Anatomy open questions

where the primary sensory neurons have located their cell bodies?

Have their cell bodies in ganglia close to the cord or the brain stem (similar neurons are found in the retina) and their receptive fields are found in the part of the body associated with its function (Cutanos in the skin and the retina a certain spot on the retina. Per Brodal 174

In the medial wall of the pallium, just above the attachment of the choroid plexus, a thickening arises that bulges into the lateral ventricle. This is the beginning of which structure that partially separated from the rest of the pallium?

Hippocampus (seahorse when it is removed it resembles a seahorse) Mainly involved with memory. Part of the hippocampal formation = Hippocampus, Hippocampal Gyrus, Dentate Gyrus (has Entorhinal cortex + Subiculum) The Subiculum is the main output region of the hippocampus Fornix connects to the thalamus and hypothalamus

What structure arises from the thin part of the pallium close to the dorsal aspect of the diencephalon?

In the medial wall of the pallium, just above the attachment of the choroid plexus, a thickening arises that bulges into the lateral ventricles this will be the Hippocampus The Pallium becomes the Cerebral Cortex but the medial invaginations form the Hippocampus. The choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles is formed by invaginations of the thin part of the pallium close to the dorsal aspect of the diencephalon And for this question the thin dorsal part becomes the Choroid Plexus Per Brodal 140

What happens after antigen stimulation?

In the Outer Cortex (Dark Stained) there are Lymphoid Nodules (Primary become Secondary after antigen stimulation) The secondary has a germinal center surrounded by a mantel zone). B-Lymphocytes. netter 200

How does the ureter start (in the kidney)? what is it's path to the bladder?

In the kidney urine is collected into minor calices (calyx singular). many together form major calyx. 2-3 major calyx form the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis narrows as it passes inferiorly through the hilum of the kidney and becomes continuous with the ureter (Ureteropelvic Junction 1st narrowing). the ureter continues retroperitoneally and anteriorly to the psoas major muscle. At the pelvic brim the ureter crosses (Anteriorly) either the end of the common iliac or the beginning of the external iliac enter the pelvic cavity (2nd narrowing) finally entering the bladder (3rd narrowing) (Gray's 379)

Name the descending tracts

6 Descending: 2 pyramidal 1. CorticoSpinal Tract (lateral and anterior) 2. CorticoBulbar tract 4 extrapyramidal 3. Vestibulospinal Tract (technically has 4 sub nuclei but only 2 seem to participate in this tract Medial and Lateral) 4. ReticuloSpinal Tract Split in 2 a. medial reticulospinal tract arises from the pons. It facilitates voluntary movements, and increases muscle tone. b. lateral reticulospinal tract arises from the medulla. It inhibits voluntary movements, and reduces muscle tone. 5. RubroSpinal Tract originates from the red nucleus, a midbrain structure. As the fibres emerge, they decussate (cross over to the other side of the CNS), and descend into the spinal cord. Thus, they have a contralateral innervation. 6. TectoSpinal Tract begins at the superior colliculus of the midbrain. The superior colliculus is a structure that receives input from the optic nerves. coordinates movements of the head in relation to vision stimuli. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_nuclei First Aid 2020 pg 508

How many joints does a typical vertebra have?

6 joints: 4 synovial joints (2 above 2 below) Between superior and inferior articulating processes are the zygapophysial joints. 2 symphyses (1 above 1 below) between 2 symphyses you have the vertebral disk Cervical: have an additional 2 uncovertebral joints (the lateral sides of the vertebral body have upper projections) Thoracic: 2x superior and inferior costal facets on each side of the vertebral body which articulate with the head of its own rib (superior) and the head of the inf rib (inf). 2x transverse costal facets on the transverse processes that articulate with the trebecal of its own rib Grays 78, 70 for pics

The lacrimal gland is anterior in which region of the orbit?

Anterior in the superolateral region of the orbit gray's 932

Where does the anterior papillary muscle of the right ventricle originate from?

Anterior wall of the right ventricle It's also the largest and most constant papillary muscle and it connects to the tricuspid valve via chordae tendineae. Necrosis of a papillary muscle due to a heart attack (like a myocardial infarction) may cause a prolapse of the related valve. The Tricuspid has another 2 papillary muscles: Posterior papillary muscles Septal papillary muscles (most inconsistent may not be there and the chordae tendineae originate from the septal wall) The tricuspid is between the right atrium and the right ventricle Gray's 192

Lower part of hypothalamus? What comes off the hypothalamus inferiorly? Which structure contains neural groups that can affect the pituitary gland?

Arcuate nucleus are the most inferior portion of the hypothalamus (most inferior hypothalamic nucleus). Further inferior and slightly posterior is the mammillary body The region between the Mammillary bodies and the infundibulum has the Tuber Cinereum which contains neural groups that influence the Pituitary gland Anteriorly to the mamillary bodies the floor of the third ventricle bulges downwards and forms the Infundibular stalk which the pituitary gland hangs from. Per Brodal 104

Hinge joints allow what kind of movement?

Around one axis that passes transversely through the joint and permit: Flexion and Extension Eg humero-ulnar joint Grays 20

Name the arterial and venous supply of the thyroid and the scheme:

Arterial: Superior thyroid artery <- External Carotid <- Common Carotid <- On the left Aortic Arch. On the right <- Brachiocephalic Trunk. Inferior Thyroid artery <- Thyrocervical trunk <- Subclavian. Venous: Superior and middle thyroid veins drain into the internal jugular -> brachiocephalic trunk -> Superior Vena Cava. Inferior thyroid vein -> Brachiocephalic -> SVC.

The levator palpebrae superioris is the most superior muscle in the orbit, originating from what?

Associated with the tarsus in the upper eyelid is the levator palpebrae superioris muscle, which raises the eyelid. Its origin is from the posterior part of the roof of the orbit, just superior to the optic foramen, and it inserts into the anterior surface of the superior tarsus, with the possibility of a few fibers attaching to the skin of the upper eyelid. It is innervated by the oculomotor nerve [III]. Gray's 930

What cells eliminate neurotransmitters in excess in the central nervous system and also maintain a balance of calcium and potassium?

Astrocytes - remove from the ECM: co2, K+ (potassium) and other neurotransmitters via transporter proteins in their membranes. per brodal 36

What innervates the SubOccipital Muscles?

C1 - AKA Suboccipital Nerve

Proprioceptive fibers from the trapezius pass in the branches of the cervical plexus and enter the spinal cord at which spinal cord levels?

C3 and C4 Grays 87

Which vein passes superiorly on the anterolateral aspect of the arm And through the anterior wall of the axilla to reach the axillary vein?

Cephalic vein Gray's 759

Name the differences between the 3 types of vertebra: Cervical, Thoracic and Lumber

Cervical: Vertebral body - Smallest, due to having to carry the least amount of weight. Also has two projections that allow the creation of the uncovertebral joint. And they are slightly curved (the rest are flat!) Oval shaped Also the atlas has NO vertebral body Thoracic: Has medium sized vertebral body. And has 2 facets (superior and inferior costal facets). and another transverse costal facet on the transverse process. Heart shaped Lumbar: Largest oval shaped and flat The more weight they need to support the bigger they are

The transpyloric plane is a horizontal plane crosses through the following structures?

9th costal cartilage opening of the stomach to the duodenum (pyloric orifice) The body of the pancreas The hila of the kidneys but since the left is higher it passes through the inferior aspect of the left hila and the superior aspect of the right hila Gray's 271

What is the name of the biggest cistern? Where is located?

