymphatic capillaries are larger in diameter -lymphatic capillaries have capillaries have thinner walls -lymphatic capillaries have an irregular outline -lymphatic capillaries have anchoring filaments that connect to surrounding connective tissue to keep capillaries open -lymphatic capillaries have greater permeability (endothelial cells overlap)
Larger lymphatic vessels VS veins
-lymphatic vessels have thinner walls & larger lumens -lymphatic vessels do not have easily identifiable tunica -larger lymphatic vessels have valves just like most veins -pressure in lymphatic vessels is lower than veins -skeletal muscle contraction helps propel lymph -inhalation decreases thoracic pressure, which helps to move lymph toward venous system (subclavians)
Lymphatic nodule characteristics
-lymphocytes aggregated within a supporting framework of reticular fibers -nodules have a germinal center, which contains lymphocytes -no capsule
Muscular arteries
-medium-sized arteries (pencil) -thicker media than elastic arteries -vessel diameter under control of autonomic nervous system and hormones -ex., external carotid/ brachial / femoral / mesenteric
Capillary beds
-mesh of capillaries; connecting arterioles with venules -capillaries -arteriovenous anastomoses -thoroughfare channels -metarterioles
Compare/contrast arteries & veins: arteries
-most arteries & veins run parallel -walls of arteries thicker than walls of veins -arteries have more smooth muscle than veins -arteries maintain their circular shape & veins typically collapse when cut
Neutrophils
-multilobed nucleus -granules are vacuoles with lysosomal enzymes & bactericidal compounds -phagocytotic -short lived; will secrete chemotaxic chemicals upon death
Papillary muscles
-one per cusp - contract to prevent AV valve inversion; contract prior to ventricular contraction
Parietal Serous Pericardium
-outer layer of pericardial cavity -fused to fibrous pericardium
Blood Transports
-oxygen -carbon dioxide -Nutrients -metabolic wastes -Enzymes -Hormones -leukocytes & antibodies -toxins for neutralization or excretion
Blood Regulates
-pH of interstitial fluid -ions of interstitial fluid
Lymphatic vessels
-pass through lymphatic tissue & organs -deliver lymph to venous circulation
Lymphatic tissues & organs
-primary lymphatic structures -secondary lymphatic structures
Functions of lymphatic system
-produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes -provide alternate transport route for hormones, nutrients, waste products -maintain normal blood volume & composition of interstitial fluid
Other functions of blood
-reduce/stop body fluid loss from injury; clotting -aid in temperature regulation
Acetylcholine
-reduces CO
Maintaining Normal Blood Volume & Composition of Interstitial Fluid
-relatively low capillary pressure forces solutes & water out of plasma into interstitial fluid area -some interstitial fluid & solutes enters lymphatic system -lymphatic system eventually returns fluid & solutes to venous system
Four chambers of the heart
-right atrium -right ventricle -left atrium -left ventricle
Right lymphatic drains
-right side of body superior to diaphragm: arm/torso/neck/head -trunks: right bronchomediastinal trunk/right subclavian trunk/right jugular trunk
Lymphocytes
-round nucleus; responsible for specific immunity -primary cells of lymphatic system -differentiate into T cells, B cells, and NK cells
epithelial reticular cells
-scattered throughout thymus -produce thymic hormones such as thymosin
Baroreceptors
-sense blood pressure -Carotid & Aortic
Lymphatic Organ
-separated from surrounding tissue by a fibrous capsule -includes: lymph nodes, thymus gland, spleen, red marrow (not in a fibrous capsule)
Venous return
-skeletal muscles of legs help propel blood -one-way flow is aided by venous valves -changes in thoracic pressure helps to move blood through venae cavae
Where does the heart lie?
-slightly left of midsagittal plane -in mediastinum
Lymphatic capillaries
-small lymphatic vessels -only found in places with vasculature -lacteals are specialized capillaries in SI
Arteriole
-smallest arteries (microscopic, 30 microns (hair is 100 microns)) -very thin adventita -media may have incomplete smooth muscle layers -control blood flow between arteries & capillaries -still has limited vasocontriction/dilation
Characteristics of capillaries
-smallest of all vessels (8 microns (size of one RBC)) -most delicate; lack adventita & media -only vessels where material exchange occurs between blood & tissues/interstitial fluid
Venule
-smallest of veins -collect blood from capillaries -lack or have thin tunica media -very small amount of smooth muscle or none
Functions of cardiac skeleton
-stabilizes position of cardiac cells -stabilizes position of valves -provides blood vessels & nerves in myocardium -distribute forces of contraction -prevent overexpansion -provides elasticity so heart recoils after contraction -isolates atrial cells from ventricular cells
Cortex
-stem cells that differentiate to form T cells -mature T cells migrate to medulla
Superficial Lymphatics
-subcutaneous layer -mucous lining of digestive, respiratory, urinary, & reproductive tracts -serous lining ofpleural, pericardial, & peritoneal cavities
Primary lymphatic structures
-thymus -red bone marrow
Secondary lymphatic structures
-tonsils -lymph nodes -spleen -mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Atria
-upper chambers -receive blood
Compare/contrast arteries & veins: veins
-veins more distensible than arteries -based on blood pressure, a vein can expand about 8x as much as a parallel artery -veins are capacitance vessels (act as blood reservoirs; venoconstriction of veins shifts blood toward arterial side of circulation)
Types of Veins
-venules -medium-sized veins -large veins
Basophils
-very high density of granules -Histamine: dilate blood vessels to enable diapedesis -Heparin: prevents blood clots
pH of acids
0-6
Adrenal gland
1
Central Sulcus
1
Thalamus
1
afferent arteriole
1
ampulla
1
distal convoluted tubule
1
frontal lobe
1
juxtaglomerular cells
1
renal capsule
1
urinary bladder
1
uterine tube
1
Cornea
1 L and R
% of circulating erythrocytes that are replaced daily
1%
1) ___ Neurons do NOT have clearly differentiated axons and dendrites 2) ____ are Glial Cells that protect neurons from pathogens, via Phagocytosis - Chapter 13 Quiz
1) Anaxonic Neurons 2) Microglia
1) ___ are bundles of axons within the PNS 2) ___ potentials are a change in a cell's membrane potential that can be inhibitory OR excitatory - Chapter 13 Quiz
1) Nerves 2) Graded
1) the ___ division of the Autonomic Nervous System is often referred to as the "rest and digest" axis 2) the __ Nervous System controls the Gastrointestinal System - Chapter 13 Quiz
1) Parasympathetic 2) Enteric
1) ____ Circuits are where neurons work sequentially to transmit information 2) Myelination allows for ____ signal transmission speeds - Chapter 13 Quiz
1) Serial Processing Circuits 2) faster
Inhalation vs. Exhalation
1) inhalation (inspiration)= active; occurs when diaphragm contracts-> moving down to expand the chest cavity-> rib cage moves up and out 2) exhalation (expiration)= passive; occurs when diaphragm relaxes to become dome-shaped decreasing space-> rib cage moves down and in
list the FUNCTIONS of the Hypothalamus:
1) subconscious control of Skeletal Muscles (somatic reflexes) 2) Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Respiration, and Digestive functions 3) secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone (via Supraoptic Nucleus) and OXYTOCIN (via Paraventricular Nucleus) 4) coordination between Voluntary & Autonomic functions 5) BODY TEMP (via Pre-Optic Area) 6) CARDIAC RHYTHM (via Suprachiasmatic Nucleus) 7) Swallowing, Licking, and Feeding Reflexes (via Mammillary Bodies)
1) within the CNS, ___ matter is mostly made up of myelinated axons 2) within the CNS, ___ form an axon's myelination - Chapter 13 Quiz
1) white 2) oligodendrocytes
The stomach has a pH of
1-2
list the components of the External Ear: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
1. AURICLE 2. External Acoustic Meatus - Ceruminous Glands produce a waxy cerumen (earwax) that is antimicrobial - small, projecting hairs impede insects and small objects 3. TYMPANIC Membrane (tympanum) - separates the External Ear from the Middle Ear
____ reflexes, such as catching a ball, involves the coordinated movement of skeletal muscles, which are categorized as _____ - Chapter 14 Quiz
1. Acquired 2. Somatic
describe the structural classification of Neurons:
1. Anaxonic Neuron - ONLY in the CNS and Special Sensory Organs - many processes can NOT differentiate between Axons & Dendrites 2. Bipolar Neuron - have TWO process separated by the Cell Body - process Sight, Smell, and Hearing - axons are NOT myelinated 3. Pseudounipolar Neuron - Sensory Peripheral Nervous System - MAY have myelin - cell body is off to one side of the axon 4. Multipolar Neuron - SKELETAL Muscle Motor Neuron - typically has a single axon and multiple dendrites - MOST COMMON TYPE IN THE CNS!
list the Central White Matter Bundles:
1. Association Fibers - tracts that interconnect areas of the Neural Cortex within a hemisphere (Arcuate Fibers and Longitudinal Fasciculi) 2. Commissural Fibers - tracts that connect between hemispheres (Anterior Commissure and Corpus Callosum) 3. Projection Fibers - tracts that link the Cerebrum with other regions of the Brain & Spinal Cord 4. Internal Capsule - tracts of Afferent & Efferent Fibers
describe the types of Neuroglia IN the Central Nervous System:
1. Astrocytes - LARGEST & MOST NUMEROUS - make up the Blood Brain Barrier / BBB - forms Scar Tissue - RECYCLES Neurotransmitters 2. Oligodendrocytes - forms the Myelin Sheath / Internodes - forms Myelin Sheath Gaps 3. Microglia - PHAGOCYTIC Cells 4. Ependymal Cells - involved in Cerebrospinal Fluid / CSF PRODUCTION & monitoring
list what hormones the HEART produces:
1. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide - Peptide Hormone - ANP 2. Brain Natriuretic Peptide - Peptide Hormone - BNP - both oppose the activity of Angiotensin II AND ADH, AND reduces Blood Pressure & Blood Volume
describe the Olfactory Pathways: - Special Senses - Smell
1. Axons of the Olfactory Receptors LEAVE the Olfactory Epithelium through the Foramina, and synapse on neurons in the Olfactory Bulb 2. Impulses travel from Bulb TO Brain, via the Olfactory Tract 3. Impulses arrive at the Cerebral Cortex, Hypothalamus, and LIMBIC System COMPONENTS OF THE PATHWAY: 1. Olfactory Epithelium 2. Olfactory Nerve Fibers 3. Olfactory Bulb 4. Olfactory Tract 5. Central Nervous System
1. the ________ cells of the pancreas secrete insulin 2. the Zona _________ of the adrenal cortex produces aldosterone - Chapter 19 Quiz
1. Beta 2. Glomerulsa
list the components of the Internal Ear: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
1. Bony Labyrinth - BONY casing of the Inner Ear A) Vestibular Complex - Semicircular Canals - Vestibule - Utricle - Saccule B) Cochlea - Round Window & Oval Window 2. Membranous Labyrinth - located within the Bony Labyrinth - made of HAIR Cells, Supporting Cells, and Endolymph 3. Perilymph - separates the Bony Labyrinth and the Membranous Labyrinth
1. the ____ is the speech center that also controls the breathing patterns needed for speech 2. the ____ predicts the consequences of actions - Chapter 16 Quiz
1. Broca's Area 2. Prefrontal Cortex
parts of large intestine
1. Cecum 2. Colon 3. Rectum
list the major components of the Brain:
1. Cerebrum 2. Diencephalon A) Thalamus B) Hypothalamus 3. Mesencephalon / Midbrain 4. Pons 5. Medulla Oblongata 6. Cerebellum
describe the VASCULAR Layer of the Eye: - Special Senses - Vision
1. Choroid - HIGHLY VASCULARIZED 2. Ciliary Body - Ora Serrata - posterior edge - Ciliary Bodies consist of Ciliary Muscles / Smooth Muscles and an overlying epithelium - Ciliary Processes connect to the Lens, via Suspensory Ligaments - Accommodation - contraction or relaxation of the Ciliary Muscle that changes the shape of the Lens (focusing) 3. Lens - Avascular ringed arrangement of Elongated Cells and Connective Tissue - Accommodation in the Lens! 4. Iris - consists of Blood Vessels, Pigment, and Smooth Muscle - Pigment variation determines the color of the iris! - TWO layers of Smooth Muscles contract to change the Pupil diameter - A) Sphincter Pupillae - contraction REDUCES the diameter of the Pupil B) Dilator Pupillae - contraction
cerebrospinal fluid is generated by the ____, and renters circulation via the _____ - Chapter 16 Quiz
1. Choroid Plexus 2. Arachnoid Granulations
How the body regulates pH
1. Controlling CO2 2. Directly controlling concentration of hydrogen ions 3. Directly controlling concentration of bicarbonate ions
describe the surfaces of the Brain:
1. Cortex - in the Cerebrum and the Cerebellum - superficial gray matter - OUTER region of the Brain 2. Nuclei - clusters of Gray Matter - made of spherical, oval, or irregular neuronal cell bodies - also - hollow regions of the brain -- allow for the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid
Different types of T cells
1. Cytotoxic T cells: attack foreign cells & viruses 2. Helper T cells: stimulate T & B cells; antibody protection 3. Regulatory T cells: moderate immune response 4. Memory T cells: activated upon subsequent antigen exposure
describe the components of Neurons:
1. Dendrites - stimulated by environmental changes or the activities of other cells - respond to SPECIFIC stimuli in the extracellular environment 2. Cell Body - contains the Nucleus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes, and other organelles and inclusions 3. Axon - conducts nerve impulses (action potential) TO Axon Terminals - long, slender cytoplasmic process 4. Axon Terminal - affects another Neuron or Effector Organ (muscle or gland) - RECEIVES impulses from the Axon 5. Gray Matter - nervous tissue dominated by Neuron Cell Bodies
events of an Action Potential in the CORRECT order: - Chapter 13 Quiz
1. Dendrites RECEIVE stimuli, and if the stimulus is excitatory and reaches threshold it will elicit an Action Potential 2. the Action Potential reaches the Axon Hillock and begins Axonal Propagation 3. the Action Potential propagates along the Myelinated Axon, resulting in Saltatory Conduction 4. the Action Potential causes the Axon Terminals to secrete Neurotransmitters into the Synaptic Cleft
Actions of leukocytes
1. Diapedesis 2. Chemotaxis
1. the ____ lines the cavity in the sphenoid bone where the pituitary gland is found 2. the ___ colliculi is involved with processing auditory information - Chapter 16 Quiz
1. Diaphragma Sellae 2. Inferior
regions of small intestine w/ diagram
1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum
1. the ____ System produces long-term, general responses that may have multiple target cells 2. the ___ Pituitary Gland is controlled by hormonal signals from the Hypothalamus - Chapter 19 Quiz
1. Endocrine 2. Posterior
1. the ___ is the layer of connective tissue that surrounds each axon 2. each spinal segment corresponds to a pair of ___ - Chapter 14 Quiz
1. Endoneurium 2. Spinal Nerves
describe the COMPONENTS of the Diencephalon:
1. Epithalamus - contains the Pineal Gland - produces MELATONIN 2. Thalamus - left / right are connected via an Interthalamic Adhesion 3. Hypothalamus - extends from the area superior to the Optic Chiasm to the Mammillary Bodies - extending from the Hypothalamus is the Infundibulum connecting to the Pituitary Gland
list the components of the Eye: - Special Senses - Vision
1. Fibrous Layer 2. Vascular Layer 3. Inner Layer 1. Anterior Cavity - Aqueous Humor - Anterior & Posterior Chambers 2. Posterior Cavity - Viterous Humor 3. Posterior Orbital Fat Pad - padding and insulation -- fat behind the eyes
describe the TYPES of Tactile Receptors: - type of Mechanoreceptors
1. Free Nerve Endings - common in the Dermis - SENSITIVE TO LIGHT CONTACT - Unencapsulated! 2. Hair Root Plexus - associated with Hair Follicles - monitors distortions and movements of hairs on the body surface - Unencapsulated! 3. Lamellar Corpuscle - consists of Concentric Cellular Layers - sensitive to Deep Pressure and High-Frequency Vibrations - Encapsulated! 4. Tactile Discs & Merkel Cells - Free Nerve Endings synapse with Merkel Cells in the Epidermis - Merkel Cells - TONIC, high acuity and very sensitive - sensitive to Light Contact with Skin - Unencapsulated! 5. Bulbous Corpuscle / Ruffini Corpuscle - associated with Collagen in the Dermis - sensitive to Stretching and Distortion of the DERMIS - Encapsulated! 6. Tactile Corpuscle - common on Eyelids, Lips, Fingertips, Nipples, and External Genitalia - sensitive to Contact and Low-Frequency Vibration - Encapsulated!
describe the products of the Cells of Pancreatic Islets:
1. GLUCAGON (from Alpha Cells) - stimulates the Liver to break down Glycogen to form Glucose - raises blood glucose levels 2. INSULIN (from Beta Cells) - increases the rate of Glucose absorption by body cells - lowers blood glucose levels 3. SOMATOSTATIN (from Delta Cells) - inhibits Glucagon and Insulin - slows food absorption rates 4. PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE (PP - from F Cells) - inhibits Gallbladder contractions - regulates the production of Pancreatic Enzymes
describe the TWO types of Matter in the CNS:
1. GRAY MATTER - in Neurons - devoid of Myelinated Axons - also composed of Cell Bodies & Dendrites 2. WHITE MATTER - in Neuroglias - MOSTLY Myelinated Axons
1. ____ increases plasma glucose levels 2. ____ increases plasma calcium ion concentration - Chapter 19 Quiz
1. Glucagon 2. Parathyroid Hormone
Growth & Replacement of Hair
Active stage 2-5 yrs - Hair grows about 0.33 mm per day Resting stage - Hair loses its attachment to follicle - Hair becomes a club hair Club hair is lost & a replacement hair is produced Pattern baldness; ∆s in sex hormones
afferent vs efferent neurons (9)
Afferent = sensory Efferent = motor
What is residual volume?
Air in lungs after maximal expiration. Cannot be measured on spirometry
Gap juntions
Allow for transfer of ions & APs
What is inspiratory reserve volume?
Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation
The human body is predominately made up of which elements: A. Hydrogen, Calcium, Nitrogen, Oxygen B. Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen C. Phosphorus, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen D. Hydrogen, Chloride, Nitrogen, Oxygen
B. Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen , Oxygen
Which of the following is NOT an anatomical synapomorphy for all vertebrates: A. Braincase B. Limbs C. Dorsal hollow nerve cord D. Pharyngeal arches
B. Limbs
________ are neural cells that can divide. _______ muscle can grow and/or repair itself due to its ability to undergo hyperplasia. A. Neurons; Skeletal B. Neuroglia; Smooth C. Neurons; Smooth D. Neuroglia; Skeletal
B. Neuroglia; Smooth
Products synthesized by the endoplasmic reticulum are delivered to the Golgi apparatus by: A. Bulk transport B. Transport vesicles C. Ribosomes D. Cisternae E. Microfilaments
B. Transport vesicles
number of primordial follicles is set when?
BEFORE birth
Blood Pressure at a specific point equation
BP = R x BF
describe the functions of the Brain AND the Cranial Nerves:
BRAIN - - integrates and processes BOTH Simple Information & Complex Information - most SIMPLE Immediate Responses are by the Spinal Cord - Adaptable Responses, a bit slower, happen in the Brain 12 CRANIAL NERVES - - connected directly to the brain & bypass the spinal cord - FOUR General Functional Types - 1. Sensory Cranial Nerves 2. Special sensory Cranial Nerves 3. Motor Cranial Nerves 4. Mixed Cranial Nerves -- mix of Sensory AND Motor
Inferior
Below; at a lower level , towards the feet
describe the CONNECTIONS within the Cerebellum:
- Cerebellar Cortex & Nuclei - subconscious coordination of movements - ARBOR VITAE - connects the Cerebellar Cortex with the Cerebellar Peduncles - Superior Peduncle - connects the Cerebellum with the Mesencephalon, Diencephalon, AND Cerebrum - Middle Peduncle - communicates with the Cerebellum and Pons - Inferior Peduncle - connects the Cerebellum with the Medulla Oblongata
The Endocrine System
- Chronic Homeostasis - allows for reproduction
describe the Hypoglossal Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- Controls Tongue Movement (motor) - Speech - Medulla Oblongata (origin)
Nerve fibers
- Controls blood flow to skin - Adjusts gland secretion rates - Monitors sensory receptors
describe the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone: - produced by Corticotropes
- Cortisol, Cortisone, and Corticosterone (Glucocorticoids) - targets the Adrenal Cortex of the Adrenal Gland and stimulates Glucocorticoid secretion FUNCTIONS - 1. releases Glucose 2. reduces Inflammation
Nonmembranous Organelles
- Cytoskeleton - Microvilli - Centrioles - Cillia - Flagella - Ribosomes
describe the Pia Mater: - Spinal Meninges
- DEEPEST meningeal layer - BLOOD VESSELS are found in this layer - firmly bound to the Brain Tissue and the Spinal Cord Tissue - Denticulate Ligaments - extensions of Pia Mater that attach the Pia Mater and Arachnoid Mater TO the Dura Mater
Dermis
- Dense irregular connective tissue - Hair follicles - Sweat glands - Sebaceous glands - Loose connective tissue - Dermal papillae - Capillaries - Axons of neurons - Attachment to Epidermis
describe the components of Sensory Information:
- Dorsal Root! - Dermatomes - regions of the skin supplied by SPECIFIC spinal nerves - SOMATIC Sensations - 1. from Exteroceptors A) Proprioceptors of the Body Wall / Limbs -- Ventral Ramus B) Proprioceptors of the Back -- Dorsal Ramus 2. Somatic Sensory in the Spinal Cord - VISCERAL Sensations - 1. from Interceptors A) of the Visceral Organs -- Rami Communicantes B) of the Body Wall / Limbs -- Ventral Ramus C) of the Back -- Doral Ramus 2. Visceral Sensory in the Spinal Cord
Vertebrate Synapomorphies
- Dorsal hollow nerve cord - Notochord - Post-anal tail - Pharyngeal arches - Braincase
Types of strain
- Elastic deformation: energy input is fully released; no change in bone shape - Plastic deformation: not all energy is released; change in bone shape - Fracture: no energy released, bone breaks
Functions of connective tissue
- Establishing body's structural framework - Transport fluid & dissolved materials - Protect organs - Support, surround, & connect other tissues - Store - Defend body from microorganisms
describe the Membrane Potential of Interneurons:
- Excitable Cells - if STIMULATED, it will cause a change in the membrane potential - Graded Potentials - changes in membrane potential that can lead to threshold and generate action potential - INHIBITORY Hyperpolarizing Current is 1-3 on the Stimulating Current Pulses - EXCITATORY Depolarizing Current is 4-8 on the Stimulating Current Pulses - DIAGRAM - - Membrane Potential (mV) - X Axis - Time (ms) - Y Axis - Stimulating Current Pulses (1 to 8) - at the top of the chart - Voltage Threshold - under the Current Pulses -- HIGH Voltage Threshold (40+) for 6-8 / Excitatory Depolarizing Current
Nervous & lymphatic
- Extensive system throughout periosteum - Nerves also enter via nutrient foramen
of the following nerves, which are associated with the Taste Buds on the Tongue?: - Chapter 18 Quiz A) Facial Nerve B) Vagus Nerve C) Trigeminal Nerve D) Glossopharyngeal Nerve E) Hypoglossal Nerve
- Facial Nerve - Vagus Nerve - Glossopharyngeal Nerve
The Urinary System
- Filters blood of excess waste, salts ions & solutes - pH & water. balance - Endocrine function
describe the Nerve Fibers: - in the Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, and Thalamus
- Fornix - tract of White Matter that connects the Hippocampus to the Hypothalamus -- many Fornix Fibers extend to Mammillary Bodies - Mammillary Bodies - controls reflex movements that are associated with eating - OTHER Nuclei in the Thalamus and the Hypothalamus - A) Anterior Nucleus - visceral info from the Hypothalamus to Cingulate Gyrus B) Reticular Formation - alertness and excitement
Eccrine glands
- Found all over body - High concentrations on palms & soles - Sweat - - thermoregulation - - Some waste excretion Salts N waste Some metabolites - Antimicrobial activity Eccrine secretion
describe the types of Neuroglia in the Peripheral Nervous System:
- Ganglia - clusters of cell bodies in the PNS - Axons are bundled together to form Peripheral Nerves 1. Satellite Cells - surround Cell Bodies - can insulate neurons from each other 2. Schwann Cells - surround the Axons with Myelin - increases Axon Propagation Speed
The Respiratory System
- Gas Exchange & pH balance - Water Balance -delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the air and circulating blood - produces sound
describe Gustation: - Special Senses - Taste
- Gustation provides info about the foods and lipids consumed! - Gustatory Receptors are found in PAPILLAE on the Dorsal Surface of the Tongue - Lingual Papillae - A) Filiform B) Fungiform C) Foliate D) Vallate -- papillae contain taste buds -- taste buds contain gustatory receptors - FIVE Classes of Tastes - A) Salty B) Sweet C) Sour D) Bitter E) Umami ("savory") - Water is sensed in the PHARYNX -- "unpleasant stimuli" = low threshold -- "pleasant stimuli" = high threshold
list what hormones the KIDNEYS produce:
1. RENIN (enzyme) - converts Angiotensinogen TO Angiotensin I - conversion of Angiotensin I TO Angiotensin II in the Lungs -- Angiotensin II stimulates the release of Aldosterone / Vasoconstriction 2. Erythropoietin (Peptide Hormone, EPO) - stimulates Red Blood Cell production in Red Marrow 3. CALCITRIOL (Steroid Hormone) - increases Calcium absorption - made from Vitamin D
All trunks drain into one of two ducts
1. Right lymphatic duct 2. Thoracic duct
Four parts of each AV valve
1. Ring of connective tissue 2. Cusps 3. Chordae tendineae 4. Papillary muscles
describe the types of Special Senses:
1. Smell (olfaction) 2. Taste (gustation) 3. Balance & Acceleration 4. Hearing 5. Vision - receptors are located in Complex Sense Organs - interpreted mainly by the BRAIN
describe the NUCLEI in the Medulla Oblongata:
1. Solitary Nucleus - receives Visceral Sensations from the Spinal Nerves and the Cranial Nerves 2. Gracile Nucleus & Cuneate Nucleus - pass SOMATIC Sensory Information to the Thalamus 3. Olivary Nucleus - pass information from the Cerebrum, Spinal Cord, Diencephalon, and Brainstem TO the Cerebellum - Olivary Nuclei form "olives" -- bulges on the medulla oblongata
describe the components of Nerve Cells:
1. Soma - cell body 2. Dendrite - branches of Soma A) Dendrite Spines - portions that receive stimuli 3. Axon - transmits signals / Action Potential A) Axon Terminals - passes along the signals, usually as Neurotransmitters B) Axon Hillock - area where the initial segment of the Axon connects to the Cell Body C) Axoplasm - cytoplasm of an Axon -- Axoplasmic Transport - the movement of material between the Cell Body and Axon Terminals 4. Neurofilaments - components that make up Neurons
1. ____ hormones are derived from Cholesterol 2. _____ is produced by the Heart and decreases blood pressure - Chapter 19 Quiz
1. Steroid 2. Brain Natriuretic Peptide
1. ____ hormones are released from cells by Simple Diffusion 2. the ____ Gland uses Iodine to produce hormones - Chapter 19 Quiz
1. Steroid 2. Thyroid
1. the ____ lobe is involved with perception of auditory and olfactory stimuli 2. the ____ lobe is involved with perception of visual stimuli - Chapter 16 Quiz
1. Temporal 2. Occipital
describe the functions of the Thalamus and Hypothalamus: - Diencephalon
1. Thalamus - relays information to the Cerebrum - processes Sensory Information 2. Hypothalamus - involved in Emotions, Thirst, and some Habitual Activity -- large role in emotions, thirst drive, and habitual activity / anything we do in a pattern or rhythm - connects to the Pituitary Gland via the Infundibulum 3. Epithalamus - contains the Pineal Gland -- associated with our daily cycles / rhythms
1. _____ receptors are also known as slowing adapting receptors, that do not show a reduction in sensitivity due to a constant stimulus 2. _____ are very sensitive, have high acuity, and are unencapsulated tactile receptors - Chapter 18 Quiz
1. Tonic 2. Tactile Discs & Merkel Cells
events of a Reflex Arc in the CORRECT order: - Chapter 13 Quiz
1. a Stimulus is sensed by a Sensory Receptor 2. a Sensory Neuron relays the information 3. Afferent Information reaches the Integration Center in the Central Nervous System 4. a Motor Neuron relays the information 5. the Effector Organ acts
describe the role of the Hypothalamus in Endocrine and Neural Activities:
1. acts as an ENDOCRINE ORGAN - releases Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin (OXT) at the posterior lobe of the Pituitary Gland 2. secretes Regulatory Hormones - controls the activity of the ANTERIOR lobe of the Pituitary Gland -- mostly via PEPTIDE Hormones 3. exerts control over the ADRENAL Medulla via Motor Neurons - causes the releases of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine as part of the "fight or flight" response - contains Autonomic Nervous System Centers
phases of eating
1. buccal 2. pharyngeal 3. esophageal
the glomerular capsule consists of?
1. capsular outer layer = squamous cells that are continuous w/ lining of PCT 2. visceral layer = epithelial lining of glomerular capillaries; podocytes 3. capsular space = opens to PCT
menstrual phase of uterine cycle
1. decrease in progestin and estrogen levels * causes constriction of blood vessels * causes a loss of excess endometrial cells * Degenerated tissue & blood cells enter uterine cavity, menses
describe the Gustatory Pathways: - Special Senses - Taste
1. dissolved chemicals contact Microvilli and stimulate the Gustatory Cells 2. impulses go from the Gustatory Cells through the Facial, Glossopharyngeal, and Vagus Nerves - First-Order Synapses occur in the MEDULLA OBLONGATA - Second-Order Synapses occur in the THALAMUS - information arrives at the Gustatory Cortex - SPICINESS and Cooling are sensed by the Trigeminal Nerves
describe the Proprioceptors: - type of Mechanoreceptors
1. monitor the Position of Joints - via Free Nerve Endings in JOINT Capsules 2. monitor Tension in the Tendons and Ligaments A) Golgi Tendon Organs - receptors in the Tendons 3. monitor the Length of Muscle Fibers upon Contraction A) Muscle Spindles - receptors in Muscles 4. integration with Sensory Info from Inner Ear and conveys info about Body Position (vertigo or motion sickness)
uterine wall layers
1. perimetrium (incomplete serial layer) 2. myometrium (longitudinal, circular, and oblique smooth muscles) 3. endometrium (glandular, thickness is impacted by menstrual cycle)
4 stages of breathing
1. pulmonary ventilation 2.external respiration 3. transport of gases 4. internal respiration
Vagus nerve
20
arbor vitae
20
accessory nerve
21
Occipital lobes
22
Optic Nerve
3
broad ligament
3
choroid
3
external urethral orifice
3
pituitary gland
3
podocytes
3
prostatic urethra
3
proximal convoluted tubule
3
renal artery
3
Iris
3 L and R
Blood vessel walls
3 layers/tunica: -Adventita -Media -Intima
respiratory centers?
3 pairs of nuclei in the reticular formation of the medulla oblongata and pons that regulate respiratory muscles
Frontal Lobe
4
Hypothalamus
4
Optic Chiasma
4
Pons
4
arcuate vessels
4
ciliary body
4
distal convoluted tubule
4
fundus of uterus
4
incus
4
prostate gland
4
renal vein
4
small intestine pH is?
4
Renal Medulla
5
Sclera
5
Temporal Lobe
5
auricle
5
body of uterus
5
efferent arteriole
5
medulla oblongata
5
membranous urethra
5
pituitary gland
5
pubic symphysis
5
trochlear nerve
5
Sclera
5 L, 4 R
vitreous humor
5 R
Loop of Henle
5/6
Corpus Spongyosum
6
Pons
6
cerebral aqueduct
6
lens
6
medulla oblongata
6
renal pyramid
6
spongy urethra
6
trochlear nerve
6
tympanic membrane
6
lens
6 R
Cerebral peduncle
7
Neutral pH
7
Pons
7
corpus cavernosum
7
external acoustic meatus
7
fimbriae of uterine tube
7
glomerular capsule
7
medulla oblongata
7
optic nerve
7
prepuce
7
pubic symphysis
7
renal cortex
7
trigeminal nerve
7
choroid
7 R
% of body mass that is blood
7%
Iris
8
Ovary
8
Scrotum
8
collecting duct
8
glans penis
8
parietal lobe
8
proximal convoluted tubule
8
trigeminal nerve
8
ureter
8
vestibularocochlear nerve
8
vestibulocochlear nerve
8
pH of bases
8-14
Seminal Vesicle
9
abducens nerve
9
clitoris
9
external urethral orifice
9
facial nerve
9
occipital lobe
9
ovarian ligament
9
vestibule
9
Human physiological pH values
< 6.8 = death 6.8-7.35 = acidosis 7.35-7.45 = normal 7.45-7.8 = alkalosis 7.8< = death
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
> PROVIDES PHYSICAL PROTECTION - from abrasion, dehydration, & destruction > CONTROLS > SENSORY CELLS - General (touch) - Neuroepithelia (sense organs) > PRODUCES - Unicellular glands - Glandular epithelia
Corniculate cartilage
A
Esophagus
A
Hard palate
A
Hyoid Bone
A
Lymphocyte
A
Premolars
A
Superior lobe
A
_________ are one of the few organelles that have a double-layered membrane. A _________ is a vesicle that is filled with digestive enzymes. A. Mitochondria; Lysosome B. Mitochondria; Peroxisome C. Endoplasmic reticulum; Lysosome D. Endoplasmic reticulum; Peroxisome
A. Mitochondria; Lysosome
Choose the correct order of levels of decreasing biological complexity: A. Organism, Organ system, Organ, Tissue, Cellular, Chemical/molecular B. Organism, Cellular, Organ system, Organ, Tissue, Chemical/molecular C. Organism, Organ system, Tissue, Organ, Cellular, Chemical/molecular D. Organism, Organ system, Organ, Cellular, Tissue, Chemical/molecular E. Organism, Tissue, Organ system, Organ, Cellular, Chemical/molecular
A. Organism, Organ system, Organ, Tissue, Cellular, Chemical/molecular
Which of the following processes do not directly use energy? A. Osmosis B. Exocytosis C. Phagocytosis D. All of the processes listed directly use energy E. Pinocytosis F. Active transport
A. Osmosis
The most superficial layer of skin that has vasculature is the: A. Papillary layer B. Epidermis C. Hypodermis D. Reticular layer
A. Papillary layer
Which group of connective tissue types are most closely related? A. Reticular; areolar; adipose B. Adipose; elastic; blood C. Dense regular; lymph; reticular D. Areolar; bone; elastic cartilage E. Elastic cartilage; fibrous cartilage; blood
A. Reticular; areolar; adipose
The most superficial layer of the epidermis in which all the cells still possess nuclei is the: A. stratum granulosum B. stratum corneum C. stratum lucidum D. stratum spinosum E. stratum basale
A. stratum granulosum
Which of the following is false: A.) An increase in UV exposure will stimulate the melanocytes to produce more carotene pigment. B.) Exposure to extensive UV radiation can cause skin cancer. C.) All of the statements listed are true. D.) Exposure to extensive UV radiation can damage fibrocytes which will cause premature wrinkling. E.) Hair plays a role in protecting skin from UV damage. F.) The thickness of the epidermis on the soles and palms prevent their tanning.