Cisterna Magna which is located posterior to the Medulla below the Cerebellum The other 2 SubArachnoid Cisterns are Pontine Cistern and interpeduncular Cistern Per Brodal 112

what are the optical radiations? where are they found?

A.K.A geniculocalcarine tract are efferent fibers from the Lateral Geniculate in the thalamus to the Calcarine Cortex/ Striate Cortex in the occipital lobe

ACL and PCL attach where?

ACL (Anterior Cruciate Ligament): Attach to anterior part of intercondylar of the tibia and ascends to attach to the Posterior part of the intercondylar of the femur. PCL (Posterior Cruciate Ligament): Attach to the Posterior InterCondylar of the tibia and ascends to attach to the Anterior InterCondylar of the Femur Gray's 612

From which artery does the superior vesical artery originate? What does it supply?

Abdominal Aorta -> common iliac -> internal iliac -> umbilical artery (which doesn't completely close) -> Superior vesical artery. It mostly supplies the superior portion of the bladder. The inferior portion of the bladder is supplied by the inferior vesical artery

Explain the Vestibular Spinal Tract

Act on 3 main regions: 1. MotorNeurons in the Spinal cord (axial and proximal muscles just like the reticulospinal fibers) 2. MotorNerurons in the nuclei of the ExtraOcular Muscles 3. Cerebellum Located in the pons and medulla Receives also from the Utricular macula and the Crista Ampullaris in the ear. Help maintain our upright position (equilibrium) Maintain the image in the center of our eye. End in Alpha and Gamma motor neurons affecting muscles associated with Most fibers come from the lateral vestibular nuclei. Descend via the anterior funiculus (ipsilaterally) affect antigravity muscles (extensor muscles) Additionally fibers from the Medial Vestibular Nucleus aris and desence via the Anterior funiculus but don't reach below the upper thoracic segments and are thought to stabilize the position of the head. Per Brodal 273, 325 1 and 2. Vestibular Spinal Tract: there are 2 main ones lateral and medial. Receives input from the inner ear (Maculla linear movement and Crista Ampullaris in the semicircular ducts angular movement) Form the vestibular nerve which reaches the VNC (in the pons and medulla) which has sup, inf, lateral and medial. also receives info from the cerebellum (the fastigial nucleus and vestibuloCerebellum) which gives proprioception information. the medial vestibulospinal tract reaches as far down as the cervical portion and only affects head and neck muscles. The lateral reaches further down (limbs and trunk) via the anterior white column = medial longitudinal fasiculus they then reach the GM to alpha (extrafusal muscle fibers which allow muscle contraction giving movement of limbs) and gamma (intrafusal keeping the muscle tight) motor neurons in the GM of SC. The idea is it effects extensor muscles to allow posture. The red nucleus also connects to the VNC inhibiting it preventing hyperextension. The VST also connects to CN 3, 4 and 6 to control movement of the eyes in relation to balance and posture. Medial is Bilateral. Lateral is ipsilateral are found in the lateral floor of the 4th ventricle in the medulla/ pons

Superiorly what is the epitympanic recess continue with?

Aditus to the mastoid antrum Gray's 960

How many processes do vertebra have? (Cervical, Thoracic and lumbar)

All have at least 7 (4 articulating, 2 transverse and 1 spinous) Cervical: (the atlas has no vertebral body nor spinous process instead it has a posterior tubercle) The Axis on the other hand has an additional process called the odontoid process. In addition the uncinate process which form the uncovertebral joints Thoracic: 7 Lumbar: 2 additional accessory processes (between the transverse and superior articulating process) 2 additional mammillary processes on the superior articulating process.

What are the pharyngeal constrictors muscles innervated by?

All of the constrictors are innervated by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve [X]. The 3 constrictures are: Superior, middle and inferior constrictors. All are posterior attached to the pharyngeal raphe All the pharynx muscles are innervated by the Vagus nerve except for the Stylopharyngeus which is innervated by the glossopharyngeal Gray's 1043

Where is the thyroid found? What structures are in its area? Blood Supply?

Along with the 4 ParaThyroid Glands (are posterior surface of the thyroid) they are found in the anterior portion of the neck. The Thyroid is anterolateral and below the thyroid cartilage and Trachea. Anterior to it is the pretracheal fascia. Lateral are the Jugular vein and common carotid. Posterior is the Trachea and further posterior is the Esophagus. It has a Pyramidal Lobe that extends superiorly to the Hyoid bone. 2 Arterial Supply: 1. Superior Thyroid Artery (Branch of External Carotid) 2. Inferior Thyroid Artery (Branch of ThyroCervical) Veins: Superior, Middle (Drain to Internal Jugular) and Inferior (Drain into BrachioCephalic) Thyroid Veins. Lymphatics: Nodes next to trachea. Gray's 1017-1020

What is the cerebellar tentorium?

An Extension of Dura Mater that separates the inferior portion of the occipital lobe and the cerebellum. It also connects to the Falx Cerebri (dura that descends vertically in the longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres) in the middle superior portion. Anteriorly it's free allowing the tentorial Notch through which the cerebellar peduncles pass also allowing passage for the Brains Stem Per brodal 113 and wiki.

retropharyngeal space is between which fascia?

Buccopharyngeal fascia (on the posterior surface of the pharynx and esophagus) and the prevertebral fascia (on the anterior surface of the transverse processes and bodies of the cervical vertebrae) Gray's 1003

Where does the spermatic cord originate from? What goes through it? Where does it end?

Deep inguinal ring found in the transversalis fascia (Between the Transverse abdominal muscle and the periatel pertinium) Is a derivative of Processus Vaginalis. Contains: 1. Ductus Deferens 2. Artery of Ductus Deferens (from the inferior Vesical Artery) 3. Testicular Artery 4. Pampiniform plexus of veins (testicular Veins) 5. Genital Branch of Genitofemoral Nerve Ends in a distal sac containing the testes So it goes through the Inguinal Canal. Which starts at the deep inguinal ring and ends at the superficial inguinal ring Contains the Genital Branch of the GenitoFemoral nerve (both M and F) the Spermatic cord (in men) and the round ligament of the uterus and the ilio-inguinal nerve. (in women). Gray's 269, 297

Immediately superior to the preineal membrane there is a thin space containing a layer of skeletal muscles and neurovascular tissue, what is its name?

Deep preineal pouch The deep perineal pouch and the perineal membrane have opening for the urethra and the vagina? (in women) The muscles in the deep perineal pouch are: External Urethral Sphincter Deep transverse perineal muscle In women only: Urethral Compressor Sphincter UrethroVaginalis Levator Ani is found superior to the deep perineal pouch Gray's 429, 459

Where does the contraction of the superior oblique therefore direct the pupil?

Depression, abduction and medial rotation of eyeball Is innervated by CN4 (trochlear) Gray's 937

Which nerves carry BE fibers (SVE fibers)?

Derived from pharyngeal arch mesoderm. Special Motor innervation to skeletal muscles. Mastication 5 Facial Expressions 7 Phonation (making noise) 9 Swallowing 10 CN: 5, 7, 9 and 10 Grays 894 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent_fibers#:~:text=Special%20visceral%20efferent%20fibers%20(SVE,%22%20or%20%22branchial%20efferent%22.

what are the names of the deep nuclei in the cerebellum?

Don't Eat Greasy Food Lateral Dentate - Some fibers end in the Red nucleus most end in the thalamus in the VL nuclei. Leave the cerebellum via the superior cerebellar peduncle. (interposed nuclei output to the red nucleus and VL of the Thalamus) Emboliform Globose (not interposed nuclei) Fastigial - Vestigial cerebellum (Receives purkinje axons the vermis) (sends to Vestibular nuclei and reticular formation) Medial They are found deep within the white matter of the cerebellum Per Brodal 369 - 371

Each lobe of the thymus is organized into smaller lobules that are incompletely separated from each other by connective tissue trabeculae. Each lobule contains what?