A.) An increase in UV exposure will stimulate the melanocytes to produce more carotene pigment.
describe the Afferent Division and the Efferent Division of the Peripheral Nervous System:
AFFERENT DIVISON - - Sensory Information! A) Somatic Sensory Receptors - monitor skeletal muscles, joints, body position, and skin surface - provides position sense and touch, pressure, pain, and temp sensations B) Visceral Sensory Receptors - monitor Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems C) Special Sensory Receptors - monitor smell, taste, vision, balance, and hearing EFFERENT DIVISION - - Motor Commands / Motor Neurons! A) Somatic Nervous System / SNS - skeletal muscle B) Autonomic Nervous System / ANS - Parasympathetic Division AND Sympathetic Division -- smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and adipose tissue C) Enteric Nervous System / ENS - Gastrointestinal Tract
which of the following organs/ glands are NOT correctly paired with one of the hormones it produces?: - Chapter 19 Quiz
ALL ARE CORRECT A) Pineal - Melatonin B) Pancreas - Somatostatin C) Kidney - Calcitriol D) Thyroid - Calcitonin E) Adrenal - Cortisol F) Ovaries - Estrogen
which of the following statements is FALSE?: - Chapter 13 Quiz A) neurons retain the ability to divide B) astrocytes will promote axon growth C) neurons cannot repair themselves D) neuroglia lack the ability to divide
ALL ARE FALSE - Neurons CAN divide - Astrocytes - make up the Blood Brain Barrier, form Scar Tissue, and recycle Neurotransmitters - Neurons CAN repair themselves - Neuroglia CAN divide
Active transport uses what kind of energy ?
ATP
what kid of energy does Endocytosis & Exocytosis use ?
ATP
What are the two parts of Microscopic Anatomy ?
Cytology & Histology
Cytoplasm
Cytosol & Organelles
Annular Ligaments
D
Incisors
D
Oblique muscle layer
D
Upper lip
D
Vocal fold
D
Of the following statements regarding body cavities, which is false? A. The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are separated by the diaphragm. B. The parietal peritoneum lines the body wall. C. The visceral pleura cover the outside surface of each lung. D. All of the gastrointestinal system is solely housed within the abdominal cavity. E. The serous membranes provide lubrication to organs.
D. All of the gastrointestinal system is solely housed within the abdominal cavity.
Which of the following statements about hair are false: A. Hair color is derived from carotene. B. Hair shaft is living tissue. C. All hairs have a cortex, medulla, and cuticle. D. All of the statements listed are false. E. Hair depends on sweat to maintain structural integrity.
D. All of the statements listed are false.
Which set of anatomical regions are properly matched with their respective area on the body? A.Pedal: foot; Cervical: head; Brachial: arm B.None of the listed options are correct C.Inguinal: groin; Crural: arm; Abdominal: abdomen D.Carpal: wrist; Lumbar: lower back; Sural: calf E.Femoral: calf; Cephalic: head; Antebrachial: forearm
D. Carpal: wrist; Lumbar: lower back; Sural: calf
A plane that divides a specimen into dorsal and ventral halves is called: A. Midsagittal plane B. Transverse plane C. Parasagittal plane D. Frontal plane
D. Frontal Plane
Which intercellular connection allows for the free passage of material between cells? A. None of the listed options have this ability B. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) C. Tight junctions D. Gap junctions E. Hemidesmosomes
D. Gap junctions
In lab you will primarily study large easily-seen structures, which is also referred to as _________ anatomy. ________ is the branch of anatomy that studies cells. A. Gross; Histology B. Microscopic; Cytology C. Microscopic; Histology D. Gross; Cytology
D. Gross; Cytology
condylar joint movement (8)
Biaxial: flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction
saddle joint movement (8)
Biaxial: flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction
Features of erythrocytes (RBC)
Biconcave disk -large surface area -flexible
In Fick's first law, diffusion rate is directly impacted by all the following variables except: A. Diffusion distance B. Surface area for diffusion C. Solute temperature D. Solute concentration difference E. Diffusion coefficient
C. Solute temperature
Which of the following is not true: A.) Microvilli increase the surface area of the apical surface. B.) Exocrine glands secrete products that empty into a body opening or space. C.) Holocrine secretion has a rapid production rate. D.) Epithelial tissue is avascular. E.) Epithelial tissues cells are replaced by stem cells.
C.) Holocrine secretion has a rapid production rate.
In the figure above letter "___" is the Tactile Corpuscle and letter "___" is the Papillary Layer. A.) N; B B.) I; C C.) I; B D.) N; C
C.) I;B
Which of the following statements about sebaceous glands is false? A.) Sebaceous glands use the holocrine secretion method for producing product. B.) Blocked sebaceous glands can cause acne. C.) Sebaceous glands are only found in association with hair follicles. D.) Sebum is a lipid mixture helps to maintain the epidermis and hair. E.) Sebaceous glands are absent from the soles of feet and palms of hands.
C.) Sebaceous glands are only found in association with hair follicles.
describe the functions of the Nervous Systems:
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM / CNS - - the Brain and the Spinal Cord - Integrating, Processing, & Coordinating - -- Sensory INPUT & Motor OUTPUT - seat of HIGHER brain functioning PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM/PNS - - tissue that's OUTSIDE of the CNS - provides Sensory Information TO the CNS and carries Motor Commands AWAY from the CNS -- Afferent Division - TO CNS, and BEGINS at the Receptors -- Efferent Division - Motor Commands TO Effectors, and ENDS at Effectors
Rotation (8)
CIRCULAR MOVEMENT AROUND AN AXIS
Cardiac output equation
CO = SV x HR
Select the correct identity and function of the cell marked "A" in the figure above. A. Langerhans cell that extends its cytoplasm to phagocytize sick or foreign cells. B. Keratinocyte that fills with keratin and melanin; once this cell dies it forms the bulk of the epidermis. C. Melanocyte that produces carotene based on genetic control and exposure to UV radiation. D. Melanocyte that produces melanin based on genetic control and exposure to UV radiation. E. Melanocyte that produces melanin based solely on exposure to UV radiation.
D. Melanocyte that produces melanin based on genetic control and exposure to UV radiation.
_________ membranes produce fluid that reduces the friction in joints. _________ membranes produce transudate that reduces friction between organs and body cavities. A. Mucous; Serous B. Serous; Synovial C. Serous; Mucous D. Synovial; Serous E. Synovial; Mucous
D. Synovial; Serous
In the figure above, what is the function of the dots that partially cover the surface of this organelle: A. Store fats B. Store enzymes C. Synthesize fats D. Synthesize enzymes E. Absorb toxins
D. Synthesize enzymes
For the image above select the group of terms that correctly identifies each mechanism of glandular secretion: A.) A: Holocrine secretion ; B: Apocrine secretion; C: Eccrine secretion B.) A: Eccrine secretion ; B: Apocrine secretion; C: Holocrine secretion C.) A: Holocrine secretion ; B: Eccrine secretion; C: Apocrine secretion D.) A: Apocrine secretion ; B: Eccrine secretion; C: Holocrine secretion E.). A: Apocrine secretion ; B: Holocrine secretion; C: Eccrine secretion
D.) A: Apocrine secretion ; B: Eccrine secretion; C: Holocrine secretion
Which of the following options correctly orders the layers of epidermis in thin skin from superficial to deep? A.) Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum corneum B.) Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum C.) Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale D.) Stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
D.) Stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
describe to the Pia Mater: - Cranial Meninges
DEEPEST LAYER - attached to the SURFACE of the Brain - anchored to the Brain by processes of Astrocytes - follows SULCI & Gyri of the Brain - helps to anchor large blood vessels of the Cerebrum - has a lot of vasculature - associated with the Blood Brain Barrier
Compact Bone
Dense Bone - dense & solid - forms wall of bone - parallel compression - transmission of stress parallel to bone axis - osteon arrangement is parallel to bone axis - weak bone strength perpendicular to bone axis B in the picture
Anterior Pituitary Gland Tissues that are CORRECTLY paired with the Hormones that it produces: - Chapter 19 Quiz A) Lactotropes - Luteinizing Hormone B) Somatotropes - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone C) Thyrotropes - Prolactin D) Corticotropes - Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone E) Gonadotropes - Growth Hormone
Corticotropes = Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone - Lactotropes = Prolactin - Somatotropes = Growth Hormone - Thyrotropes = Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone - Gonadotropes = Follicle-Stimulating Hormone & Luteinizing Hormone
The __________ or_________ border of the pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Cranial ; Cephalic
describe the CLASSIFICATIONS of Reflexes:
Development - 1. Innate - genetically determined - tied to Homeostasis - have since birth & keep u alive 2. Acquired - learned - "muscle memory" - ONLY Somatic - in Skeletal Muscles Processing Sites - 1. Spinal Reflexes - fast - processing in the Spinal Cord - deal with rhythmicity 2. Cranial Reflexes - slow - processing in the Brain Result of a Motor Response - 1. Somatic Reflexes - ONLY control Skeletal Muscle Contractions - include Superficial & Stretch Reflexes 2. Visceral / Autonomic Reflexes - control the actions of Smooth and Cardiac Muscles, Glands, and Adipose Tissue Complexity of a Circuit - 1. Monosynaptic - involves a SINGLE segment of the Spinal Cord - ONE Synapse 2. Polysynaptic - integrates a Motor Output from SEVERAL Spinal Segments - MULTIPLE Synapses -- two to several hundred
describe the Trigeminal Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
FUNCTIONS (MIXED) - 1. Ophthalmic Division - sensations from Forehead, Eyelids, and Nose (sensory) 2. Maxillary Divison - sensation from the Lower Eyelid, Upper Lid, and Cheek (sensory) 3. Mandibular Division - controls Mastication and Tongue (spicy and cooling - mixed) ORIGIN - 1. Ophthalamic Divison - Orbital Structures, Nasal Cavity, Forehead, and Superior Eyelid 2. Maxillary Divison - Inferior Eyelid, Upper Lip, Gums, Teeth, Palate, and Part of the Pharynx 3. Mandibular Division - Lower Gums, Teeth, Lips, Palate, Tongue, Salivary Glands, and Motor Nuclei of Pons
describe the Ventricular System of the Brain:
FUNCTIONS - - filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid - transports materials to and from the Central Nervous System - provides cushion for the CNS - apart of the Blood Brain Barrier - negative space within the brain - FOUR Fluid-Filled Ventricles - 1. Ventricles 1 and 2 - Lateral Ventricles - located in the Cerebral Hemispheres -- separated by the Septum Pellucidum 2. Ventricle 3 - Diencephalon 3. Ventricle 4 - between the Pons and the Cerebellum
list the functions AND formation of Cerebrospinal Fluid:
FUNCTIONS - - prevents the contact of neural tissue with the surrounding bones - provides SUPPORT for the brain - transports nutrients to CNS Tissue - transports wastes away from the CNS FORMATION - - produced by EPENDYMAL Cells of the Choroid Plexus - Ependymal Cells actively transport nutrients, vitamins, and ions into CSF - Ependymal Cells actively remove waste from CSF
describe the Growth Hormone: - produced by Somatotropes
FUNCTIONS - - targets MOST CELLS - stimulates Lean Growth / Anabolism of Proteins & Catabolism of Lipids - targets all cells in the body and it stimulates growth, protein synthesis, lipid mobilization, and catabolism -- in the Musculo-Skeletal System (diagram)
describe Prolactin: - produced by Lactotropes
FUNCTIONS - - unregulated Immune Function - stimulates Lactation and Growth in Female Mammary Glands - targets the Female Mammary Glands and stimulates Milk Production
describe the Glossopharyngeal Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
FUNCTIONS - 1. Posterior 1/3 of the Tongue (bitter and sour flavors) 2. Gas and pH Sensing in the Arteries 3. Motor Function - Swallowing and Salivary Glands - Posterior 1/3 of the Tongue and Carotid (sensory) - origin - Salivary Gland - some Swallowing Muscles (motor) - origin - Sensory Neurons are in the Superior Ganglions AND the Inferior Ganglions
Plasma
Fluid portion of blood
describe the Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and the Luteinizing Hormone: - produced by Gonadotropes
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - 1. targets the Ovaries of Females - Maturation of Oocytes - Release of Estrogen 2. targets the Seminiferous Tubules of Males - Sperm Production Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - 1. targets the Ovaries of Females - causes Ovulation - release of Progesterone 2. targets Interstitial Cells of Males - release of Testosterone / Estrogen
Pedal
Foot
What is expiratory reserve volume?
Forcefully exhaled beyond normal tidal expiration
Antebrachial
Forearm
myosin binding site (9)
Found on the actin molecule - can be blocked by tropomyosin.
Duodenum
G
Glottis
G
Horizontal fissure
G
Lower lip
G
Main bronchi
G
describe the General Senses AND the Special Senses:
GENERAL SENSES - - Temperature, Pain, Touch, Pressure, Vibration, and Proprioception - receptors distributed throughout the body - interpreted by the Spinal Cord and / or the Brain SPECIAL SENSES - - Smell, Taste, Balance, Hearing, and Vision - receptors located in Complex Sense Organs - interpreted mainly by the Brain
describe Gray Matter & White Matter in the Spinal Cord:
GRAY MATTER - - surrounds a Central Canal - called Horns, due to its shape - consists of Somas (cell bodies) - consists of GLIAL CELLS WHITE MATTER - - consists of AXONS (mostly myelinated) - Axons are organized into TRACTS / COLUMNS - located outside the gray matter!
The Two types of cells
Gametes & Somatic
extrinsic tongue muscles
Genioglossus Hyoglossus Styloglossus Palatoglossus **general tongue movement
Inguinal
Groin (crease between thigh and trunk)
Ary-epiglottic fold
H
Gingiva
H
Oblique fissure
H
Pyloric orifice
H
Root of right lung
H
Physiological Buffering
H2O + CO2 ⇆ H2CO3 ⇆ H+ + HCO3- More acidic ----> More basic <----
pepsinogen turns into pepsin when exposed to what?
HCl
list the Hormones RELEASED by the Tissues of the Anterior Pituitary Gland:
HORMONES RELEASED BY PARS DISTALIS - 1. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) 2. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) 3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) 4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) 5. PROLACTIN (PRL) 6. GROWTH HORMONE (GH) HORMONES RELEASED BY PARS INTERMEDIA - 1. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Accessory Structures
Hair Follicles, Nails, & Exocrine Glands also includes : Mammary glands & Ceruminous glands
Hair consists of:
Hair Shaft Hair Root Hair Follicle Hair Papilla Hair Matrix
Manual
Hand
Why do we need hemoglobin?
Hb in RBCs allows for a higher concentration of CO2 and O2 in blood
Cephalic
Head
describe the Input Nuclei AND the Output Nuclei:
INPUT NUCLEI - 1. Basal Nuclei - masses of Gray Matter that are embedded in the White Matter, and are inferior to the Lateral Ventricles - function is the automatic adjustment of Voluntary Motor Commands 2. Caudate Nucleus / Putamen - cycles of arm and leg movement during walking OUTPUT NUCLEI - 1. Globus Pallidus - adjusts muscle tone in preparation for conscious movement 2. Claustrum - Automatic Processing of Visual Information
describe the Testes: - what the cells release
INTERSTITIAL CELLS RELEASE TESTOSTERONE - - promotes production of Sperm - maintains Secretory Glands - influences Secondary sex Characteristics - stimulates Muscle Growth NURSE CELLS RELEASE INHIBIN - - depresses the secretion of FSH from the Anterior Pituitary - Inhibin and FSH interact to maintain Sperm Production at normal levels
describe Ionotropic Transduction AND Metabotropic Transduction:
IONOTROPIC - - RAPID - stimulus directly opens the Ion Channel - Pressure, Vibration, Temperature, and Small Ions METABOTROPIC - - SLOWER - stimulus causes a Signal Transduction Cascade that will eventually open an Ion Channel - most Chemical Detection and Light
describe the Ionotropic and Metabotropic of Gustation: - Special Senses - Taste
IONOTROPIC - - Salty, Sour, AND Water METABOTROPIC - - Sweet, Bitter, and Umami
The knee is _________ to the hip
Inferior
What happens in the oral cavity?
Ingestion and initial processing (mechanical and chemical digestion) and lubrication of food (saliva + mucus to swallow)
Endosteum
Inner surface of bone; single, incomplete cell layer - Lines medullary cavity, perforating canals & central canals
Cytoskeleton is divided into what 2 major parts ?
Intermediate filaments & Microtubules
Endocardium
Internal surface of heart -endothelial surface; simple squamous
Relationship between diameter and pressure
Inverse -increase diameter, decrease pressure -decrease diameter, increase pressure
smooth muscle (9)
Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body *non-striated *can replicate *hyperplasia *reflex arcs/myogenic
cardiac muscle (9)
Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart. *myogenic *branched *scar tissue *pumps blood!!!
tunica albuginea of ovary
Is a layer of dense connective tissue in the ovary
Body of tongue
J
Lung tissue
J
Pyloric canal
J
Fick's 1st Law of Diffusion
J = DA(ΔC/ΔX)
hinge joint (8)
Joint between bones (as at the elbow or knee) that permits motion in only one plane
Cardiac notch
K
Lobar (secondary) bronchus
K
Pyloric antrum
K
Root of tongue
K
Patellar
Kneecap
Fig 24.13
Know part A
Fig 24.4
Know part A
Fig 25.18
Know part A
Fig 25.4
Know part D
Fig 24.7
Know parts A and B
Fig 25.20
Know parts A and B
Fig 25.21
Know parts A and B
Fig 25.23
Know parts A and B
Fig 25.7
Know parts A and B
Fig 25.16
Know parts A and C
Fig 25.12
Know parts A, C and D
Fig 25.19
Know parts C, D, F, and G
Fig 20.1
Known part C
Fig 24.2
Known parts A and B
Fig 24.10
Known parts B and C
Gastoesophageal junction
L
Middle lobar bronchus
L
Soft palate
L
describe the Hemispheres of the Brain:
LEFT HEMISPHERE - - speech center, writing, language, and mathematics RIGHT HEMISPHERE - - analysis by touch and spatial visualization
which of the following is NOT a function of the Hypothalamus?: - Chapter 16 Quiz A) Regulate Digestive Processes B) Monitor Thirst C) Language Comprehension D) Control Blood Pressure E) Somatic Reflexes F) Monitor Body Temperature
Language Comprehension options that ARE functions - A) Regulate Digestive Processes B) Monitor Thirst C) Control Blood Pressure D) Somatic Reflexes E) Monitor Body Temperature
Diaphragm (10)
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing
muscles of mastication under the mandible (10)
Lateral Pterygoid Medial Pterygoid * they both depress the mandible and have lateral movement
Arteries
Leave heart -carries blood away
Sagittal Plane
Left & Right
What parts is the Thoracic Cavity subdivided into ?
Left Pleural Cavity, Mediastinum, & Right Pleural Cavity
Crural
Leg, from knee to ankle
Functional syncytium
Linked cells contract as one unit
Desmosomes
Lock adjacent cells together -Z discs bound via fascia adherens
Lumbar
Lower Back
Inferior
Lower on the body, farther from the head
Oxygen Rich Blood Flow Path
Lungs --> Pulmonary vein --> Left atrium --> Bicuspid valve --> Left ventricle --> Aortic semilunar valve --> Aorta --> Rest of body
Fundus
M
Inferior lobar bronchus
M
Pharyngeal tonsil
M
list the MAIN Endocrine Organs AND the Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions:
MAIN ENDOCRINE ORGANS - 1. Pituitary Gland 2. Hypothalamus 3. Thyroid Gland 4. Adrenal Glands 5. Pineal Glands 5. Parathyroid Glands 6. Pancreas ORGANS WITH SECONDARY ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS - 1. Heart 2. Thymus 3. Adipose Tissue 4. Digestive Tract 5. Kidneys 6. Gonads A) Testes B) Ovaries
Whole Body Blood Pressure equation
MAP = TPR x CO
describe the Arachnoid Mater: - Cranial Meninges
MIDDLE LAYER - thin layer below the Dura Mater 1. Arachnoid Granulations - projections where CSF flows to enter into Venous Circulation - granulations drain CSF! 2. Arachnoid Trabeculae - web like material underlining the arachnoid layer -- the Arachnoid WEBBING creates Suspension, which is the space allowing for the correct flow of CSF - forms the Subarachnoid Space - ANCHORS blood vessels 3. Subarachnoid Space - space between the Pia Mater and Arachnoid Mater - where CSF is found
describe the Facial Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
MIXED FUNCTION - 1. Sensory - Sensations from the Face and Tongue (taste - anterior 2/3 of the tongue) 2. Motor - controls Muscles of the Face - Sensory - Taste Buds (origin) - Motor - Pons (origin)
describe the Dura Mater: - Cranial Meninges
MOST SUPERFICIAL LAYER 1. Periosteal Cranial Dura - OUTERMOST layer of the Dura Mater - fused to the Periosteum Lining of the Cranial Bones 2. Meningeal Cranial Dura - INNERMOST layer of the Dura Mater - the space between two layers contains two large veins - Dural - Tentorium Cerebelli - separates CEREBELLAR Hemispheres from CEREBRAL Hemispheres - Falx Cerebri - separates CEREBRAL Hemispheres - Diaphragma Sellae - lines the Sella Turcica of the Sphenoid Bone AND encases the Pituitary Gland
describe the Accessory Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
MOTOR FUNCTIONS - 1. Controls the Sternocleidomastoid, Trapezius, Palate, Pharynx, and Larynx Muscles 2. Speech - the Spinal Cord and the Medulla Oblongata (origin)
Thyroxine & Growth hormone
Maintain activity in epiphyseal region for growth
Special Apocrine glands
Mammary glands: -- Produce milk under control of hormones from pituitary gland -- Apocrine secretion Ceruminous glands -- Found only in ear canal -- Produce cerumen in conjunction with sebaceous glands -- Provide minimal physical protection to ear drum
What is total lung capacity (TLC)?
Maxiumum volume of air that lungs can contain.
describe the COMPONENTS of the Medulla Oblongata:
Medulla Oblongata is continuous with the Spinal Cord TO the Brainstem! - all information between the Brain & the Spinal Cord passes VIA the Medulla Oblongata - Nuclei in the Medulla Oblongata are - A) relay stations for sensory or motor pathways B) associated with cranial nerves connected to the medulla oblongata C) associated with autonomic control of visceral organs
Thrombocytes are derived from __________
Megakaryocytes
Factors Regulating Bone Growth
Minerals: calcium, phosphate, magnesium, citrate, carbonate, sodium Vitamins: - A: stimulates osteoblasts - C : collagen formation & osteoblast differentiation - D3: used for calcitriol by kidneys - Calcitriol: increase Ca2+ & PO4 3- absorption in small intestines
Concentration =
Molarity = mol/L
Abduction (8)
Movement AWAY* from the midline of the body
Adduction (8)
Movement TOWARD* the midline of the body
Reposition (8)
Moving to its normal location or other suitable location all or a portion of a body part
ball and socket joint movement (8)
Multiaxial: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation
cremaster muscle
Muscle that pulls the scrotum closer to the body in cold temperatures and relaxes to let the testicles be farther away from the body in warmer weather
extra ocular muscles (10)
Muscles surrounding the eye that allow it to move within the eye socket
cardiac muscle tissue
Myogenic , Branched; "mesh" & Scar tissue
Body
O
Nasopharynx
O
Pyloric part
P
Uvula
P
proximal tibiofibular joint (8)
PLANE JOINT; articulation between the head of the fibula and the inferior aspect of the lateral condyle of the tibia
Adipose Tissue
Padding; White Fat: energy storage ; Brown Fat: thermogenesis
pronation vs supination (8)
Palm down vs. Palm up
Pelvic
Pelvis (in general)
What surrounds the Abdominal cavity and half of the Pelvic Cavity ?
Peritoneal Cavity
stratified columnar epithelium
Pharynx, epiglottis, anus, mammary glands, salivary glands, & urethra
What is mechanical digestion?
Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces; churning, segmentation and grinding of ingested food
Fauces
R
Right gastro-epiploic vessels
R
describe Hormone Synthesis:
RELEASED BY - 1. Exocytosis - Amine Hormones AND Peptide Hormones 2. Simple Diffusion - ONLY Steroid Hormones
Erythrocytes
Red Blood Cells; 99% of formed elements of blood
transitional epithelium
Renal pelvis, Ureters, Bladder; "Stretchy", Expansion, Recoil; mainly cuboid , but mix of others
What are the Characteristics of Life?
Responsiveness, Growth & Differentiation , Reproduction, and Movement
Oxygen Poor Blood Flow Path
Rest of body --> Superior/inferior vena cavae --> Right atrium --> Tricuspid valve --> Right ventricle --> Pulmonary semilunar valve --> Pulmonary Trunk --> Lungs
Rh+
Rh group where RBCs have Rh surface antigens
Rh-
Rh group where RBCs lack Rh surface antigens
_______ ventricle wall is much thinner than _______ ventricle wall
Right ; Left
Gastric rugae
S
Palatopharyngeal arch
S
describe the components of Rods and Cones (photoreceptors): - Special Senses - Vision
THREE Types of Cones - - GREEN, RED, & BLUE - depend on high amounts of light to function! - RETINAL is sensitive to a set range of Wavelengths, dependent on which cell it is found in -- Rod vs B/G/R Cone -- Blue Cones = 420 NM -- Rods = 500 NM -- Green Cones = 531 NM -- Red Cones = 558 NM - Rods are concentrated on PERIPHERY of the Retina - Macula - ONLY Cones -- region where images get projected when looking straight at an object -- Fovea Centralis - center of Macula ; best COLOR vision (best, most intense vision) - Optic Disc - where the Optic Nerve exits the eye - NO Rods or Cones in the optic disc area - "BLIND SPOT"
list the TYPES / COMPONENTS of Hormones:
TYPES OF HORMONES - 1. Amines 2. Peptides 3. Steroids - based on their structure! - hormones are typically released by Endocrine Glands (ductless glands) - can ALSO by released by - -- NEURONS (neurohormones) -- ORGANS (as secondary function)
Nerve Fiber Receptors
Tactile corpuscles: light touch Ruffini corpuscles: stretch receptors Lamellar corpuscles: deep pressure & vibration receptors
What is absorption?
Taking digested food into the blood stream
ovarian cycle?
The 28 days of the menstrual cycle as they apply to events in the ovary. The ovarian cycle has three subphases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase.
Anterior or Ventral
The Front ; before
What does the Pericardial cavity surround ?
The Heart
What helps maintain concentration gradient?
The ability to constantly move and replenish nutrients in fluids
Posterior or Dorsal
The back ; behind
what is chemical digestion?
The chemicals in food being broken down by enzymes, acid, buffers and emulsifying salts
collecting system of kidney
The filtrate continues to pass through the collecting duct where its -final composition is determined Collecting ducts converge to empty into a minor calyx, which ends at the renal papilla of each renal pyramid
What is gluconeogenesis in the liver?
The formation of glucose by non-glucose precursors. Proteins and fats.
Lingual tonsil
U
Epiglottis
V
2 types of hair
Vellus: covers most of body ; lacks a medulla Terminal: head, eyebrows,& eyelashes
Hyoid bone
W
When is troponin and tropomyosin "unlocked"? (9)
WITH Ca2+
cross bride cycling (9)
What is molecular basis for muscle contraction?
work = force x distance (9)
What is the formula for work?
Leukocytes
White Blood Cells
Where is the Pericardial Cavity located ?
Within the Mediastinum
Pericardial Cavity
Within the Thoracic Cavity ; surrounds the heart; its the air space
Plerual Cavity
Within the Thoracic cavity ; the lungs
Carpal
Wrist
Laryngopharynx
X
Nasal cavity
Y
parts of a sarcomere (9)
Z disc A band I band H band
muscle fine control (9)
a few muscle fibers per motor neuron
first class lever (9)
a lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum *THE HEAD!*
Surfactant
a lipoprotein that lowers the surface tension in the alveoli, reduces the amount of pressure needed to inflate the alveoli, and decreases the tendency of the alveoli to collapse.
lacteal?
a lymphatic vessel carrying chyle away from the intestine
action potenial (9)
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
all-or-none response (9)
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
What is bilirubin?
a orange-yellow pigment formed in the liver by the breakdown of RBC/hemoglobin and excreted in bile
The fingers are __________ to the wrist
distal
sagittal plane
divides body into left and right
What are mesenteries? What is their function?
double layer of peritoneum that extends from the body wall to the digestive organs. ** Hold organs in place, store fat, route for circulatory vessels and nerves.
Mesenteries
double sheets of peritoneum
Anterior cardiac veins
drain directly into right atrium
what is a portal vein in liver?
drained blood from intestines
Thoracic duct
drains into left subclavian vein -starts as cisterna chyli in abdomen -drains all of the body except right upper extremity/head/neck area
Right lymphatic duct
drains into the right subclavian vein
muscles can be grouped by primary actions? (9)
agonists: RESPONSIBLE for producing a particular movement antagonists: OPPOSE action of agonist synergists: assist agonist in performing an action fixators: agonist and antagonist contracting at same time to stabilize joint
Herniated/Bulging Disk (8)
akaruptured/slipped disk; rupture of nucleus pulpous through the annular wall of the disk & into the spinal canal; pain & disability, hot & cold packs, analgesics, epidural injections & physical therapy
scrotum (male)
dual chambers that house the testes
glandular tissue mix of
duct cells & gland cells
Exocrine
ducts to an epithelial surface; body opening or space
semen empties into?
ductus deferens during ejaculation
papillary duct of kidney
dumps urine into minor calyx
spermatic cord?
all testes associated connections, pass via inguinal canal to peritoneal cavity
function of rugae of urinary bladder
allow bladder to expand to hold urine
Arterial anastomosis
allow multiple supply routes to capillary beds
Elastic Fibers
allow skin to stretch & recoil
what is functional residual capacity?
amount of air remaining in lungs after a normal tidal expiration
seminal plasmin?
an antibiotic that protects against bacteria of the vagina
each breast has a nipple surrounded by?
an areola
what is bile?
an emulsifier made by the liver *metabolic waste
what is physiological dead space?
anatomical dead space + alveolar dead space
Intermediate filaments
anchor organelles & transport materials
ACL (8)
anterior cruciate ligament of the knee *locks knee in extended position
the vagina is a passageway for?
elimination of menstrual fluids
Coronary arteries
emanate from base of aorta -LCA -RCA
Interstitial fluid
between cells -not in blood
pancreas exocrine secretions
bicarbonate ions to raise pH to 4 *lipase = breaks down fats * trypsin and chymotrypsin = breaks down proteins * amylase = breaks down complex sugars * nucleases = breaks down nucleic acids
Receptor - mediated endocytosis
binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation
rigor ends when? (9)
binds to myosin
Iris
black arrow
Urethra
black arrow
lens
black arrow
optic disk
black arrow
seminal vesicle
black arrow
tail of epididymis
black arrow
Hemopoiesis
blood cell formation -red marrow -yellow marrow can be converted to red
what happens in the third stage of breathing? (transport of gases)
blood circulates throughout the body
Thrombocytes (platelets)
blood clotting
Compact bone:
blood vessels in matrix
Spongy bone
blood vessels not in matrix
Serum
blood with clotting proteins removed
Epididymis
blue
adrenal gland
blue
Iris
blue arrow
head of epididymis
blue arrow
kidney
blue arrow
pupil
blue arrow
testes
blue arrow
renal medulla
blue box
glomerulus
blue part
biaxial joint (8)
bone moves in two planes or axes
Osteoprogenitor cells
bone stem cells - inner most layer of periosteum & inner lining of endosperm - differentiate to form new - Involved in repair of bones after a fracture
triaxial joint (8)
bones are free to move in three directions around three axes(multiple directions), ex: Plane - bones may glide on or rotate with one another on any plane, Ball and socket - flexion/extension, adduction/abduction & rotation
Coronary sulcus
border of atria & ventricles
glans penis
bottom left arrow
Osteoclasts
break down matrix
Catabolism
breakdown of complex molecules
what is digestion?
breakdown of food and absorption of nutrients
Melanin
brown, yellow-brown, black
what happens in the small intestine?
buffer chyme to pH of 4, chemical/mechanical digestion, nutrient and water absorption
Bundle of His
bundle of cardiac muscle fibers that conducts the electrical impulses that regulate the heartbeat
motor nerve (9)
bundle of motor neurons
renal pyramid in renal medulla
bundles of medullary tissue
urinary system synthesizes what?
calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) and erythropoietin (for RBC production)
RyR (9)
calcium release channel
lipogensesis in the liver?
carbohydrates to lipids
Pulmonary circuit
carries blood to lungs
The hips are ________ to the waist
caudal
Parietal
cavity
what part of the tooth is the toughest material the body produces?
enamel and dentine
broad ligament of uterus
encloses ovaries, uterine tubes and uterus * mesoalpinx and mesovarium
The inner mucosal layer of the uterine wall is the
endometrium; lined w/ transitional epithelium
Epiphysis
ends of a long bone
white fat
energy storage
forced exhalation requires?
energy/ATP
prostatic fluid secreted into prostatic urethra does what?
enzymes that breakup sperm coagulation in vagina to allow sperm motility -weekly acidic
Cutaneous membrane (skin)
epidermis & dermis
layers of muscle (9)
epimysium, perimysium, endomysium epi -> peri -> endo
What are the 4 primary tissue types ?
epithelial, connective, muscular, & neural
Integumentary system has all tissue types including...
epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle, and nervous tissue
Nodal cells
establish rate of contraction
what is the dominant estrogen?
estradiol
breast growth during pregnancy by?
estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin
granulose cells and thecae cells release what?
estrogens
excitation-contraction coupling (9)
events that link the action potentials on the sarcolemma to activation of the myofilaments, thereby preparing them to contract
papillary ducts of kidney?
excrete filtrate and now is urine
types of glands in the glandular epithelium
exocrine & endocrine
What is the submucosa of the GI tract?
exocrine; large lymphatic and vasculature
glans penis?
expanded distal end that surrounds the external urethral orifice *covered by prepuce (foreskin)
exhalation = ___?___
expiration
Tanning
exposure to UV will increase melanin production ~ 10 days
pitch of voice depends on what?
diameter, length and tension in the vocal folds
C=
difference in solute concentration
D=
diffusion coefficient
X=
diffusion distance; membrane thickness
Hyperextension (8)
extension beyond anatomical position
cortex of ovary?
external portion where gametes and hormones are produced, ovarian follicles
Where does fertilization occur?
fallopian tubes if sperm reaches oocyte
Distal
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
bile salts increase surface area of what?
fat globules and prevents regrouping
breasts
female organs of milk secretion
do females or males have a shorter urethra?
females
the vagina receives the penis and holds sperm before they enter the uterus. it serves as a passageway for?
fetus during vaginal birth
Sympathetic
fight or flight -works with epinephrine/norepinephrine -increases CO
fibrous cartilage
firmest, strongest
duodenum?
first portion of the small intestine, shortest section *chemical/mechanical digestion *bicarbonate from Brunner's glands
Tonsils
five sets -one pharyngeal tonsil -two palatine tonsils -two lingual tonsils
Hyperflexion (8)
flexion of a limb or part beyond the normal limits
movement in the spine (8)
flexion, extension, lateral flexion, rotation
movement in the wrist (8)
flexion/extension radial/ulnar deviation
Free Ribosomes
float in cytoplasm; T in the picture are free ribosomes while S are attached
Intracellular fluid
fluid in cells
Extracellular fluid
fluid outside cells
Endoplasmic Reticulum ( ER )
folds of cisternae - synthesis - storage - transport - detoxification
Luteinzing hormone (LH) causes weakening in what wall?
follicular wall
food --> ? --> ?
food --> bolus --> chyme
functions of the stomach
food storage, mechanical digestion, first site of chemical digestion (pepsin; low pH), production of chyme
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) (8)
formed at the back of the mouth where the maxillary and mandibular arches come together *very loose *allows for chewing **plane and hinge joint!