Each lobule contains an outer, dark-staining lymphocyte-dense cortex and an inner Medulla containing epithelial cells with pale staining nuclei that allow neg selection of T-Lymphocytes Netter 206

Mammilary gland how many drain into?

Each mammary gland comprises 12-20 irregular lobes, which radiate from the nipple and drain into it by separate lactiferous ducts. *12 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which open independently into the nipple* netter 46 The mammary glands consist of a series of ducts and associated secretory lobules. These converge to form 15 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which open independently onto the nipple. grays 139

the layer of deep fascia separating the membrane lining the abdominal cavity from the fascia covering the deep surface of the muscles of the abdominal wall is referred to as?

ExtraPeratonial Fascia A similar layer of fascia covering the thorax is called EndoThoracic Fascia Gray's 25

In the cerebral cortex, myelination begins shortly before birth, first in motor and sensory areas. The association areas are mainly myelinated during which period after birth?

First 4 months after birth Per Brodal 144

Pyramidal cells of betz

Found in the 5th layer of the cerebral cortex of the primary motor cortex They send their axons via the pyramidal tract specifically the anterior horn.

What forms at the dorsal side of the mesencephalone?

Four small rounded protrusions two on each side of the midline called the colliculi and consist on each side of the superior and inferior colliculus. Superior colliculus: cell group that control reflex movements of the eyes and the head. Inferior Colliculus: relay station in the pathway that brings auditory impulses to awareness Per Brodal 101

Which lobe in the brain is responsible for conscious thinking, fine touch and language capability

Frontal lobe https://biau.org/about-brain-injuries/cognitive-skills-of-the-brain/ per brodal 515

Adventitia of the coronary arteries, what is unique about it?

containing collagen, adipose tissue, and elastic fibers, and a bundles of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle as well as circularly arranged bundles. Coronary arteries are also unique in their high collagen to-elastic fiber ratio, which reflects high tensile strength and relatively low stretchability. They also have 3 tunicas like most other arteries Outer 1. Adventitia 2. Media 3. Intima Inner Netter 183

What is the origin of the short head of biceps brachii muscle?

apex of the Coracoid process of the scapula. Long head originates as a tendon from the supraglanoid tubercle of the scapula. Innervated by the MusculoCutaneous nerve (C5, C6) of the brachial plexus Gray's 732

leaflets of the two semilunar valves are thinner than those of AV valves, all heart valves possess the same basic histologic plan. Each valve leaflet has a central core of?

dense fibrous connective tissue covered externally by endocardium 177 netter

The pelvic splanchnic nerves, which enter the pelvic extensions of the large prevertebral plexus formed around the abdominal aorta, originate from?

from the anterior rami of S2 to S4 These are pelvic splanchnic nerves Distribute to the pelvic and abdominal viscera Gray's 46

Which vertebra levels mark the lower limit of the pharynx and larynx, and the superior limit of the trachea and esophagus?

between CV and CVI, which marks the lower limit of the pharynx and larynx, and the superior limit of the trachea and esophagus. the indentation between the cricoid cartilage of the larynx and the first tracheal ring can be palpated. Gray's 848

With which cells do climbing fibers and mossy fibers synapse within the cerebellum?

both are afferent fibers and excitatory mediated by glutamate. Climbing fibers all come from the inferior olive and end in the Molecular Level to end on purkinje dendrite "climbing the dendrites" but since there are more purkinje cells then inferior olive cells more climbing fibers leave the inferior olive cells. and since the synapsing of one climbing fiber with the one purkinje cell is so elaborate (many synapses) the stimulation from one climbing fiber is strong and complex. other afferent (SpinoCerebellar, VestibuloCerebellar and PontoCerebellar) end up being mossy fibers which end in the granular layer synapsing with Granule Cell Dendrites (plural). The Granule cell dendrites reach multiple purkinje cells (via the parallel fibers) thus mossy fibers can affect many purkinje cells. All the climbing fibers cross to the opposite side and end very differently from the mossy fibers: the fibers ascend directly to the molecular layer and divide into several branches, each "climbing" along a Purkinje cell dendrite (Figs. 24.12 and 24.13). As they climb, they form numerous synapses with the dendrites. Each Purkinje cell receives branches from only one climbing fiber (i.e., from only one cell in the inferior olive). per brodal 367

When present, postganglionic parasympathetic neurons where are located?

in the walls of the target viscera Gray's 46

What is the Levator Ani? What muscles does it comprise of?

is a thin muscle that forms the pelvic floor. it comprises of 3 muscles: Iliococcygeus muscle Pubococcygeus muscle Puborectalis muscle It's innervated by the Pudendal Nerve It marks the limit between the pelvic cavity and the perineum Gray's 502

The mesentery is a fold of peritoneum that connect the jejunum and ileum to the posterior abdominal wall. Where is its superior attachment?

is at the duodenojejunal junction, just to the left of the upper lumbar part of the vertebral column. It passes obliquely downward and to the right, ending at the ileocecal junction near the upper border of the right sacro-iliac joint. jejnuduodenal ligament 309 Gray's

Adventitia consists of?

is the outer thickest layer of collagen, vasa vasorum (network of small blood vessels that supply the walls of large blood vessels), and elastic fibers and a bundles of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle as well as circularly arranged bundles surrounding an organ. The outer layer of connective tissue that surrounds an artery, or vein. Outer inner Adventitia, Media and Intima Netter 181, 182.

The lateral cord of brachial plexus is lateral to which part of axillary artery?

it is positioned lateral to the second part of the axillary artery Gray's 739

The thoracolumbar fascia superiorly, it passes anteriorly to what and is continuous with?

it passes anteriorly to serratus posterior muscle and is continuous with the deep fascia of the neck Gray's 92

What are the muscles of the abdomin?

lateral to the vertebral column (posterior): quadratus lumborum T12-L4, psoas major (L1-L3) and iliacus muscles (branches of Femoral Nerve L2-L3). Lateral parts of the abdomen: Transversus abdominis, internal and external oblique. (T7-L1) Anteriorly: rectus abdominis (T7-T12) (Grays 259)

how does light travel to the eye etc?

light reaches the retina where there are rods (low light found peripherally in the eye) and cones (color mostly in the macula? found centrally) (these are photoreceptors). These receptors pass the signal to bipolar cells that pass to ganglion with axons that travel through the retina to the back of the eye where they form together the optic nerve (CN2) exiting the retina via the optic disk. The are it exits has no photoreceptors so it's the blind spot (which the other eye can cover) Next it reaches the optic chiasm where both the nasal axons of the retina cross over but not the temporal axons all together they form 2 optic tracts which synapse with the lateral geniculate nucleus of both thalamuses. From the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus optic radiations arise reaching the primary visual cortex located in the occipital lobe.

The lymph node medulla is a pale-staining area that varies in width and abuts the hilum, or concave surface, of the node. It contains irregular strands of loosely arranged lymphoid tissue forming?

medullary cords, which consist mainly of lymphocytes, macrophages, and plasma cells. 201 netter

Where does the thoracic duct start? where does it end?

It begins as a confluence of lymph trunks in the abdomen sometimes forming a saccular (small pouch) called cisterna chyli (drains abdominal viscera and wall, pelvis perineum and lower limbs). Ascends left of the esophagus and terminates in the junction between the left internal jugular and subclavian vein Gray's 227, 1037

The wall of the peritoneal cavity consists of what?