Epidermal ridges
formed by dermal papillae; unique: even between identical twins
Fibrinogens
forms blood clots by converting to fibrin
Hyaline cartilage
found in Tracheal rings, Costal cartilage, & Joints
dense regular connective tissue
found in ligaments , tendons, & aponeuroses
Muscles that move the arm (11)
found proximal to the elbow and attach to the ulna and radius
Megakaryocytes
fragment-forming bits & pieces of membrane-enclosed packets of chemicals
diathrosis joints (8)
freely moveable six types : pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball and socket, hinge, gliding
Anterior
front of the body
Planes of the body (8)
frontal (anterior-posterior axis), sagittal (Superior-inferior axis), transverse (Lateral-medial axis)
third class level (9)
fulcrum is at one end, effort in between *BICEP CURL*
tidal volume > physiological dead space = ?
good!
epididymis
green
Left adrenal gland
green arrow
Sclera
green arrow
glans penis
green arrow
pampiniform plexus
green arrow
seminal vesicle
green arrow
renal papilla
green box
Anterior & Posterior interventricular sulcus
grooves due to interventricular septum
vibrissae in the respiratory defense system
hairs in the nose that block some inhaled debris
sperm is??
haploid = 23 chromosomes
axial musculature (10)
head and neck, vertebral column, rib cage and lateral walls of abdominal/pelvic cavities and pelvic floor
proximal radioulnar joint (8)
head of radius articulates with radial notch of ulna PIVOT JOINT
distal radioulnar joint (8)
head of ulna articulates with ulnar notch of radius
(Metabolic) Alkalosis
high pH, high HCO3-
simple columnar epithelium functions
high secretion & high absorption
Collagen fibers
high tensile strength; tendons & ligaments
simple columnar epithelium
highly polarized; located in stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, renal collecting ducts ; must have microvilli / cilia
elbow joint (8)
hinge joint formed by humerus, ulna, and radius *Humero-ulnar: strongest!; trochlea & trochlear notch *Humeroradial: more flexible; capitulum & head of radius
transverse plane
horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions
pancreatic islet cells of pancreas
hormones = insulin, glucagon and somatostatin (reduces HCl production)
gastric secretions and stomach churning are controlled by?
hormones from enteroendocrine cells
Homeostatic Mechanisms
how the body reacts to changes in conditions & tries to go back to some range of baseline values
When altering pH, you're altering __________ _______
hydrogen ions
what depresses the ribs in extension? (10)
iliocostalis lumborum
What elevates the ribs in lateral flexion? (10)
illiosoctalis cervicis
Synarthosis (8)
immovable joints * ex. skull, teeth, sutures
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
immune function
The respiratory epithelium - simple squamous
in alveoli. produces surfactant and allows for gas diffusion
The respiratory epithelium - mucus producing cells
in the nasal cavity, sinuses, lower respiratory tract. mucous will trap debris and keeps surfaces moist
The respiratory epithelium - stratified squamous cells
in the pharynx. it is nonkeratinized and protests against abrasion
different types of teeth
incisors, canines, premolars, molars
Mature Bone
includes osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, & osteoclasts
talocrural (ankle) joint (8)
includes two articulations—a medial joint between the tibia and talus and a lateral joint between the fibula and talus, both enclosed in one joint capsule *limited dorsiflexion *limited plantar flexion
Constriction
increase R = increase MAP
hypertrophy (9)
increase in cell size and increase # of myofibrils, due to exercise and spindle activity, # of cells stay constant
Hyperplasia
increase in number of cells
Hypertrophy
increase in size of cells
muscle recruitment (9)
increase in the # of motor units being used to increase strength of contraction
proliferative phase of uterine cycle
increased estrogen stimulates endometrial lining to thicken and create a new functional layer -prepares body for implantation of a fertilized egg
increase in muscle tension (strength) is due to? (9)
increased frequency of motor unit stimulation and recruitment
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
increases CO
Interatrial groove
indent due to interatrial sulcus
Apex
inferior portion of heart
Medullary cavity
inner cavity of diaphysis
renal sinus?
inner cavity of the kidney
Intima
inner layer of blood vessel -endothelium of vessel
what is mucosa of the GI tract?
inner lining of digestive tract
medulla of ovary?
inner portion of ovary--loose connective tissue; contains nerves and blood vessels and lymph vessels
renal medulla?
inner portion of the kidney with collecting ducts and vasa recta
each nephron in kidney is?
innerverted
inhalation = ____?___
inspiration
Stroke Volume
intensity of contractions; volume of blood pumped
what are portal triads in liver?
interlobular veins, artery and bile duct
internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter
internal = smooth muscle with involuntary control external = skeletal muscle with voluntary control
Movement
internal and /or external
Trabeculae carneae
internal walls of ventricles
Agranulocytes
lack cytoplasmic granules
SI enzymes on microvilli
lactase = lactose into glucose and galactose peptiasite = peptides into amino acids maltase = maltose to glucose
prolactin causes?
lactation
Surgical Anatomy
landmarks for surgical procedures
mass movement in the colon
large movements of material through 2nd hard of large intestine
Lymphatic ducts
larger-diameter lymphatic vessels
knee joint (8)
largest and most complex joint in the body HINGE joint
frontal plane (coronal plane) (8)
lateral-medial axis; Divides the body into front and back portions.
Funny Channels
leaky ion channels, let Na+ in
Posterior surface
left atrium, small portion of right atrium
Diapedesis
leukocytes squeeze between endothelial cells to leave capillaries
Areolar Tissue function
light connection that allows movement between skin & muscle
Pectinate muscles
line auricles of atria
forms of rotation
linear, rotation, angular, circumduction
Parietal peritoneum
lines cavity
Parietal pleura
lines cavity
parietal layer of serous pericardium
lines cavity
Pericardium:
lines pericardial cavity; covers heart
Peritoneum:
lines peritoneal cavity; covers enclosed organs
Pleura:
lines pleural cavity; covers lungs
stratified cuboidal epithelium
located in lining of ducts of sweat & mammary glands
stratified squamous epithelium
located in the lining of orifices & on the surface of the skin
simple cuboidal epithelium
located in the thyroid gland, renal tubules & ducts
Cilia
long , can move ; move substances over apical surface ; line respiratory tract
Stereocilia
long , rigid ; inner ear & male reproductive tract
longer muscles = (9)
longer contraction distance
columnar epithelium
longer than wide; columns
chromatin
loose coils of chromosomes
(Metabolic) Acidosis
low pH, low HCO3-
the interstitial endocrine cells are produces due to?
luteinizing hormone (LH)
Prone
lying face down
Supine
lying face up
Other fluids
lymph, cerebrospinal, synovial, serous
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
lymphatic nodules associated with digestive tract
Aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer's patches)
lymphatic nodules associated with small intestine
Lymphatic tissue characteristics
lymphocytes that are loosely aggregated within connective tissue -no capsule
Cartilage
made of chondrocytes; Have a fibrous perichondrium; Most cartilage cannot repair severe damage; avascular
Cutaneous Plexus
main arteries & veins ( #2 )
osmotic gradient is the ________________ of the filtration
main driving force
Yellow Marrow
mainly adipose, energy store - medullary cavity
Osteocytes
maintains matrix Mature bone cells - maintain protein & mineral content of matrix - controls release & deposition of Ca2+ in/out of bone
cellular layer of cartilage
maintenance
parietal and visceral pleura aid in?
maintenance of pressure
nucleoli
make ribosomes
Sebaceous Glands:
make sebum sebum: lipid mixture - Lubricate epidermis & hair - Antimicrobial properties - No glands on palms & soles - High concentrations on forehead, face, & upper back - If ducts become blocked: Acne may occur & furuncles may develop Sebaceous follicles: large sebaceous glands; no hair Holocrine secretion
sperm is?
male gamete
floor of oral cavity (10)
mylohyoid and geniohyoid and genioglossus *moves hyoid, larynx and tongue * depresses mandible
types of micro muscle (9)
myofilament -> sarcomere -> muscle fiber -> fascicle -> muscle ******** on test!
middle muscular layer of the uterine wall?
myometrium; longitudinal and circular smooth muscles
hypertrophy can help with? (9)
myosatellites aid in growth, increased mitochondria, increased glycolytic enzyme concentration, increased glycogen reserves
cross bridge formation happens when? (9)
myosin head is "cocked" and attaches to actin
power stroke (contraction) (9)
myosin reverts back to resting position and drags actin
nasal cavity in the respiratory defense system
nasal conchae and paranasal sinuses. it produces mucus to trap inhaled debris. SNEEZING will remove the debris. incurrent air is also warmed and humidified
superficial
near the surface
Ultra Violet (UV) Radiation
needed for Vit D synthesis; can damage cells
Hair Papilla
nerve & blood supply; supports matrix
Osteogenesis
new bone formation via calcification of osteoid leading to ossification
does the reproductive system have a homeostatic role?
no
smooth muscle tissue
non-striated, reflex arcs or myogenic
Hair Shaft
nonliving, visible portion of hair Medulla : soft keratin Cortex: hard keratin Cuticle: outer layer
Diffusion across endothelial cells
nonpolar solutes; gasses; water via aquaporins
what is tidal volume?
normal breathing
The respiratory epithelium - pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar cells
not in the pharynx, smaller bronchi or alveoli. cilia moves mucous up to the pharynx
parasympathetic nerve fibers are __________ abundant in kidney
not very abundant
papillary layer
nourishes & supports epidermis
Attached Ribosomes
on endoplasmic reticulum
Cardiac cycle
one complete heartbeat -atrial systole begins --> atrial systole ends, atrial diastole begins --> ventricular systole: first phase --> ventricular systole: second phase --> ventricular diastole: early --> ventricular diastole: late
simple epithelium
one layer of cells ; protected internal compartments of body
sperm
one of the few cells the moves on it's own
anti-Rh antibodies
only produced when Rh- individuals are exposed to Rh antigens
when urinary bladder nears capacity, both urethral sphincters will?
open based off pressure
external urethral orifice
opening of the urethra to the outside
kidney
orange
Visceral
organ
dense irregular connective tissue
organ sheaths
Produce osteoid
organic mix dumped into matrix
Hair Follicle
organs that form hair
Muscles that position the pectoral girdle (11)
originate on the axial skeleton and insert on the clavicle and scapula
Muscles that move the arm (11)
originate on the pectoral girdle and the thoracic cage and insert on the humerus
Which of the following cells are found within lacunae?
osteocyte
Lamella
osteocytes matrix
renal cortex?
outer region of the kidney with large vessels and glomeruli
Periosteum
outer surface of bone -fibrous layer & osteogenic layer (complete, multi cell layer) - Isolates & protects bone from surrounding tissue - Attachment for circulatory & nervous supply - Actively participates in bone growth & repair - Perforating fibers: anchors periosteum to bone & other connective tissues - Attachment site for tendons & ligaments
Adventita
outermost layer of blood vessel -anchor blood vessels in place
puberty sets off what?
ovarian cycle and uterine cycle due to increased FSH
gonads?
ovaries and testes that produce gametes and hormones
Right side of heart
oxygen poor blood
Left side of heart
oxygen rich blood
pH calculation
pH = -log [H+] = log 1/[H+]
mammary glands (breasts)
pair of milk-producing glands of the female
Muscles of the tongue (10)
palatoglossus, genioglossus, styloglossus, hyoglossus ** glossus = tongue **
Dermis breaks into 2 layers ...
papillary layer & reticular layer
high frequency stretch-activated spinal reflexes stimulates?
parasympathetic activity -detrusor contracts (smooth muscle wall of bladder) -internal urethral sphincter relaxes (smooth muscle)
appendix
part of lymphatic system and reservoir of microbiota
haustra of the large intestine
pocketlike sacs on the wall of large intestine caused by tone of teniae coli
hilum of kidney
point of entry/exit for blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessel and ureter
Hair Root
portion of hair in follicle being formed; anchors hair
describe Cerebrospinal Fluid:
provides Protection, Support, and Nourishment to - A) Bones of the Skull - Parietal, Frontal, Occipital, & Temporal B) Cranial Meninges - Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, & Pia Mater - Blood Brain Barrier - RICH Blood Supply - to the brain AND the spinal cord
The shoulder is _________ to the wrist
proximal
renal tubule of kidney
proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop/loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule
the tibiotalar joint is supported by what joints? (8)
proximal tibiofibular joint, distale tibiofibular joint and fibulotalar joint
spermatic cord
purple arrow
what depresses the ribs and lateral flexion? (10)
quadratus lumborum
wrist joint (8)
radiocarpal joint and intercarpal joints
buffers in pancreas
raises pH
Respiratory system & blood
rapid pH regulation -release CO2 and/or bind CO2 to Hb
J =
rate of diffusion
descending limb of Loop of Henle (nephron loop)
reabsorption of water, ONLY permeable to water
muscle tissues - elasticity (9)
rebound toward its original length
dendrite
receives stimuli
cremaster muscle
red
ductus deferens
red
Urethra
red arrow
body of penis
red arrow
pupil
red arrow
urinary bladder
red arrow
interlobar vein
red box
minor calyx
red box
segmental arteries
red box
vasa recta
red box
simple squamous epithelium functions
reduces friction ; absorbs & secretes material
atrophy (9)
reduction in muscle size, tone and power, due to disuse, age or disease
skeletal muscle stimulated via? (9)
reflex arcs and voluntary motor units
Thoroughfare channels
regulate blood flow through capillaries; fairly consistent flow
Arteriovenous anastomoses
regulate flow to capillary beds, can bypass a capillary bed
intrinsic laryngeal muscles
regulate tension in the vocal folds and open and close the glottis
squamous epithelium
relatively flat ; "pancakes"
What is ovulation?
release of secondary oocyte from tertiary follicle & ovary
Exocytosis
release of substances out a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane.
Fossa ovalis
remnant of fetal R/L bypass
Excretion
removal of waste , CO2, excess ions
kidney lobe consists of
renal pyramid, overlying area of renal cortex, adjacent tissues of renal columns
no gas exchange until ____________ __________
respiratory bronchioles
apneustic and pneumotaxic centers adjust what?
respiratory pace
Hemoglobin
respiratory pigment -found in erythrocytes
Responsiveness
respond to changes via acute or chronic adjustments
muscle tissues - excitability (9)
respond to stimuli and undergo action potentials
Function of lymphocytes
responds to: -invading bacteria & viruses -abnormal body cells such as cancer cells -foreign proteins such as bacterial toxins travel throughout body: -exit bloodstream to enter interstitial spaces -re-enter bloodstream via lymphatic vessels
extrinsic laryngeal muscles
responsible for elevating and lowering the larynx in the neck during respiration, phonation, and swallowing
Parasympathetic
rest and digest -works with acetylcholine -reduce CO
Stretch marks
reticular fibers break - due to pregnancy or weight gain - skin DN recoil, wrinkles & creases
Diaphragmatic surface
right & left ventricles
Anterior surface
right atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle
pivot joint (8)
rotating bone turns around an axis; i.e. connection between radius/ulna and humerus
Hemolysis
rupture of RBCs
enzymes in saliva
salivary amylase = breaks starch and glycogen into maltose lingual lipase = breaks down fats
Cytoplasm = ____________ Cell membrane = ____________
sarcoplam; sarcolemma
tertiary follicles?
secondary follicles enlarged due to fluid production (antrum) - primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I to become a secondary oocyte (haploid)
what do the primary ovarian follicles develop?
secondary ovarian follicles
Osteolysis
secrete acids, dissolving bones causing release Ca2+ & PO4 3- into blood
acinar cells of pancreas
secrete digestive enzymes
accessory glands of reproductive system?
secrete fluids
simple cuboidal epithelium functions
secretion & absorption
stratified cuboidal epithelium functions
secretion & absorption
Multicellular
secretory sheets & clusters; mixed
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
segment of the nephron between the glomerular capsule and the nephron loop *lined w/ cuboidal epithelium containing microvilli *major site of reabsorption
distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
segment of the nephron between the nephron loop and the collecting duct
accessory glands of male reproductive system?
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands
Systemic circuit
send blood to rest of body
Bodies
sense ph, CO2, O2 -Carotid & Aortic
Merkel cells
sensory cells ; touch
Parts of a reflex arc in order (9)
sensory receptor, afferent neuron, integrating centers, efferent neuron, effector organ
Interatrial septum
separates left & right atria
Interventricular septum
separates left & right ventricles
the peritoneum
serosal membrane (visceral and parietal)
What is the serosa in GI tract?
serous membrane
types of exocrine in the secretory sheet
serous, mucous, & mixed
Diaphysis
shaft of long bones
cuboidal epithelium
shaped like cubes
Synapomorphies
shared derived traits ; all members of a group have that trait
Microvilli
short, can move ; increases surface area ; line urinary & digestive tracts
excitable cells may secrete what due to an action potential? (9)
signaling molecule
describe the Brainstem & Visual Processing: - Special Senses - Vision
signals from the Lateral Geniculate Nuclei synapse in either - - SUPERIOR COLLICULUS -- controls subconscious eye, head, and neck movements associated with visual stimuli - Suprachiasmatic Nucelus of the HYPOTHALAMUS -- establishes the Circadian Rhythm
2 types of layering
simple epithelium & stratified epithelium
both limbs of the loop of Henry are made of?
simple squamous epithelium
structure of ducts
simple: no branching compound: repeating branches
amplification of sound occurs where?
sinus cavities
Mitochondria
site of ATP synthesis ; oxidative phosphorylation
external urethral sphincter?
skeletal muscle, voluntary/conscious control
Deep Lymphatics
skeletals muscles, neck, limbs, trunk, visceral organs
Amphiarthrosis (8)
slightly movable joint ex: between radius and ulna; between tibia and fibula; intervertebral discs
Renal system
slow pH regulation -retain or release H+ and HCO3-
Atrioventricular (AV) node
slows the electrical impulses when it arrives from the internodal pathways -interatrial septum near right atrium -delays signal to ventricle
Most enzymes function within ______ pH range
small
Canaliculi
small channels from osteocytes to bone capillaries
Diffusion through gaps between adjacent endothelial cells
small solutes; water; large solutes (in sinusoids)
Subpapillary plexus:
smaller blood vessels (#1)
nephrons are what in the kidney?
smallest functional unit of kidney
Cellular Level
smallest living unit ; have organelles
what is the GI tract made of?
smooth muscle * longitudinal muscle and circular muscle *
What is the detrusor muscle in the bladder?
smooth muscle in wall of bladder
Diffusion through pores
solutes; water
Purkinje fibers
specialised conducting fibers composed of electrically excitable cells that conduct cardiac action potentials more quickly and efficiently than any other cells in the heart
Conductive pathway
specialized noncontracting cardiac muscle
Nuerons
specialized to conduct electrical signals (action potential); longest cells in the body , incapable of cell reproduction
Spermiogenesis
spermatids mature to form physically mature sperm cells - during this stage, spermatids are embedded in nurse cells - upon maturation, sperm cells enter into lumen of seminiferous tubules - not yet "activated"
epididymis stores what?
spermatozoa for further maturation - takes 2 weeks to pass through epididymis
appendicular musculature (10)
stabilize/move appendicular skeleton
nurse cells are stimulated by and support what?
stimulated by testosterone and follicle-stimulating hormone and support spermatogenesis and spermiogensis
function of gallbladder
stores and concentrates bile
extension (8)
straightening at the joint so that the angle between the bones is increased
vagina is lined with?
stratified squamous epithelium and when relaxed, forms rugae
Epidermal layers of the skin
stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, & stratum basale
muscle spindles (9)
stretch receptors in muscles, role in tone and growth
erectile tissue?
stretchy sponge like tissue that engorges with blood to increase in size and become rigid - 2 posterior corpora cavernosa - 1 anterior corpus spongiosum = urethra passes through this portion
Reticular fibers
structural mesh within organs
Cytology
study of microscopic structures of cells & tissues
excessive UV can result in ...
sunburn , skin cancer, & damage to fibrocytes (premature wrinkling & abnormal connective tissue "leathery" skin)
The Skin is ___________ to underlying structures
superficial
adrenal glands are ________ to each kidney?
superior
left kidney is ________ to the right?
superior
Base
superior border of heart
sagittal plane (8)
superior inferior axis; vertical division of the body into right and left portions
intrinsic tongue muscles
superior longitudinal, inferior longitudinal, transverse, vertical **movements associated with speech; finer movement
mesangial cells?
support the entire glomerular network and lie between capillaries; mesenchymal origin
appendicular muscles in the back of body (10)
support, move, and brace limbs
appendicular muscles in the front of body (10)
support, move, and brace limbs
Neuroglia
supporting cells of neural tissue; can divide
spermatic cords?
supporting each testicle and encasing the vas/ductus deferens, nerves, lymphatic tissue and cremaster muscles
mesovarium
supports ovary
A=
surface area for diffusion
Serous pericardium
surrounds heart -inner layer of pericardium -secreted pericardial fluid
Fibrous Pericardium
surrounds heart -outer layer of pericardium -attaches to diaphragm
high frequency stretch signals also decrease what?
sympathetic activity -internal urethral sphincter relaxes
Anabolism
synthesis of complex molecules ( making muscle & fat )
Ribosomes
synthesis proteins using RNA template
Medulla
t cells that remain inactive until they enter circulation
flagella of sperm?
tail
what is ingestion?
taking food into the mouth
joints in foot (8)
tarsometatarsal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints
scrotum (male)
testis and epididymis
juxtaglomerular complex?
the DCT comes up next to the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle; a collection of cells surround this area including smooth muscle cells; function is to control the diameter of the afferent arteriole thereby controlling BP inside the glomerulus
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) with diagram
the amount of filtrate formed per minute by the two kidneys combined
muscle twitch (9)
the response of a muscle to a single brief threshold stimulus
Sarcomere (9)
the smallest contractile unit of muscle; extends from one Z disc to the next
muscle tone (9)
the state of balanced muscle tension that makes normal posture, coordination, and movement possible
mesosalpinx
the upper portion of the broad ligament that encloses the fallopian tubes
adjacent stroll cells become what?
thecae endocrine cells, which surround granulosa cells
sliding filament theory (9)
theory that actin filaments slide toward each other during muscle contraction, while the myosin filaments are still
brown fat
thermogenesis
Blood flow regulated
thermoregulation & flow to other tissues of body
ascending limb of loop of henle
thick segment moves ions out into interstitial spaces for reabsorption, IMPERMEABLE to water
Ground substance
thick syrupy consistency; mix of proteins & carbohydrates
Skin Color
thickness of stratum corneum ; thick skin is lighter in color
simple squamous epithelium
thin delicate layer; lining body cavities, heart, & blood vessels ; alveoli
vestibular ligaments and vocal ligaments
vestibular ligaments protects vocal ligaments and the vocal ligaments are involved with making noises
the colon lacks?
villi
Vasculature and blood pressure are controlled by what?
visceral reflexes and/or hormones
vocal fold = ?
vocal cord
what is alveolar dead space?
volume of alveoli where no gas exchange takes place
what is anatomical dead space?
volume of non-gas exchange surface in the respiratory system (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles)
external genitalia of female
vulva (region enclosing external genitalia), vestibule (opening into vagina by labia minora), clitoris (erectile tissue and is covered by prepuce), and lib majora/mons pubis (forms lateral and superior edges of vestibule)
langerhans cells
wandering macrophages
Vesicular transport
water; targeted molecules (bound & unbound)
serous
watery fluid & enzymes
Fluid Connective Tissue
watery matrix of dissolved proteins
Matrix
watery mixture of dissolved proteins ; extracellular component of protein fibers & "ground substance" (fluid portion); Matrix of is calcified
first urge to urinate is?
~ 200 mL
knee ligaments prevent (8)
•Hyperextension or Hyperflexion •EXTENSIVE Add / Abd Allow Locking / unlocking knee •Stand for long periods
In the figure above letter "___" is the Golgi apparatus and letter "___" is the Mitochondrion. A. I; H B. O; N C. O; H D. I; N
A. I; H
Serous Membranes
provide lubrication to organs
naming skeletal muscles (9)
* specific body regions/location * shape of muscle * orientation of muscle fibers * specific/unusual features * origin AND insertion site * primary function * references to occupational/habitual action
Collagen fibers
provide tensile strength
Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper
Collagen fibers, Reticular fibers & Elastic fibers
Organ Level
Combination of tissues
Organ System Level
Combination of various organs
Osseous tissue types
Compact bone & Spongey Bone
Pelvic Cavity
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
functions of large intestine
*Reabsorption of water *Compaction of intestinal contents into feces *Absorption of important vitamins produced by bacteria *Storage of fecal material prior to defecation
Ovary
13
Vagus nerve
13
renal pyramid
13
temporal lobe
13
Mammillary body
14
Pineal gland
14
fimbrae of uterine tube
14
hypoglossal nerve
14
renal papilla
14
Cervix
15
accessory nerve
15
corpora quadrigemina
15
Pons
16
Vagina
16
Abducens nerve
17
fourth ventricle
17
hypoglossal nerve
18
glossopharyngeal nerve
19
Midbrain
2
Retina
2
Urethra
2
pineal gland
2
renal pelvis
2
round ligament
2
septum pellucidum
2
urinary bladder
2
pupil
2 L and R
What determines blood flow?
Contracting or relaxing smooth muscle
Muscles of the Face and Mouth (10)
* orbicular oris = opens and clothes the mouth * buccinator = sucking * orbicularis oculi = closes the eyelids ; "winking"
circular muscles (9)
* regulate opening and closing of an orifice * can be found in sphincters * some are active until relaxed
pennate muscles (9)
* shortest contraction distance * produce more force than parallel due to HIGHER fiber * tendons go DEEP into the muscle
Epicardium
External surface -visceral pericardium
Apex
F
Carina of trachea
F
Dorsum of tongue
F
cell adhesion molecules
" Velcro " ; mechanically link cell to extracellular material
Hemidesmosome
" sewn " ; allows cells to stick together to form tissues
Areolar Tissue
" stuffing " of body
what are tracheal rings?
"C" shaped hyaline cartilage
what is capacitation for sperm?
"activation", enables their motility and ability to fertilize an egg; happens outside of epididymis
Somatic
"body cells"
Pinocytosis
"cell drinking" ; in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes
Pagocytosis
"cell eating" ; the movement of solids into a cell with the membrane
Epiphyseal Line
"growth line"
Organelles
"organs" of cell
elastic tissue
"rubbery" ; springy & resilient
Gametes
"sex cells" - sperm - Oocyte
Tight Junctions
"staples" ; water proof junction ; prevent the diffusion of fluids & solutes between the cells
Gap Junctions
"straws" ; permit the free diffusion of ions & small molecules between 2 cells ; tubes running from cell to cell allows cells to run from one to the other
reticular tissue
"structural sponge " ; matrix is stiffest of loose CT
Heart Rate
# of heart contractions per unit time
Hematocrit
% of blood sample volume made of erythrocytes
Spongey Bone
( trabecular bone) - Open network of plates - multidirectional or light strain - Surrounds medullary cavity (open space) - has extensive cross- bracing - supports marrow - trabeculae are oriented along stress lines A in the picture
semen release and ejaculation
* Emission: Sperm mixed with semen by peristaltic actions of smooth muscle in : -Ductus deferens -Seminal glands -Prostate -Bulbo-urethral glands * Ejaculation: powerful contractions of skeletal muscles push semen toward external urethral orifice
secretory phase of uterine cycle
* Progestins & estrogen stimulate endometrial glands to grow & secrete * Functional layer is now ready for a fertilized egg to implant
convergent muscles (9)
* not as strong as parallel muscles and direction of tension can vary
Pyloric sphincter
F
Root of tongue
F
what happens in the respiratory system?
*gas exchange between air and blood *moves air to and from exchange surfaces of the lungs *protects respiratory surfaces from dehydration and keeps them moist *produces sound involved in verbal communication *assists in regulation of blood volume, BP and body fluid pH
what excitable cells have APs? (9)
*muscle *sensory cells *neurons *some endocrine cells
mechanical digestion diagram
*no propulsion, only circular
abdominal muscles (10)
*on test*
urogenital triangle (10)
*open and closes the urethra *supports engorgement of erectile tissue *ejaculation *tighten vaginal opening
skeletal muscle purpose (9)
*produce movement *maintain posture *support soft tissue *regulate entering and exiting of material; found in some sphincters *maintain body temp; shivering - thermogenesis
anatomical pulleys (9)
*redirect tension!! *boney structures that change the direction of applied forces
anal triangle (10)
*supports pelvic floor *open/close anus
medial and lateral menisci (8)
*the shock absorbers of the knee found between the condyles of the upper and lower leg bones *lateral stability *increase surface area of the joint *changes shape to support articular surface
list the Spinal Nerves:
- 31 PAIRS of Spinal Nerves - - 8 Cervical Nerves - 12 Thoracic Nerves - 5 Lumbar Nerves - 5 Sacral Nerves - 1 Coccygeal Nerves
describe the components of the Spinal Cord:
- 31 Spinal Segments - Dorsal Roots - Dorsal Root Ganglia - Ventral Root - Spinal Nerve - mixed nerves consisting of Afferent Fibers AND Efferent Fibers
describe the REPAIR of Neurons:
- ADULT NEURONS DO NOT DIVIDE - Individual Neurons - CAN repair themselves - repair is VERY limited in the Central Nervous System due to - A) Generate Scar Tissue - limiting Axon Re-Growth B) can Secrete Chemicals that impede Axon Re-Growth
describe Action Potential in Neurons:
- Action Potential - the rapid change in Membrane POTENTIAL ever the surface of the cell - Axon Propagation - the Action Potential will travel the length of the Axon - Speed is determined by - 1. MYELINATION 2. Thickness of Axons - a neuron allows action potential to occur very rapidly across a nerve cell! - Myelination allows small axons to have the same Conduction Velocity as Un-Myleinated Axons, up to 125x THICKER - SALTATORY CONDUCTION
describe Adaptation:
- Adaptation - reduction in sensitivity, due to a constant stimulus 1. Peripheral Adaptation A) Fast-Adapting Receptors - respond strongly at first and then decline - PHASIC - "on / off" ; odor, temp, and touch B) Slow-Adapting Receptors - show little to no adaptation - TONIC - intensity ; pressure & light 2. Central Adaptation - within the CNS - initial conscious awareness of a stimulus that quickly disappears
describe MOTION in the Semicircular Ducts: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
- Anterior = "YES" - Lateral = "NO" - Posterior = HEAD TILT - each Semicircular Duct senses Motion in a particular axis! -- endolymph movement along the length of the duct moves the ampullary cupula and stimulates the hair cells
mammary glands located within fat pads of each breast
- Apocrine cells in lobules secrete milk into ducts; apocrine secretion - Lactiferous ducts expand to lactiferous sinuses near nipple
describe the flow of blood through the Brain:
- Arterial Blood Supply via Internal Carotid Arteries and Vertebral Arteries - how the blood receives blood - Venous Blood leaves the brain mostly via Internal Jugular Veins - Astrocytes - wrap capillaries in the Central Nervous System
describe the Vestibulocochlear Nerves: - Cranial Nerves
- Balance and Hearing (sensory) - Receptors of the Vestibule and Cochlea (origin) - consists of the Vestibular Nerve AND the Cochlear Nerve - A) Vestibular Nerve - axons travel to the vestibular nuclei of the medulla oblongata B) Cochlear Nerve - axons synapse in the cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata
definition of Neuroglia:
- CAN divide - Supporting Cells - FUNCTIONS of Neuroglia - -- Protect, Regulate, Repair, and Enable Neurons - supporting cells that interact with neurons to regulate the extracellular environment, defend against pathogens, and repair the nervous tissue
describe the FUNCTIONS of Motor Neurons:
- CNS TO PERIPHERY - Efferent 1. Somatic Nervous System / SNS - consists of Somatic Motor Neurons - efferent fibers to skeletal muscles 2. Autonomic Nervous System / ANS - consists of Motor Neurons - also consists of Pre-Ganglionic Fibers and Post-Ganglionic Fibers
describe the CIRCULATION of Cerebrospinal Fluid:
- CSF is formed from the Choroid Plexus of the Lateral Ventricles, the Third Ventricle, and the Fourth Ventricle - CSF eventually enters the Venous Return via ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS 1. CSF enters the Subarachnoid Space via the Lateral Aperture and the Median Aperture 2. CSF travels through the CNS 3. CSF eventually enters Venous Return via Arachnoid Granulations 4. then CSF drains into the Dural Sinuses
What all dose the plasma membrane do?
- Cell to cell communication, structural support, adhesion - Regulates exchange w/ extra cellular fluid - Physical barrier - senses extracellular stimuli
Autonomic Centers of the _____ have a direct connection to the Adrenal _____, where Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are released - Chapter 19 Quiz
1. Hypothalamus 2. Medulla
1. ____ Transduction is very rapid, and it is where the stimulus directly opens an ion channel 2. ____ receives stimuli from inside the body - one example are ____ that sense the stretching of organs due to pressure - Chapter 18 Quiz
1. Ionotropic 2. Enteroceptors 3. Baroreceptors
describe the Ventricles in the Brain:
1. Lateral Ventricles / Ventricles 1 and 2 - separated by the Septum Pellucidum - main portion in the Parietal Lobes - Anterior Horn - Frontal Lobe - Posterior Horn - Occipital Lobe - Inferior Horn - Temporal Lobe - connects tp the Third Ventricle via the Interventricular Foramen 2. Third Ventricle - connects to the Fourth Ventricle through the Cerebral Aqueduct of the Midbrain 3. Fourth Ventricle - connects to the central canal of the Spinal Cord - Numerous Foramina - root of the fourth ventricle and connects with the subarachnoid space of the brain / spinal cord - where CSF leaves!
1. Accommodation is when the shape of the ___ is changed to focus an image onto the retina 2. the ____ is the fluid found in the posterior cavity of the eye - Chapter 18 Quiz
1. Lens 2. Vitreous Humor
1. the Ultricle and Saccule both have ___ that contain hair cells that are attached to Otoliths 2. the Anterior Semicircular Duct senses motion when you use your head to ____ - Chapter 18 Quiz
1. Maculae 2. "say Yes"
1. the ventral portion of Spinal Gray Matter contains ___ Nuclei 2. in Spinal White Matter, ascending tracts relay ____ information - Chapter 14 Quiz
1. Motor 2. Sensory
Types of Nodules
1. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT 2. Tonsils 3. Aggregated lymphoid nodules
Steps for muscle contraction (9)
1. Neuron action potential arrives at end of motor neuron 2. ACH is released 3.ACh binds to receptors on motor end plate 4.Permeability of sarcolemma changes (Na rushes in)(an action potential is produced) 5.Muscle action potential sweeps into the T tubules triggering 6.release of Ca from the cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum 7.CA binds to troponin 8.Troponin changes shape and shifts tropomyosin to expose binding sites of actin 9.myosin binds to actin (cross bridge is formend)(ADP released from myosin) 10.Myosin head pivots (pulling actin) 11.Myosin releases from actin (cross bridge is broken)(another ATP binds to myosin) 12.Myosin re-extends into "ready" position (ATP->ADP+Pi)(ADP is bound to myosin)
describe the COMPONENTS of the Olfactory Epithelium: - Special Senses - Smell
1. Olfactory Sensory Neurons - interacts with odorants 2. Supporting Cells - metabolic & physical support 3. Basal Epithelial Cells - stem cells 4. Developing Sensory Neurons - Receptors CAN BE REPLACED 5. Olfactory Glands - produce Mucus
1. sound waves enter Cochlea via the _____ 2. the Hair Cells that will sense the sound waves are activated by ____ - Chapter 18 Quiz
1. Oval Window 2. Ionotropic Transduction
1. the ___ matter is the meningeal layer that contains blood vessels 2. the ___ matter is the meningeal layer that forms a mesh of connective tissue that creates a space where cerebrospinal fluid flows through - Chapter 14 Quiz
1. Pia 2. Arachnoid
Different types of B Cells
1. Plasma cells: produce antibodies that react with antigens 2. Memory B cells: become activated if the same antigen reappears
TRUE statements: - Chapter 18 Quiz
1. Polymodal Sensors can detect multiple types of stimuli 2. Bitter Taste Receptors use Metabotropic Transduction 3. Cone Photoreceptors sense color 4. the Medial Retinal Signal from the left eye is sent to the right cerebral hemisphere 5. Small Receptive Fields have high acuity
describe the Pathway of Sound / Hearing: - Special Senses - Hearing & Equilibrium
1. stimulation of Hair Cells at a specific location along the Basilar Membrane activates Sensory Neurons 2. Sensory Neurons carry the sound info in the Cochlear Nerve to the Cochlear Nuclei 3. info ascends from each Cochlear Nucleus to the Superior Olivary Nuclei of the Pons and the Inferior Colliculi of the Midbrain 4. the Inferior Colliculi direct a variety of Unconscious Motor Responses to sounds 5. ascending sound info goes to the Medial Geniculate Nucleus 6. Projection Fibers then deliver the info to specific locations within the Auditory Cortex of the Temporal Lobe
Afferent Arterioles
10
Cerebellum
10
Testes
10
cochlea
10
facial nerve
10
labium minus
10
Vestibulocochlear nerve
11
bulbourethral gland
11
fornix
11
labium majus
11
stapes
11
How many organ systems are humans composed of ?