It consists of the parietal peritoneum, which lines the wall of the abdominal cavity. The visceral peritoneum lines the organs. Between these two layers is a potential space that is called the peritoneal cavity. The peritoneum wall consist of a single layer of mesothelial cells.

The accessory hemiazygos in the superior portion of the posterior mediastinum to vertebral level TVIII, what it does?

It cross to the vertebral column to the right side to join the azygos vein. Or the hemiazygus vein Usually also to the left superior intercostal vein Gray's 227

The Superior Sagittal Sinus divides into 2 parts at the area where the Falx Cerebri meets the Cerebellar Tentorium. What are they called?

It divides in the area called the Confluence of Sinuses into the Transverse Sinus Per Brodal 127

To which nodes does the lymphatic drainage of the esophagus go?

It goes to the Posterior Mediastinal (Located posterior to the heart and anterior to the spinal cord) and Left Gastric Nodes (Found on the small curvature of the stomach) Gray's 223

What are the 9 regions of the abdomen?

L and R above the SubCostal plane are the Hypochondriac Regions. R - Liver, Hepatic Flexure. L - Splenic Flexure. In the middle is the epigastric region L and R below the SubCostal Plane are the Lumbar Regions (Flanks) with the umbilical region in the middle. L and R below the InterTubercular Plane are the Left and Right Iliac Regions (Groin) with the HypoGastric (Pubic) in the middle. The L/R are separated by the MidClavicular Plans Gray's 278

Where the thin afferent fibers (the majority from nociceptors and thermoreceptors) from the skin end mainly in laminae I and II, corresponding fibers from viscera appear to end almost exclusively in which laminae?

Lamina I and to some extent lamina V Per Brodal 203

In the lumbar region, between the posterior components of adjacent vertebral arches exist what?

Large gaps which are found between adjacent lamina and spinous become larger between LI and LV these spaces can be widened by flexion of the vertebral column. These gaps allow relatively easy access for clinical procedures (Spinal tap? Epidural?) Gray's 73

The cubital fossa is an important area of transition between the arm and forearm. It is located anterior to the elbow joint and is a triangular depression formed between two forearm muscles. Which ones?

Lateral Brachioradialis which is innervated by the Radial Nerve (C5, C6) Medial pronator teres which is innervated by the median nerve (C6, C7) origin is Humeral head/ Ulnar head. Crosses the Radius over the Ulna 768 Gray's

The fibers originating from the lateral vestibular nucleus forms which tract?

Lateral Vestibulospinal tract. Per Brodal 273 Descending fibers from the vestibular nucleus form the vestibular spino tract reaching extensior muscles specifically because they are related to the muscles that allow us to stand.

The musculocutaneous nerve terminates in the fore arm as which structure?

Lateral cutenus nerve of the forearm

What goes through the Cubital Fossa?

Lateral to Medial: Tendon of Biceps Brachii, Brachial Artery and the Median nerve Gray's 768, 822

White part lateral to the thalamus?

Lateral to the thalamus lies a thick sheet of white matter, the internal capsule (capsula interna). It consists mainly of fiber tracts connecting the cerebral cortex with the thalamus, the brain stem, and the spinal cord, among them the pyramidal tract. Per Brodal 102

Which layer of cerebellar cortex only contains dendrites and axons and only few call bodies?

Layar 1 / molecular level Netter 121

BrachioCephalic Vein plexus: Where is it located? What structures are in its area? What drains into it? Where does it drain into?

Location: The Left and Right BrachioCephalic Veins are located posterior to the Thymus. Form in the junction between the Internal Jugular and the SubClavian Vein. The Left BrachioCephalic Vein crosses the midline and joins the RIght BrachioCephalic Vein to form the Superior Vena Cava. Drain into it: 1. Vertebral Vein And the 3 IT's 2. Internal Thoracic Vein 3. Inferior Thyroid Vein 4. Inferior Thymic Vein Left might receive PeriCardial Gray's 213

What is the origin of external oblique muscle?

Muscular slips of lower eight ribs (ribs 5-12) Gray's 286

Part of the cns that isn't myelinated at first when does it complete?

Mylanation of the pyramids is fully done by the second year after birth (Pg 129 per bordal)

Retrograde transport of what is important for nerve growth and function?

NGF (Nerve Growth Factor) which is a part of the neurotrophin family which also includes Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor BDNF Per Brodal 143

How does the innervation of the tongue work?

Nearly all the muscles are innervated by Hypoglossal CN XII Anterior 2/3 portions Sensations by CNV (Trigeminal) (Lingual branch of V3) Anterior 2/3 portions Taste by CNVI (Facial) (tympani branch) Posterior 1/3 Taste and Sensation by CNIX (Glossopharyngeal)

Where are there lymph node clusters?

Neck (PeriCranial and Cervical Nodes) Groin (Inguinal and Femoral) Abdomen (Deep Nodes) Axilla (Axillary Nodes) Thorax (Tracheal Nodes) Gray's 30

What are the thickenings of the neural tube called?

Neural Plate (Alar and Basal?) Per Brodal 133

Which Glial Cells have short processes?

OligoDendrocytes. They also produce the myelin sheaths in the CNS (Schwann cells produce myelin sheaths in the PNS) Per Brodal 34

On passing through the foramen, branches of the ulnar nerve innervate which structure?

On passing through the forearm, branches of the ulnar nerve innervate the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and the medial half of the flexor digitorum profundus muscle. Gray's 742

Numerous small openings are scattered along the walls of the right atrium these are?

Openings of the smallest cardiac veins (the foramina of the venae cordis minimae). They drain the myocardium directly into the right atrium. Gray's 192

Trapezius Insertion Origin Innervation and supply?

Origin: Superior Nuchal Line, External Occipital Protuberance, Spinous Processes of C7-T12? Insertion: Acromion of Scapula. Innervation: Accessory Nerve Gray's 714

The iliohypogastric nerve pass superficial to which muscle?

Originates from the Lumbar Plexus Transverse abdominis Not sure what the questions or answer is so gray's 400: passes anterior of the quadratus lumborum muscle. pierces the transverse abdominis muscle Continues anteriorly between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles. Must revise this question! I think it just passes superficial to the Transverse Abdominis

The trigeminal ganglion is located on the anterior part of which bone?

Temporal bone in the petrous part specifically in the trigeminal depression in a dural cave (trigeminal cave) Gray's 898

Components of the system have different arrangements: diffuse subepithelial lymphocyte aggregates are the most ubiquitous and occur throughout gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts. More densely packed, spherical clusters of lymphocytes called?

So essentially I think he is talking about *MALT* (Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue) But the clusters he is talking about are lymphoid nodules (or follicles) 196 netter Trick question not sure what the answer is..

The pterion is the meeting point of which bones?

Sphenoid, Temporal, Frontal and parietal.

An alternative is an open system: Remaining open-ended capillaries discharge blood freely into the intersinusoidal meshwork, so blood seeps out and percolates slowly between?

Splenic cords Netter 212

What becomes the trabeculae veins in the spleen when they merge?

Splenic vein, which leave the organ at the hilum The Splenic vein drains into the hepatic portal Netter 212

Lymph is first delivered to a narrow channel just under the capsule of the lymph node. This area is called?

SubCapsular Sinus (Or Marginal Sinus) Netter 201

Name the cells you'd expect to find in the following: SubMandibular SubLingual ParOtid Lacrimal Minor Salivary (buccal) Gland

SubMandibular: Serous (mostly) + Mucous SubLingual: Serous + Mucous (Mostly) ParOtid: Serous and Adipose Lacrimal: Serous Minor Salivary (buccal) Gland: Serous + Skeletal Muscles

what are the 3 layers of the cerebellum?