11 organ systems
Efferent Arterioles
12
Malleus
12
Olfactory Bulbs
12
ductus deferens
12
glossopharyngeal nerve
12
infundibulum of uterine tube
12
spermatic cord
12
Lifespan of erythrocytes
120 days
prostate gland?
A gland in males that contributes to the seminal fluid.
Actin (9)
A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.
skeletal muscle (9)
A muscle that is attached to the bones of the skeleton and provides the force that moves the bones. *multinucleated *pulls on bones *voluntary/reflex arcs *hypertrophy
vagina?
A muscular, elastic passageway that extends from the uterus to the outside of the body
bulbourethral glands
A pair of exocrine glands near the male urethra. They secrete fluid into the urethra. Also called Cowper glands - contents empty into spongy urethra
Tropomyosin (9)
A protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in muscular contraction
Troponin (9)
A protein of muscle that together with tropomyosin forms a regulatory protein complex controlling the interaction of actin and myosin and that when combined with calcium ions permits muscular contraction
what is urine?
A watery fluid produced by the kidneys that contains urea and other wastes
Which of the following statements are true: A. All of the listed statements are false. B. Cartilage is capable of extensive repair after severe damage. C. Areolar tissue acts as a site for energy storage. D. Plasma is the portion of lymph that acts as the matrix for this tissue type. E. The matrix of bone is a mixture of calcium salts and elastin fibers.
A. All of the listed statements are false.
What are organelles subdivided into ?
Nonmembranous organelles & Membranous organelles
pancreas
An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.
Comparative Anatomy
Anatomical similarities & differences between types of animals typically vertebrates
Tarsal
Ankle
Fontal Plane
Anterior & Posterior
Pubic
Anterior Pelvis
which of the following hormones is NOT produced by the Anterior Pituitary Gland?: - Chapter 19 Quiz A) Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone B) Growth Hormone C) Prolactin D) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone E) Luteinizing Hormone F) Antidiuretic Hormone
Antidiuretic Hormone - produced by the POSTERIOR Pituitary Gland produced by the Anterior Pituitary Gland - A) Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone B) Growth Hormone C) Prolactin D) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone E) Luteinizing Hormone
Ligand
Any substance that binds to the enzyme or protein
sternoclavicular joint (8)
Articulation between the clavicle and the sternum *only joint for axial/upper appendicular 2 synovial cavities 2 plane joints!!!
Intrinsic muscles of the hand (11)
Assist flexors and extensors of the forearm ; Assist in making finger movements precise.
Superficial
At, near, or relatively close to the body surface
deep
Away from the body surface; more internal
Cuneiform cartilage
B
Inferior lobe
B
Larynx
B
Longitudinal muscle layer
B
Molars
B
Palatoglossal arch
B
Thrombocyte
B
Antibody-mediated immunity
B cells generate antibodies that tag specific antigens
Which tissue type is not correctly paired with its function. A. Serous membrane: lubricate organs B. All of the pairings listed are correct C. Adipose: energy storage D. Neural: transmit information E. Dense regular connective: high tensile strength which works with muscles to move limbs
B. All of the pairings listed are correct
Which of the following pairs of tissue types have the ability to repair themselves after major damage? A. Bone & Elastic cartilage B. Bone & Smooth muscle C. Cardiac muscle & Smooth muscle D. Elastic cartilage & Smooth muscle E. Neurons & Cardiac muscle
B. Bone & Smooth muscle
Which organelle is not properly paired with its function: A. Golgi apparatus: renewal of the plasma membrane B. Flagella: increase surface area C. Nucleus: stores genetic information D Peroxisomes: neutralize toxic compounds E. Lysosome: digest foreign materials F. Mitochondria: ATP synthesis
B. Flagella: increase surface area
Thoracic
Chest
Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment
Hemostasis
Blood clotting
Dermal Blood Supply
Blushing , overheating : red color hemoglobin Pallor: anemia , drop in BP Bruise : hematoma in skin
B cells
Bone marrow-derived cells -produce plasma cells that secrete antibodies -library of immunity -originate & become immunocompetent in bone marrow -mature B cells enter bloodstream & migrate to peripheral tissues
Gluteal
Buttock
Canines
C
Circular muscle layer
C
Eosinophil
C
Middle lobe
C
Opening of parotid duct
C
Trachea
C
Vestibular fold
C
Nails provide protection to the tips of the _______ phalanges. Humans use deodorant to the mask the smells generated by their _______ glands. A. Proximal; Apocrine B. Distal; Eccrine C. Distal; Apocrine D. Proximal; Eccrine
C. Distal; Apocrine
Your fingertips are _______ to your wrist and your nose is ________ to your ears. A. Proximal; medial B. Proximal; lateral C. Distal; medial D. Distal; lateral
C. Distal; medial
Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment to trunk
has a double - layered membrane
Nucleus & Mitochondria
Sural
Calf
Myocardium
Cardiac tissue -including cardiac muscle cells, connective tissue, blood vessels, & nerves
Clinical Anatomy
Changes during illnesses
Developmental Anatomy
Changes over time
frontal plane
Divides the body into front and back portions.
reproductive tract?
Ducts that receive, store, and transport gametes
Subpapillary layer
Due to location of vessels: - Hypodermic needles - Subcutaneous injections - Hypodermis (subcutaneous) layer is deep to dermis - Not technically considered a part of integument - Helps stabilize integument
Cheek
E
Epiglottis
E
Lesser curvature
E
Tracheal cartilages
E
Plasma membranes engage in all of the following functions except: A. Cell to cell communication B. Cell adhesion C. Cell structural support D. Regulating exchange with extracellular fluid E. All of the choices listed are functions of the plasma membrane F. Sense extracellular stimuli
E. All of the choices listed are functions of the plasma membrane
Choose the option that correctly pairs each organ system with a main homeostatic function: A. Lymphatic: water balance; Skeletal: support; Integument: sensory B. Cardiovascular: pH balance; Skeletal: protection; Digestion: water absorption C. Lymphatic: immunity; Nervous: relay information; Integument: thermoregulation D. None of the sets shown are correct. E. Lymphatic: water balance; Cardiovascular: gas transport; Skeletal: support
E. Lymphatic: water balance; Cardiovascular: gas transport; Skeletal: support
For the image above select the group of terms that correctly identifies each tissue: A.) A: Stratified Cuboidal; B: Skeletal Muscle, C: Areolar B.) A: Stratified Columnar; B: Smooth Muscle, C: Areolar C.) A: Stratified Cuboidal; B: Smooth Muscle, C: Adipose D.) A: Stratified Columnar; B: Skeletal Muscle, C: Adipose E.) A: Stratified Columnar; B: Smooth Muscle, C: Adipose
E.) A: Stratified Columnar; B: Smooth Muscle, C: Adipose
describe the Peripheral Nerves:
EACH PERIPHERAL NERVE - 1. Epineurium - OUTER layer that becomes continuous with the Dura Mater 2. Perineurium - layer surrounding a Fascicle / Fascicules - bundle of axons - STRONGEST layer 3. Endoneurium - layer surrounding a SINGLE axon
describe the Endocrine System:
Endocrine System - produces LONG-TERM, general responses that may have MULTIPLE target organs, tissues, or cells - uses HORMONES - compounds emitted into the blood stream -- hormones bind to target cells that have receptors specific to that hormone! -- the binding of the hormone elicits a response - the Nervous System AND the Endocrine System work together to maintain Homeostasis - Nervous System - produces SHORT-TERM, very SPECIFIC responses with specific target organs, tissues, or cells
Veins
Enter heart -carries blood to
Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion
Exocytosis, Can be continuous, Fastest secretion rate
spongy urethra (penile urethra)
Extends through the penis to the external urethral orifice
Superior
Higher on the body, nearer to the head
annular and quadrate ligament (8)
Hold the head of the radius in position
What are the uterine tubes?
Hollow muscular tubes that transport oocyte from ovary to uterus.
What maintains pH in normal range?
Homeostatic mechanisms
skeletal muscle tissue
Hypertrophy not hyperplasia via myosatellites; multinucleate ; voluntary or reflex arcs
What are the 3 parts of Growth & Development ?
Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia , and Differentiation
hypertrophy vs hyperplasia (9)
Hypertrophy: bigger cell (more cellular proteins). Hyperplasia: more number of cells.
Base
I
Oral vestibule
I
Pylorus
I
Superior lobar bronchus
I
parallel muscles = when contracting, they ______ in diameter (9)
INCREASE
Nodule vs Node
Nodule: less organized than a node Node: very organized, acts as a filter for lymph
Cardia
N
Entrance to auditory tube
N
Root of left lung
N
describe Neurons in the CNS AND Neurons in the PNS:
NEURONS IN THE CNS - - Center - collection of Cell Bodies - Nucleus - center with a distinct boundary - White Matter - bundles of Axons -- tracts and columns NEURONS IN THE PNS - - Ganglia - bundles of Cell Bodies - Nerves - bundles of Axons
Immune surveillance
NK cells attack foreign & cancer cells
Are erythrocytes like normal cells?
NO -lack most organelles -anucleated (only cell in human body without nucleus) -no mitochondria (use anaerobic metabolism) -lacks ER & ribosomes (cannot repair or replicate)
epithelial tissue characteristics
NO INTERCELLULAR SPACE POLARITY - exposed apical surface - have an attached basal surface - apical / basal surfaces are structurally & functionally different
Are thrombocytes cells?
NO!
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, Male repro tract; have cilia & actually simple epithelium
NK cells
Natural Killer cells -attack abnormal cells; immune surveillance -take out rogue cells -attack cancer cells
Cervical
Neck
2 types of Neural
Neuroglia & neurons
how is the synovial membrane different than other membranes ?
No basal lamina or reticular lamina & Has gaps between cells
Do capillaries function as individual units?
No! Capillaries are never alone
zygapophysial joints (facet joints) (8)
Plane synovial joints between the superior and inferior articular processes of the vertebral arches are?
Plasma vs. Interstitial Fluid
Plasma: - Higher oxygen - Lower carbon dioxide - Higher dissolved protein Interstitial Fluid - Lower oxygen - Higher carbon dioxide -Lower dissolved protein
Thrombocytes
Platelets; not true cells
Serous Membranes in Cavities
Pleural Cavity, Pericardial Cavity, & Peritoneal Cavity
Synovial membrane
Produces synovial fluid, reduces friction within joints; Different than other membranes
Nails
Provides protection for distal-most phalanges made of keratin -- Nail body covers nail bed Nail root: deep in dermis near bone
Greater curvature
Q
Palatine tonsil
Q
Oogenesis?
the production, growth, and maturation of an egg, or ovum
Glands in Skin
Sebaceous glands Sweat glands - Apocrine glands - Ceruminous glands - Mammary glands - Eccrine glands
Brachial
Segment of the upper limb closest to trunk ; the arm
accessory glands to semen?
Seminal glands (vesicles) Prostate Bulbo-urethral glands
what are nurse cells?
Sertoli cells
Skeletal System
Skeleton --- Axial: skull, spine, thoracic cavity --- Appendicular: limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle Cartilage Ligaments
Integumentary system is composed of:
Skin, Hair, Sweat glands, Sebaceous glands, & Mammary glands
Plantar
Sole region of foot
Connective Tissues (CT)
Specialized cells, Extracellular protein fibers
Surface Anatomy
Superficial anatomical markings & relationship to deeper structures
Transverse Plane
Superior & Inferior
Skeletal System Functions
Support: framework for attachment of other organs Movement / locomotion: muscles use bones as levers Storage of minerals: - Calcium ions - Phosphate ions Blood cell production: bone marrow produces erythrocytes, leukocytes, & platelets Protection - Ribs protect heart & lungs - Skull protects brain - Vertebrae protect spinal cord - Pelvic bones protect reproductive organs
What are the 3 parts of Gross Anatomy ( Macroscopic Anatomy )
Surface Anatomy , Clinical Anatomy & Surgical Anatomy
Thoracic Cavity
Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm
Left Pleural Cavity
Surrounds the Left Lung
list the RESPONSES of the Sympathetic Division and the Parasympathetic Division:
Sympathetic Division - - "Fight OR Flight" Parasympathetic Division - - "Rest AND Digest"
Oropharynx
T
Femoral
Thigh
Parts of the juxtaglomerular complex
The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of three cells: 1. macula densa, a part of the distal convoluted tubule of the same nephron 2. juxtaglomerular cells, which secrete renin 3. extra glomerular mesangial cells
large intestine
The last section of the digestive system, where water is absorbed from food and the remaining material is eliminated from the body
semen is?
The sperm and secretions of the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral gland
Physiology
The study of how the body functions
glenohumeral joint (8)
The synovial *ball-and-socket* joint of the shoulder *greatest range of motion TRIAXIAL
minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis
The urine collecting system in the kidneys consists of these three structures.
podocytes?
These cells form a porous membrane surrounding the endothelial cells of the glomerulus. "Feet" form filtration slits
which of the following is NOT a Spinal Nerve Plexus?: - Chapter 14 Quiz A) Cervical Plexus B) Thoracic Plexus C) Lumbar Plexus D) Sacral Plexus E) Brachial Plexus
Thoracic Plexus options that ARE a Spinal Nerve Plexus - A) Cervical Plexus B) Lumbar Plexus C) Sacral Plexus D) Brachial Plexus
T cells
Thymus-dependent cells -enter tissues to directly attack pathogens -originate in bone marrow but travel to thymus gland & become immunocompetent (activated) by the thymus -mature t cells leave thymus & migrate to red bone marrow, spleen, & other lymphatic tissues
buccal phase
Tongue collects food compacts it and pushes it back to the oropharynx
Cranial or Cephalic
Toward the head
Deep
Toward the interior of the body ; further from the surface
Caudal
Toward the tail (coccyx)
What do the ureters do?
Transport urine to the urinary bladder, where urine is stored before urination through the urethra to the outside.
Active Transport uses ATP to move solutes concentration gradient ; push uphill : T or F
True
All channel proteins are integral proteins but not all integral proteins are channel proteins : T or F
True
All discussion of anatomy is in reference to anatomical position : T or F
True
All organ systems have multiple homeostatic functions that can overlap, but each has unique primary function(s) for homeostasis (except for one) : T or F
True
Anatomy dictates physiology : T or F
True
Every single hair follicle on the body is a little tiny organ : T or F
True
Golgi & ER work to make products for in & out of cell : T or F
True
Int bone covered in endosteum : T or F
True
L/R based on specimen : T or F
True
Melanin shields nuclei from UV : T or F
True
Most ext. bone surfaces are covered with periosteum: T or F
True
Organelles are either membranous or non membranous : T or F
True
Osteoblast & osteoclast activity is equal in bones that aren't changing shape: T or F
True
Osteocytes in lacunae : T or F
True
Some channel proteins are gated & will open due to a ligand or stimulus : T or F
True
condylar joint (8)
a shallow ball-and-socket joint with limited mobility
muscle fiber (9)
a single muscle cell
What is the hepatic portal vein?
a vein conveying blood to the liver from the spleen, stomach, pancreas, and intestines.
muscle tissues - contractibility (9)
ability to shorten and exert tension
once the bladder has "completely voided", how much mL of urine is left?
about 10mL
Superior
above, at higher level (in the human body ,toward the head)
Reabsorption
absorption, transport, & use of oxygen
seminal fluid (semen)
activates and transports sperm cells - high concentration of fructose - prostaglandins = suppress female immune response - clotting factors = help semen initially stay in vagina
Inhalation is an _____ process.
active *it requires energy/ATP
Apocrine glands
active at puberty -- High density in armpit & areola -- Produce an odorous secretion -- Secretions can contain pheromones (mother/offspring bonding, kin recognition) Eccrine secretion
distal convoluted tubule (DCT) has?
active, regulated secretion of ions, acids and toxins. selective of Na & Ca ions! reabsorption of H2O.