Superficial 1. molecular - mainly dendrites and axons (a few cell bodies) 2. purkinje - large purkinje cells 3. granular - packed with granular cells Deep The axons of the granular cells ascend through the purkinje layer into the molecular layer and split into two laterally these branches are called parallel fibers which form synapses with purkinje cells. per brodal 365

The suprapleural membrane attaches to what Laterally, Posteriorly and Superiorly?

Superiorly: scalene muscle (lateral muscles in the neck) Posterior: Transverse process of C7 vertebra. Laterally: Medial margin of Rib 1 (164-165 Gray's)

What does passes through the supraorbital, infraorbital and mental foramen?

Supra-Orbital foramen: Supraorbital nerves (Branch of the frontal nerve (along with the supratrochlear nerve which exits through the trochlea notch). The Frontal Nerve which is a branch of the ophthalmic nerve) and vessels (artery and vein) supplying the upper eyelid and conjunctiva, the forehead, and as far posteriorly as the middle of the scalp. Infra-Orbital foramen: Infraorbital Nerve (continuation of the maxillary nerve) leaves the pterygopalatine fossa through the infraorbital fissure reaches the infraorbital groove then and while there gives origin to the middle and anterior superior alveolar nerves, respectively, which ultimately join the superior alveolar plexus to supply the upper teeth. After it exits the InfraOrbital Foramen it gives origin to 3 nerves: 1. Nasal branches supply skin over the lateral aspect of the external nose and part of the nasal septum. 2. Palpebral branches supply skin of the lower eyelid. 3. Superior labial branches supply skin over the cheek and upper lip, and the related oral mucosa. Mental Foramen: Mental nerve (A branch of the mandibular nerve) and vessels. The mental nerve innervates the chain and lower lip and associated mucosa . Mental artery supplies the chain. Grays 856, 996, 1116, 1118

What is the Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia consists of several large nuclei in the interior of the cerebral hemispheres. Caudate nucleus, Putamen and Globus Pallidus. It's located between the internal capsule and the Clastrum. The striatum consists of putamen, caudate nucleus receives afferents from the cerebral cortex sending efferents to the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra. (per brodal 88) Also SubThalamic nuclei Lentiform = Putamen + Globus Pallidus (the substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus aren't anatomically grouped with the basal ganglia but it is functionally associated with it) Input from the cerebral cortex (primary motor area, somatosensory etc) (corticospinal + Corticobulbar) -> Caudate Nucleus/ Putamen -> globus pallidus and the substantia nigra. which have efferent fibers to the cerebral cortex and BS via the Thalamus (the CC not the BS) (VentroAnterior (VA), VentroLateral (VL), Dorso Medial nuclei of the thalamus) There are 2 pathways direct (allows movement) and indirect (Inhibits movement) direct: inhibits the globus pallidus (int) (which usually inhibits the thalamus) allowing the thalamus to allow movement. Along with the Substantia which increases the inhibition of the Globus Pallidus. indirect involving the subthalamic nuclei. The Striatum inhibits the Ext Globus Pallidus (which inhibits the Subthalamic nuclei) The SubThalamic nuclei activate the Int Globus Pallidus (which in turn inhibits the thalamus) So in the indirect pathway the striatum inhibits the inhibition of the subthalamus so it can activate the globus pallidus preventing the thalamus from working (this is a balance of signals) Per brodal 339 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mmev06nabvk&ab_channel=khanacademymedicine https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZer0w7foLg&ab_channel=khanacademymedicine

Which parts of the colon are secondary retroperitoneal?

The colon extends superiorly from the cecum and consists of the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon (Fig. 4.88). Its ascending and descending segments are (secondarily) retroperitoneal and its transverse and sigmoid segments are intraperitoneal Gray's 322

Differences in CSF and blood in quantity of plasmatic proteins?

The concentration of sodium, potassium, and several other ions is about the same in the CSF as in the blood (there are some minor differences, however). The concentration of glucose is about 2/3 that in the blood. A major difference concerns proteins: there is normally very little protein in the CSF (less than 0.5% of the plasma protein concentration). Per Brodal 116

Where does the coracobrachialis muscle insert?

The coracobrachialis muscle, together with the short head of the biceps brachii muscle, originates from the apex of the coracoid process (Fig. 7.48). It passes vertically through the axilla to insert on a small linear roughening on the medial aspect of the humerus, approximately midshaft. Innervation - musculocutaneous nerve C5, C6, C7. Gray's 704

The deep petrosal nerve is formed by postganglionic sympathetic fibers that originate where? What plexus do these fibers form?

The deep petrosal nerve is formed by postganglionic sympathetic fibers that originate in the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion in the neck and leave the ganglion as the internal carotid nerve. Preganglionic fibers that synapse in the ganglion are from the T1 spinal nerve. The internal carotid nerve forms the internal carotid plexus around the internal carotid artery as the internal carotid artery passes through the skull and into the cranial cavity. ● Schematic: Preganglionic sympathetic nerves from T1→superior cervical sympathetic ganglion →(postganglionic) internal carotid nerve→internal carotid plexus→ deep petrosal nerve. Gray's 997

In the spinal cord the venous blood is collected in a venous plexus at the surface of the cord. This plexus empties into another, larger plexus at the surface of the dura, which?

The venous blood is collected in a venous plexus at the surface of the cord. This plexus empties into another, larger plexus at the surface of the dura, the epidural plexus. From there the blood is emptied into veins outside the vertebral canal. Per Brodal 128

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers that enter a paravertebral ganglion through a?

The preganglionic sympathetic fibers leave the spinal nerve as a small bundle called the white communicating ramus (branch), which connects the nerve with the sympathetic trunk (Figs. 28.5 and 28.6). Post ganglionic via Gray Communicating ramus Per Brodal 433 Gray's 41

What is the origin of pronator teres?

The pronator teres muscle originates from the medial epicondyle and supraepicondylar ridge of the humerus and from a small linear region on the medial edge of the coronoid process of the ulna. And is innervated by the median nerve Gray's 777

In the pelvic cavity in women, the uterine artery crosses?

The ureter lateral to the cervix of the uterus. In men the ductus deferens crosses the ureter. Gray's 435

How are the right and left pulmonary lobes divided?

the right lung has 3 lobes. 1. Upper 2. Middle 3. Lower Upper and Middle are divided by the horizontal fissure. Middle and Lower are divided by the oblique fissure. The left lung has 2 lobes. upper and lower which are divided by the oblique fissure.

3. What are the boundaries of the orbital fossa?

● Boundaries: - Roof: 1.frontal bone (orbital surface). 2.sphenoid bone (lesser wing) - Lateral: 1. sphenoid bone (greater wing). 2. zygomatic bone. - Floor: 1. zygomatic bone. 2. palatine bone. 3 .maxilla bone (orbital surface) - Medial: 1.maxilla bone (frontal process). 2.ethmoid bone(orbital plate). 3.lacrimal bone. 4. sphenoid bone (small part) Gray's 927

C and A delta (δ) fibers end in which lamina of the dorsal horn?

● Mainly 1 and 2 (substantia gelatinosa), and part of 5 ● Thin Aδ and C fibers conducting signals from nociceptors end almost exclusively in the dorsal most parts of the dorsal horn, in laminae I and II (substantia gelatinosa), but to some extent the Aδ fibers also terminate in lamina V. Per brodal 201

What are the branches of the ulnar artery in the forearm?