Subpapillary layer consists of ...
adipose tissue & major blood vessels
somatic reflex arc (9)
affects muscles
Freckles
aggregations of melanin
Tension lines
collegen & elastic fibers organized in a parallel pattern
Auricles
anterior portion of both atria -expand to accommodate incoming blood
Ventral
anterior, front
transverse plane (horizontal plane) (8)
anterior-posterior axis; divides the body into upper and lower portions
what is dead space?
areas where air is conducted but does not contribute to gas exchange
what are liver lobules?
arrangement of hepatocytes, framed by 6 portal triads
what are baroreceptors used for in the respiratory system?
arterial stretch receptors
distal tibiofibular joint (8)
articulation between the distal fibula and the fibular notch of the tibia *fibrous syndesmosis
root of penis?
attaches the penis within the pelvic cavity
reflex arc (9)
automatic pathway that mediates a response to a stimulus
Lateral
away from the midline
Posterior
back of body
tidal volume < physiological dead space = ?
bad!
hip joint (8)
ball and socket joint
Femur joint (8)
ball and socket; fat pad absorbs shock
Hair Matrix
basal cells that divide to become hair
Hair Shape
based on follicle shape
flexion vs extension (8)
bending a body part (flexion) VS straightening of a body part (extension)
Flexion (8)
bending a joint to decrease the angle between two bones or two body parts
Collateral arteries
come together to form arterial anastomosis
Flagella
cell movement ; only found on sperm
Tissue Level
cells & some surrounding material
Pacemaker cells
cells in SA that will initiate an action potential on their own
Differentiation
cells with particular functions
lumen
center of duct/ tube
Bohr effect
changes in Hb (hemoglobin) O2 affinity due to pH changes -DECREASED pH = Hb releases O2 -INCREASED pH = Hb takes up O2
urine production is controlled mainly my auto regulation
changes in diameter of nephron arterioles, due to sympathetic autonomic system
Metabolism & Excretion
chemical reactions
Chemotaxis
chemical signals that attract leukocytes to infections
What are bile salts?
cholesterol derivatives that function in fat emulsification and absorption made I n the liver. it allows lipase to work and allows micelles to form and stay separate
Gel matrix made of ...
chondroitin sulfate
stomach musculature does what?
churns ingesta
urethra lining?
circular smooth muscle and mucous producing cells in epithelium
describe the types of the General Senses:
classification scheme is based on sensory location - 1. Exteroceptors - external environment 2. Proprioceptors - position of body 3. Interceptors - inside of the body types of stimulus - 1. Nociceptors - sensation of pain ; tissue damage 2. Thermoreceptors - changes in temp 3. Mechanoreceptors - physical distortion of cell membranes 4. Chemoreceptors - chemical composition of body fluids
Agglutination
clumping of RBCs & antibodies
cross bridge cycle step 4 (9)
cocking of the myosin head: attached ADP is hydrolyzed by myosin ATPase into ADP + Pi, bringing it back to a high-energy state
Z disc (line) (9)
coin-shaped sheet of proteins on midline of light I band that anchors thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another *form endplates for each sarcomere *z-discs contract TOWARDS M-line
Coronary sinus
collects blood from cardiac veins -Right Atrium ONLY
Anticoagulant
compounds that prevent fibrin formation
renal pelvis (of kidney)
compromises most of renal sinuses, collects urine from major calyxes and empties to ureter
bones that form the wrist and hand and their joints (8)
condylar, hinge and plane joints
Chordae tendineae
connect cusps & papillary muscles
Connecting tubules and collecting duct in kidneys
connecting = DCT of each nephron empties filtrate to this collecting = several connecting tubules train into this tube ** BOTH will reabsorb water; secrete/reabsorb ions
fibrous layer of cartilage
connection to other structures
Bone Marrow
connective tissue in medullary cavity
vocal folds are sheets of what?
connective tissue that cover their respective ligaments
tunica albuginea
connective tissue that surrounds testes
Ring of connective tissue
connects to heart tissue; part of fibrous skeleton
Membrane transport
consists of Osmosis & Diffusion ; moves from high to low concentration
body (shaft) of penis?
consists of erectile tissue
Nucleus
consists of nuclear envelope (outside) & nucleoplasm (inside)
tracheal muscle
constricts rings; posterior "gap" in the rings
Visceral peritoneum
contact with abdominal organs
visceral layer of serous pericardium
contact with heart
Visceral pleura
contact with lungs
secretions of bulbourethral glands
contain a mucus like fluid which helps to neutralize remaining urinary acids in the urethra and/or vagina -provides lubrication for tip of penis
Nuclear envelope
contain nuclear pores
Nucleoplasm
contain nucleoli & chromatin
head of sperm?
contains DNA and chromosomes - acrosome = filled w/ enzymes used in fertilization
Pericardial cavity
contains Visceral layer of serous pericardium & parietal layer of serous pericardium
Abdominal Cavity
contains many digestive glands and organs
middle piece of sperm?
contains mitochondria that make ATP for locomotion of the sperm
kidney in the urinary system
contains nephrons and produces urine
Sinoatrial (SA) node
contains pacemaker cells that initiate the electrical impulse that results in a heartbeat -top of Right atrium -initiates conduction pathway
Pleural cavity
contains the Visceral pleura & Parietal pleura
Abdominopelvic Cavity
contains the peritoneal cavity
Mediastinum
contains the trachea , esophagus, and major vessels
Peritoneal cavity
contains visceral peritoneum & Parietal peritoneum
what is the adventitia of the uterine wall?
continuous w/ fibrous capsule and parietal peritoneum
muscle tissues - extensibility (9)
contract over a range of resting lengths
neural intervention serves to?
control vasoconstriction/vasodialation of arterioles, regulates renal blood flow and pressure, stimulate renin release AND stimulate water/sodium ion reabsorption
what is the dorsal respiratory group?
controls the diaphragm and external intercostals
what is amino acid transamination in the liver?
convert amino acids to different types and essential amino acids to non-essential amino acids
if pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum decomposes and becomes?
corpus albicans
if no zygote implantation occurs, what happens?
corpus luteum degrades
cross bridge cycle step 3 (9)
cross bridge detachment: ATP attaches to myosin, breaking the cross bridge
cross bridge cycle step 1 (9)
cross bridge formation: phosphorylated myosin head attaches to an actin myofilament
Where are organelles found ?
cytoplasm
Where is the Cytosol found ?
cytoplasm
What gives the cell shape?
cytoskeleton
Cell-mediated immunity
cytotoxic T cells enter tissues & attack targeted cells
Dilation
decrease R = decrease MAP
The bone of the thigh is __________ to the surrounding skeletal muscles
deep
what is compaction?
dehydration and compaction of waste material. feces formation
Supporting Connective Tissue
dense matrix of fibers & may have insoluble calcium salts
P-wave
depolarization from SA node
muscles of the neck (10)
depress the mandible, move larynx, hyoid and head
Lacunae
depressions where osteocytes reside
the colon has what kind of cells?
goblet: large amount of mucin
Afferent
going towards a spot
Medial
going towards the midline
Distal
furthest from point of attachment to trunk
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
gas transport
what happens in the third stage of breathing? (internal respiration)
gases flow into and out of the body tissues and are exchanged with circulatory system BLOOD GAINS CO2 & DUMPS O2
what happens in the second phase of breathing? (external respiration)
gasses diffused from air in lungs into the blood through alveoli and capillary beds. BLOOD GAINS O2 & DUMPS CO2
gastric folds = ?
gastric rugae
Intercellular connections
give epithelium strength & stability
Lymphatic stem cells
give rise to: -NK cells -T cells -B cells
Myeloid stem cells
give rise to: -neutrophils -basophils -eosinophils -macrophages -megakaryocytes -erythrocyte (basically every other cell)
seminal glands?
glands that produce up to 70% of the volume of semen; seminal vesicles
plane joint (gliding joint) (8)
gliding movement surfaces are flat or slightly convex surfaces glide over one another ex: intercarpal, intertarsal joints
renal corpuscle in kidney
glomerular capillaries and glomerular capsule
What is the renal corpuscle?
glomerulus and bowman's capsule and vascular pole
air passing through ____________ vibrates vocal folds and creates sound
glottis
Endocrine
into ECF then to blood stream or lymph; hormones
Cytosol
intracellular fluid of cell
urine storage and voiding reflexes involve?
involve the spinal cord and pontine centers of brain (in pons)
Visceral layer of serous pericardium
is the inner layer actually touching the heart
Parietal layer of serous pericardium
is the outer layer not actually touching the heart
Endocytosis
is the packing of extracellular materials into a vesicle ( a membrane- bound sac) for importation into the cell
Parts of the uterine tube
isthmus (connection to uterus), ampulla (typical site of fertilization), infundibulum (lined w/ cilia to move oocyte along), fimbriae (drapes ovary to "catch" oocyte) and uterine part (opens to uterus)
what is the ventral respiratory group?
it functions only during forced ventilation (accessory muscles)
fibulotalar joint (8)
joint between the lateral malleolus and the lateral edge of the talus *fibrous syndesmosis
tibiotalar joint (8)
joint between the tibia and the talus *main joint of ankle *bears body mass
monoaxial joint (8)
joint has one degree of freedom or axis of rotation Interphalangeal joint, elbow joint
synovial fluid (8)
joint-lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial membrane; nourishes chondrocytes of particular cartilages; acts as shock absorber
slightly intraplular press (Pip)
keeps lungs "inflated"
Epidermis includes...
keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, & langerhans cells
muscles of mastication (chewing) (10)
masseter and temporalis * elevates the mandible * biting muscles
plasma
matrix
Osseous tissue
matrix of bone consists of: Hydroxyapatite crystals: mainly calcium phosphate will resist compression, but inflexible ( calcium phosphate makes up ~ 2/3 of bone mass ) Collegen fibers : - make up ~1/3 of bone mass - contribute to tensile strength of bones - imparts limited flexibility to matrix Bone Cells - contribute only 2 percent of bone mass
Connective Tissue Proper:
matrix of loose fibers & dense fibers
urinary system aids the liver with what?
metabolic functions: gluconeogenesis, transamination and deamination of amino acids
urinary system eliminates?
metabolic wastes: urea, uric acid and drugs
oblique and rectus muscles (10)
muscles that lie between the vertebral column and the ventral midline
What are the 3 apical surface structures ?
microvilli, stereo cilia, & cilia
Media
middle layer of blood vessel -smooth muscle; used in vasoconstriction & vasodilation
Lamellae (matrix):
mix of collagen fibers & calcium salts
sperm cells becomes motile when?
mixed with secretions from seminal glands
smooth muscle around terminal bronchioles does what?
modulates resistance to ventilation
hinge joint movement (8)
monoaxial
pivot joint movement (8)
monoaxial
plane joint movement (8)
monoaxial
joints can be? (8)
monoaxial, biaxial and triaxial
keratinocytes
most common cell ; produce keratin
elastic cartilage
most flexible
sympathetic nerve fibers are ____________ in kidney
most plentiful
Hormones
most work to regulate plasma Ca2+ levels
motor note (9)
motor neuron and muscle fibers it innervates
Muscles of the vertebral column (10)
move neck and head, ribs and move/stabilize the spine
production of distant sounds depends on what?
movement of lips, tongue and cheeks
Diffusion
movement of solutes
Osmosis
movement of water
Membrane Transport
moves form high to low
Blood
moves via cardiovascular system
lymph
moves via lymphatic system; Monitors for signs of infection; mainly lymphocytes (T & B cells), but some phagocytic cells
Efferent
moving away from a spot
What is saliva?
mucin based mixture that lubricates and buffers food
unicellular
mucins - mucous cells & goblet cells
mucous
mucins + water = mucus
what are gastric cells?
mucous (mucin), parietal (HCl), chief (pepsinogen) and enteroendocrine (hormones: gastrin)
mixed exocrine gland
multicellular glands ; mixed ( serous & mucous )
Osteoclasts
multinucleated cells
insertion of muscle (9)
muscle attachment point that moves *shaded blue*
origin of a muscle (9)
muscle end attached to the bone that does not move when the muscle contracts *shaded red*
the 3 types of Endocytosis
pinocytosis, phagocytosis, & receptor-mediated endocytosis
prostatic urethra (male)
passes through the prostate gland
membranous urethra (male)
passes through urogenital diaphragm
tidal exhalation is?
passive, does not use energy
external genitalia
penis and scrotum
secretion of inhibin?
peptide hormone that controls rate of sperm formation
luteal phase of ovarian cycle
period of corpus luteum activity (days 14-28)
bolus movement down esophagus via?
peristalsis
what moves the urine towards the urinary bladder?
peristaltic contractions and gravity
what is the stellate macrophages in liver?
phagocytic cells
stratified squamous epithelium functions
physical barrier; some surfaces keratinized; muscosal linings are nonkeratinized
melanocytes
pigment cells; produce melanin
Scrotum
pink
Cornea
pink arrow
Vagina
pink arrow
ora serrata
pink arrow
prepuce
pink arrow
tapetum lucidum
pink arrow
ureter
pink arrow
right ureter and urinary bladder
pink arrow (2 answers)
macula densa
pink box
peritubular capillaries
pink box
podocytes
pink box
renal cortex
pink box
The scapula (shoulder blade) is located __________ to the rib cage.
posterior
Dorsal
posterior, back
Metarterioles
precapillary sphincter
negative pressure breathing
pressure = 1/volume
maintenance of blood testis barrier?
prevent autoimmune destruction of sperm cells
Absorption
process of bringing material into body / into the bloodstream
Sinuses function
produce mucus, resonate sound, lighten skull and humidifies air
Osteoprogenitor Cells
produce osteoblasts
interstitial endocrine cells (Leydig cells)
produce testosterone; space between coils of seminiferous tubules
functions of the urinary system
produce urine, regulates plasma ion concentrations, blood volume, BP and blood pH, prevents loss of valuable nutrients
What does the liver do?
produces bile, regulates plasma nutrient levels, degradation of RBC's, inactivate toxins and store fat soluble vitamins
ovary
produces eggs
female reproductive system
produces eggs for reproduction and provides place for growing baby. * ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia (clitoris, labia minora/majora, breasts)
Osteoblasts
produces matrix immature bone cells - found on inner & outer surfaces of bones
what is the function of the reproductive system?
produces, stores, nourishes and transports gametes. males produce sperm and females produce oocytes
Red Marrow
production & storage of leukocytes, erythrocytes, & thrombocytes -in epiphysis or spaces between trabeculae
what is duodenal ampulla?
products from liver and pancreas
cells of corpus luteum produce?
progesterone - this is used to prepare body for pregnancy
decline in what starts a new cycle?
progesterone, estrogen and inhibin
what is the muscular layer of the GI tract?
propels ingesta and forms sphincters
stratified columnar epithelium functions
protection ; high activity areas
Elastic fibers
protein called elastin; "rubbery" ; lines vasculature
Acetylcholinesterase (9)
the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft *degrades ACh in synaptic cleft
pharyngeal phase
the epiglottis closes over the glottis and swallowing begins *involuntary
motor end plate (9)
the flattened end of a motor neuron that transmits neural impulses to a muscle *ACh binds
What is the micturition reflex?
the internal sphincter relaxes and the detrusor muscle contracts; URINATION
ileum?
the last and longest portion of the small intestine *some absorption, immune function and Peyer's patches
second class lever (9)
the load is between the fulcrum and the effort *CALF RAISES*
uterine cycle?
the monthly cycle of changes that the uterus undergoes to prepare for implantation of fertilized embryo
angular motion (8)
the motion of a body about a fixed point or fixed axis
jejunum?
the part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum *chemical/mechanical digestion, secretion of SI enzymes and major absorption site
cross bridge cycle step 2 (9)
the power stroke: 1) ADP and Pi are released from the myosin head 2) Myosin head changes to bend, low-energy state 3) Shape change pulls the actin towards the M line
Capillaries
thin vessels between arteries & veins; sites of exchange
teniae coli of the large intestine
three bands of longitudinal smooth muscle in muscularis
what happens in the first phase of breathing? (pulmonary ventilation)
tide-like movements of air into and out of the lungs
renal papillae in renal medulla
tips of pyramids where urine is excreted into calyxes and bands of cortical tissue between pyramids
(Respiratory) Alkalosis
too little CO2
(Respiratory) Acidosis
too much CO2
prepuce
top left arrow
what is inspiration capacity?
total air that can be inhaled
What is vital capacity?
total amount of exchangeable air
Cranial
toward the head
Medial
toward the midline
Caudal
toward the tail
Metaphysis
transition
Conducting cells
transmit contractile stimulus
Axon
transmits a signal; action potential
Albumins
transport fatty acids, steroid hormones, & thyroid hormones
urinary tract in the urinary system
transports and stores urine. urine is store in the bladder until urination
respiratory epithelium mucus in the respiratory defense system
traps inhaled debris. mucociliary escalator: moves debris upward toward pharynx. COUGHING/SWALLOWING will remove this debris
Stratified epithelium
two or more layers of cells; areas of mechanical or chemical stresses
type 1 alveolar cells vs type 2 alveolar cells
type 1 = sites of GAS exchange type 2 = produces surfactant
saddle joint (8)
type of joint found at the base of each thumb; allows grasping and rotation
Glandular epithelium is classified based on ...
type of secretion , structure of gland, & mode of secretion
excretion is?
ultimate voiding of filtrate as urine
collecting system
ultimately produces urine from filtrate
what is excretion?
unabsorbed ingesta, undigested food, metabolic waste, sloughed cells of GI lining and bacteria
proximal and distal radio-ulnar joints (8)
uniaxial syndesmosis allows for rotation NO synovial fluid
esophageal phase
upper esophageal sphincter opens and the bolus begins moving down the esophagus steps: opening of upper esophageal sphincter -> esophagus -> opening of lower esophageal sphincter -> stomach
where does urine enter bladder?
ureteral orifice
neural cells (9)
used for communication and signaling
Muscles of the Pharynx (10)
used in swallowing, move soft palate and the larynx
Connecting tubules and collecting duct
variable reabsorption of water and reabsorption or secretion of sodium, potassium, hydrogen, and bicarbonate ions
Alter Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)
vasoconstriction / vasodilation of muscular arteries -vary resistance to flow leaving heart
Alter CO, Particularly SV
venoconstriction of medium veins -capacitance of venous system -increases volume of blood that shifts to arterial system
what is the respiratory rhythmicity center?
ventilatory pace and depth
QRS Complex
ventricular depolarization
T-wave
ventricular repolarization
Peroxisome
vesicle filled with "house keeping" enzymes ( oxidase & catalase )
Lysosomes
vesicle filled with digestive enzymes
Cross-reaction
when antibody meets specific antigen
GFR will be altered?
when the arteriole BP changes
Heme Units
where O2 and CO2 will bind to hemoglobin -hemoglobin has 4 heme units
blood air barrier
where gas exchange occurs between blood and alveolar air *alveolar cells *basement membrane *capillary endothelium
vascular pole of renal corpuscle
where the afferent and efferent arterioles enter and leave the renal corpuscle
esophageal hiatus
where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm
what is a joint? (8)
where two bones meet * fluid, cartilage or fibrous tissue
purpose of juxtaglomerular complex?
will alter arteriole BP and systemic BP - monitor arteriole BP - monitor DCT filtrate ion concentration
prostate gland
yellow
Carotene
yellow - orange ; dietary (can be converted into Vit. A)
Retina
yellow arrow
Sclera
yellow arrow
Testes
yellow arrow
ciliary body
yellow arrow
inguinal canal
yellow arrow
right adrenal gland
yellow arrow
urogenital opening
yellow arrow
major calyx
yellow box
penis
yellow box
Is the Peritoneal Cavity apart of the Abdominopelvic Cavity ?
yes