● Muscular arteries ● Ulnar recurrent artery (with anterior and posterior branches) ● Common interosseous artery (branch to anterior and posterior) ● Dorsal Carpal + Palmar Carpal arteries. ● "Men Use Common DCPC" Gray's 782

Palatine tonsils are almond-shaped masses, 1-2.5 cm in diameter. Their free surfaces are covered by what that help to increase surface area?

nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

In the spleen, White pulp is made of grayish white islands of lymphoid tissue, most surrounding a central arteriole to form what?

periarteriolar lymphatic sheaths (PALS)

Although many axons in the CNS remain unmyelinated, the process of myelination is clearly related to functional maturation of neural interconnections. Full functional capacity cannot be expected before myelination is completed. In the spinal cord, myelination starts in the cervical region and proceeds in the caudal direction. Which fibers are the first to be myelinated?

propriospinal fibers (interconnecting various spinal segments). Ventral root motor fibers are myelinated earlier than the dorsal root sensory fibers. 144 brodal

The spleen is covered by an outer dense irregular connective tissue capsule, which sends what into the organ's interior?

radiating trabeculae (210 netter)

In the neural tube, a ventrally directed bend- the cervical flexure- arises at the junction between which structures?

rhombencephalon and the spinal cord per brodal 133

How is the horizontal plane that through the highest point on the iliac crests, passes through the spine and body of the LIV vertebra called?

supracristal plane Gray's 405

Synovial joints are connections between skeletal components where?

the elements involved are separated by a narrow articulating cavity (the synovial cavity) Gray's 18

The two foramen the connect the right and left ventricles in the brain are called?

the interventricular foramen (foramen of monro) The one between the 3rd and 4th Aqueduct of Sylvius

The single deep dorsal vein drains where?

This vein passes directly into the pelvic cavity through a gap formed between the arcuate pubic ligament and the anterior margin of the perineal membrane. The vein joins the prostatic plexus of veins in men and the vesical (bladder) plexus of veins in women. Gray's 501

How many points of articulation does a vertebrae have?

Thoracic 10 Total: 2x Superior Articulating Process (inferior articulating facet) 2x Inferior Articulating Process (Superior Articulating Facet) 2x Intervertebral Symphysis 2x Superior Costal Facets (Head of the Rib) 2x Inferior Costal Facets (Head of the Rib) [2x Transverse Costal Facet (Trabecule of the rib CostoVertebral Joint) In the area of the vertebral body we have posteriorly the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament. On the Anterior part of the vertebral body we have the Anterior Longitudinal Ligament https://www.spineuniverse.com/displaygraphic.php/3759/ligaments-BB.jpg

from where do the intercostal arteries arise? What is VAN? from where does it originate?

Thoracic Aorta (posterior to the mediastinum) [Supplies the posterior intercostal arteries] SubClavian -> Internal Thoracic Arteries (which run lateral to the sternum) [Anterior intercostal arteries]. Upper 2 posterior intercostal arteries derived from the supreme intercostal artery which originates from the costocervical trunk. Vein, Artery, Nerve originating from the top of the rib down. The nerve originates from the anterior rami of the corresponding spinal nerve. The veins drain into the azygos system (azygos on the right and hemiazygos on the left) and anteriorly into the internal thoracic veins. Gray's 155 - 156

What leaves the skull with the Vagus and GlossoPharyngeal nerves?

Through the Jugular Foramen Pass (found posterior to the carotid canal and the petrous portion of the temporal bone and anterior to the occipital bone): CN9, 10, 11 Sigmoid Sinus.

Lymph nodes are bean- or kidney-shaped lymphoid organs, An outer capsule of dense fibrous connective tissue , it sends into the interior of the nodes, forming?

Trabeculae 199 netter Maybe means :"internal stroma of reticular fibers"?

Which muscles form the rotator cuff?

1. Supraspinatus 2. Infraspinatus 3. teres minor 4. subscapularis (Gray's 709)

All muscles of the larynx are innervated by (1) except the (2) which is innervated by (3)

1 the recurrent laryngeal branches of vagus nerve 2 cricothyroid muscle 3 superior laryngeal branches of the vagus nerve. Gray's 1062

Where are the CN located in the Brain Stem?

1-2 in the cerebrum 3-4 Midbrain (mesencephalon) (3 is in the midbrain ponto junction) 5-8 Pons 6-8 junction between pons and medulla 9-12 Medulla Oblongata

Name the two recesses of the pleural cavity.

1. CostoMediastinal recess. 2. CostoDiaphragmatic recess - the most clinically important found between the costal pleura and the diaphragmatic pleura Found between rib 6 anteriorly (mid clavicular line) 8 laterally (mid axillary line) and 10 posteriorly Gray's 166

What are the derivatives of the foregut?

1. Distal end of esophagus 2. Stomach 3. proximal part of duodenum (1st and 2nd?) 4. Liver and gallbladder 5. Pancreas (Gray's 265)

what are the 4 apertures of communication between the lower limb and other regions

1. Greater Sciatic foramen [Posteriorly] (communicates Pelvic Cavity and Gluteal region) [Muscles: Piriformis. Nerves: Sciatic, Sup and Inf Gluteal, Pudendal. Vessels: Sup and Inf Gluteal A and V, Internal Pudendal Artery] 2. Obturator canal [Anteriorly] (communicates Pelvis and Thigh) [Obturator Nerve, Artery and Vein] 3. Lesser Sciatic Foramen (communicates Perineum and Gluteal) [Tendon of obturator Internus Muscle] [Internal Pudendal Artery and Nerve] 4. inguinal ligament and pelvic bone gap (communicates abdomen and lower limb) [Muscles: Psoas Major, Iliacus and Pectineus. [Nerves: Femoral, Femoral branch of the genitofemoral nerve, Lateral Cutaneous nerve of the thigh] [Vessels: Femoral Artery and Vein] Gray's 545, 563

At what level do the caval and portal venous systems come into contact with one another?

1. Inferior end of esophagus 2. Inferior part of rectum 3. Veins that cover the degenerate umbilical vein (round ligament of the liver) 4. Where the wall of the gastrointestinal tract comes into contact with the posterior abdominal wall Grays 275

Passage of food from the mouth to the Anus?

1. Mouth <- Salivary Glands (ParOtid, SubMandibular, SubLingual) 2. Pharynx 3. Esophagus 4. Stomach 5. Duodenum <- (Pancreas, Liver + GallBladder) [Via Major Papilla] 6. Jejunum 7. Ileum 8. Cecum 9.Ascending Colon 10. Transverse Colon 11. Descending Colon 12. Sigmoid Colon 13. Rectum 14. Anus

What are the 3 main arteries supplying the cerebellum?

1. Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery (PICA) - Lateral part of the medulla and inferior portion of the cerebellar hemispheres. Originates from the VA. 2. Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery (AICA) - Lateral part of the Pons and part of the Cerebellum. Part of the pons and mesencephalon. 3. Superior Cerebellar Artery (SCA) - Dorsal part of the cerebellum, pons and mesencephalon. Per Brodal 124 - 125

What does a nephron consist of?

1. Renal Corpuscle (Glomerular Capillaries in the bowman capsule) 2. Proximal Tubule 3. Loop of Henle 4. Distal Tubule Nephrons then empty into collecting ducts (Netter 360)

Which muscles are innervated by L4-S2?

1. Short head of the bicep Femoris in the posterior compartment of the thigh 2. muscles of the anterior and lateral compartment of the leg (Tibialis anterior, Extensor digitorum longus, Extensor hallucis longus, Fibularis tertius) 3. Extensor digitorum brevis (Gray's 489)

What are the names of the planes of the abdomen?

1. Transpyloric Plane - Cuts midway between the jugular notch and the pubic symphysis (Cuts L1). (pylorus is the entrance of the stomach to the duodenum). 2. SubCostal plane - Between the lower costal margin (10th) crosses L3 (right above the umbilicus which crosses between L3 and L4) 3. Supracristal plane - plane passing from the highest point of iliac fossa and L4. 4. InterTubercular Plane - Passes through the tubercles of the iliac crest (cross L5) Gray's 404 - 405

Epithelium in the tonsils forms what structure that increase the surface area?

10-20 deep invaginations, or tonsillar crypts.

Where do the intercostal veins drain?

1st-4th posterior intercostal can come together to form the superior intercostal Vein draining into the BrachioCephalic vein 5th-12th levels of the 2 Posterior Intercostal Veins into the azygos (on the right side) or inferior hemiazygos (on the left side), the 1 Anterior Intercostal Vein to the internal thoracic -> BrachioCephalic and musculophrenic So they can go both directions! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8leROI0Ud44&ab_channel=TheNotedAnatomist Gray's 156, 227

Name the 4 valves of the heart

2 atrioventricular valves Mitral Valve (bicuspid valve) - between the left atrium and ventricle. Closed during ventricular contraction. Has 2 cusps Anterior and Posterior cusps. Tricuspid Valve - Between the right atrium and ventricle. closed during ventricular contraction. Anterior, Septal and posterior cusps 2 semilunar valves: Pulmonary valve - Between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk (has 3 semilunar cups Left, anterior and right with a middle thickening Nodule and thin lateral part lunula) Aortic Valve - has 3 semilunar cusps (left, posterior and right). The left and right cusps have openings for their respective coronary arteries. Gray's 193

Name the ligaments of the atlas

2x Superior Articulating Facet (articulare with 2x Occipital Condyles) Forming the Atlanto-Occipital Joint. 2x Inferior Articulating Facet (with 2x superior articulating facet of Axis) Forming the Atlantoaxial Joint. The inner trabeculae on the lateral masses of the atlas allows the transverse ligament of the atlas (part of the cruciate ligament of atlas) The Anterior portion of the Foramen Magnum has the tectorial membrane which is a continuation of the posterior longitudinal ligament. The Alar Ligaments Connect the Dens to the medial surface of the Occipital Condyles The Anterior Arch allows connection to the Anterior Atlanto-Occipital Membrane Posterior Trabeculae allows connection of the Ligamentum Nuchae to the External Occipital Protuberance The Inferior portion of the Posterior Arch allows the last Ligament Flave to connect (is found between vertebrae on the lateral part of the spinous process) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RRQFwVjrQA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jpePVqwzm8&ab_channel=ATSUCO2014 Gray's 844, 70.

What are the skeletal elements of the abdominal wall

5 lumbar vertebrae superior portion of the pelvic bones (superior portion of the spinal ilia costal margin of rib 12 and the end of rib 11. xiphoid process (Grays 259)

What is the Pulvinar

A structure found in the posterior portion of the Thalamus and it's related to Sight. Per Brodal 253

the free superior edge of each cusp has a middle? and lateral?

At the apex of the infundibulum, the outflow tract of the right ventricle, the opening into the pulmonary trunk is closed by the pulmonary valve which consists of three semilunar cusps with free edges projecting upward into the lumen of the pulmonary trunk. The free superior edge of each cusp has a middle, thickened portion, the nodule of the semilunar cusp, and a thin lateral portion, the lunula of the semilunar cusp. The cusps are named the left, right, and anterior semilunar cusps, relative to their fetal position before rotation of the outflow tracts from the ventricles is complete. Each cusp forms a pocket-like sinus a dilation in the wall of the initial portion of the pulmonary trunk. After ventricular contraction, the recoil of blood fills these pulmonary sinuses and forces the cusps closed. This prevents blood in the pulmonary trunk from refilling the right ventricle. Gray's 193

At the elbow, what connects the basilic and cephalic veins?

At the elbow, the cephalic and basilic veins are connected by the median cubital vein, which crosses the roof of the cubital fossa. Gray's 700

At the geniculate ganglion, the facial nerve turns and gives off the?

At the geniculate ganglion the facial nerve [VII] turns and gives off the greater petrosal nerve, which carries mainly preganglionic parasympathetic (GVE) fibers of glands above the oral fissure: Mucous glands in the nasal cavity Salivary glands in the upper half of the oral cavity Lacrimal gland in the orbit. Gray's 899

Axillary Artery: Location? What drains into them and where do they drain into?

Axillary Artery is a continuation of the SubClavian Artery and starts at the lateral margin of rib 1 and is found in the area of the pectoralis minor Supplies the axilla and related regions as well as the upper limb becoming the Brachial Artery at the area of Teres Major. 6 Branches: 1. Superior Thoracic Artery 2. Thoraco-Acromial (Supplies the Breast) 3. Lateral Thoracic (Supplies Breast) 4. SubScapular (Posterior of Scapula) 5. Anterior Circumflex Humeral (Supplies GlenoHumeral Joint) 6. Posterior Circumflex Humeral (Muscles of GlenoHumeral Joint) Gray's 733

Axillary Vein: Location? What drains into them and where do they drain into?

Axillary Vein: Starts at the lower margin of Teres Major. Is the continuation of the Basilic (drains the PosteroMedial surface of the hand and forearm.), Cephalic (AnteroLateral portion of the arm?) and Brachial veins which It then becomes the SubClavian vein Grays 736

Azygos System: What does it consist of? Where do they drain from and to? What are the structures in the area?

Azygos On the right side. Structures: Arises opposite L1/L2 from the junction between the Right Ascending Lumbar Vein and the Right SubCostal Vein (Below the right 12th rib). Enters the thorax through the Aortic Hiatus, Through the Posterior Mediastinum to the right of the Thoracic duct at T4 it arches Anteriorly over the Root of the right Lung to join the Superior Vena Cava. Drain into it: 1. Right Superior Intercostal Vein (junction of 1st-4th intercostal veins) 2. 5th-11th Posterior Intercostal Veins 3. HemiAzygos and Superior HemiAzygos 4.Esophageal veins 5. PeriCardial Veins 6. Mediastinal Veins Superior HemiAzygos (accessory HemiAzygos) (superior left). Structures: Descends on the left Superior Mediastinum to T8 then crosses the Vertebral Column to connect with the Azygos Vein Drain into it: 1. 4th - 8th Posterior InterCostal Veins HemiAzygos/ Inferior HemiAzygos (inferior Left) Structures: Ascends from the junction of the Left Ascending Lumbar Vein and the Left SubCostal Vein enters the thorax through the Aortic Hiatus then through the Posterior Mediastinum to T9 where it crosses the Vertebral Column (posterior to the Aorta, Esophagus and Thoracic Duct) to connect with the Azygos) Drain into it: 1. Left Renal Vein 2. Lower 5-4 Posterior InterCostal Veins (7th-12th Posterior InterCostal Veins) 3. Mediastinal Veins Gray's 227

Vagus nerve innervate all muscles of soft palate except? And what innervate it? The BE fibers of the Vagus nerve (X) innervate the muscles of the soft palate except for one. Which one?

BE fibers are Branchial Efferent fibers AKA as SVE (Special Visceral Efferent) and they provide efferent motor signals to the muscles of the pharyngeal arches. the muscles of the Soft palate except for: Tensor veli palatini, which is innervated by a branch of the mandibular nerve the muscles in the Pharynx except for: Stylopharyngeus innervated by the glossopharyngeal Gray's 900, 1088

In the fourth week, the proliferation of neuroblasts in the mantle zone produces a large ventral thickening and a smaller dorsal one on each side of the neural tube. These thickenings are called?

Basal plates and alar plates, respectively. 137/122 brodal Basal (ventral) later gives rise to the motor neurons Alar (dorsal) later gives rise to the sensory neurons

The lateral plantar artery joins with the terminal end of the dorsalis pedis artery to form which structure?

Between the bases of metatarsals I and II, the deep plantar arch joins deep plantar artery of the dorsalis pedis artery, which enters the sole from the dorsal side of the foot. G653??????? Scheme: Posterior tibial artery -> lateral plantar artery -> deep plantar artery -> dorsalis pedis artery -> anterior tibial artery. Anterior tibial artery -> dorsalis pedis artery -> lateral tibial artery ->posterior tibial artery.

where is the uterus located?

Between the rectum and the bladder. Gray's 429

Which cells connect the rods and cones to the ganglion cells?

Bipolar Cells

What does the major duodenal papillary transport? and to where?

Common entrance for the bile duct and pancreatic duct Gray's 312-313

Name the ascending tracts

Conscious tracts - comprised of the dorsal column aka medial lemniscal pathway and the anterolateral system aka SpinoThalamic Tract 1. AnteroLateral Tract (STT SpinoThalamic Tract) Can be split into anterior and lateral. 2. Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscus Unconscious tracts - comprised of the spinocerebellar tracts. 1. Posterior spinocerebellar tract - Carries proprioceptive information from the lower limbs to the ipsilateral cerebellum. enters the cerebellum via inferior cerebellar peduncle 2. Cuneocerebellar tract - Carries proprioceptive information from the upper limbs to the ipsilateral cerebellum. Cuneo as in accessory cuneate nucleus enters the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle 3. Anterior spinocerebellar tract - Carries proprioceptive information from the lower limbs. The fibres decussate twice - and so terminate in the ipsilateral cerebellum. enters the cerebellum via Superior cerebellar peduncle 4. Rostral spinocerebellar tract - Carries proprioceptive information from the upper limbs to the ipsilateral cerebellum. enters the cerebellum via inferior and superior cerebellar peduncle https://teachmeanatomy.info/neuroanatomy/pathways/ascending-tracts-sensory/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinocerebellar_tract

Erection of penis and clitoris is a vascularized event generated by parasympathetic fibers carried in which nerve?

Erection of the penis and clitoris is a vascular event generated by parasympathetic fibers carried in pelvic splanchnic nerves from the anterior rami of S2 to S4, Enter the inferior hypogastric part of the prevertebral plexus and ultimately pass through the deep perineal pouch and perineal membrane to innervate the erectile tissues. Stimulation of these nerves causes specific arteries in the erectile tissues to relax. This allows blood to fill the tissues, causing the penis and clitoris to become erect. Gray's 508

The esophagus is a flexible, muscular tube that can be compressed or narrowed by surrounding structures at four locations, where?

Esophagus and Pharynx in the neck The superior Mediastinum where it is crossed by the Aortic Arch Posterior mediastinum where it can be compressed by the left main bronchus Posterior Mediastinum where it can be compressed in the esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm Gray's 222

Name the cells you'd expect to find in the following: Esophagus: Stomach: Duodenum: Ileum/Jejunum: Colon:

Esophagus: Stratified Non Keratinized Epithelium Stomach: No Goblet Cells Duodenum: Brunner Glands Ileum/Jejunum: Villi, Goblet Cells, Peyer's patches (ileum only) Colon: Crypts, Goblet Cells. http://www.kumc.edu/instruction/medicine/anatomy/histoweb/gitract/gitract.htm

What are GSE fibers?

General Somatic Efferent fibers. motor innervation to skeletal (voluntary) muscles CN: 3, 4, 6, 11 and 12 Grays 894

What are GVA fibers?

General Visceral Afferent. Sensory input from viscera CN: 9 and 10 Grays 894

What are GVE fibers?

General Visceral efferent. Motor innervation to smooth muscles (heart and glands) CN: 3, 7, 9 and 10 Grays 894

What is lateral to the internal capsule?

Globus Pallidus Putamen Claustrum External Capsule Extreme Capsule

Name the 3 gluteal muscles and their innervation

Gluteus Maximus, Medius and Minimus There innervation is from the L4, L5 and S1.

On the dorsal side of the medulla oblongata (at the caudal level) there are two longitudinal protrusions. what are they called?

Gracile Tubercle and Cuneate Tubercle Per Brodal 100

Where does deep cerebral veins drain to?

Great cerebral vein of Galen (vena cerebri magna) which drain into the straight sinus that drains into the confluence of sinuses that drains into the internal jugular into the SubClavian into the SVC

What area of the lymph node allow lymphocytes to cross?

HEV High endothelial venules 202 netter

What is unique at the thymus that allow us to recognize it at histological slides?

Hassles carpscules. Function unknown other than that they release the cytokine thymic stromal thymopoietin which helps induce CD4+ development. (netter 208)

All muscles of the tongue are innervated by the? except the? which is innervated by the?

Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII). Except the Palatoglossus (CN X) Grays 1077

At what vertebrae does the common carotid artery bifurcates ?

Ibetween CIII and CIV, at approximately the superior border of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx (which can be palpated) and where the major artery on each side of the neck (the common carotid artery) bifurcates into internal and external carotid arteries Gray's 848

Branches of the lumbar plexus include the following main six nerves?

IlioHypoGastric IlioInguinal GenitoFemoral Lateral Cutaneous nerve of the thigh Femoral Obturator nerves Gray's 398

The femoral nerve innervates skin on which part of the thigh? And leg?

Immediately after passing under the inguinal ligament, the femoral nerve (Anterior rami of L2-L4) lies between the lateral portion of the psoas major and the anterior surface of the iliacus. it divides into anterior and posterior branches, which supply muscles of the anterior compartment of the thigh and skin on the anterior and medial aspects of the thigh and on the medial sides of the leg and foot. Gray's ~400

Where is the external urethral sphincter located? What is it's origin, insertion and innervation?

In the membranous part of the urethra specifically in the deep perineal pouch. origin: inferior ramus of the pubis Insertion: surrounds the membranous part of the urethra Innervation: perineal branches of the pudendal nerves (S2-S4) Function: compresses membranous part of urethra and relaxes during micturation. Gray's 459 table 5.3

Name of the artery that follows the optic nerve?

In the orbit the ophthalmic artery initially lies inferior and lateral to the optic nerve. As it passes forward in the orbit, it crosses superior to the optic nerve and proceeds anteriorly on the medial side of the orbit. Gray's 941

Where do the gonads develop?

In the posterior abdominal wall and then get pulled down (scrotum or pelvic cavity) The testes are pulled down by the gubernaculum and the ovaries mostly by the growth in the upper abdominal region. (Grays 269 and http://www.embryology.ch/anglais/ugenital/diffmorpho04.html)

What is the epidural space?

In the vertebral canal the dura mater is separated from the surrounding bone by the extradural (epidural) space. here we can find connective, adipose tissue and venous plexus. Gray's 59

In cervical regions, the zygapophysial joints slope?

Inferiorly from anterior to posterior allowing flexion and extension So zygapophysial joints can also allow extension, flexion and rotation. Gray's 78

What is the name of the venous plexus found around the Dora Meter?

Internal Vertebral Venous Plexus OR the Epidural Plexus (Per Brodal 128) Gray's 59

Define Intraperitoneal, Retroperitoneal and secondary peritoneal

Intraperitoneal are in the peritoneal cavity suspended by mesentery. they are visible when entered also they are mobile: Liver, Spleen, stomach, superior duodenum, ileum, transverse colon, sigmoid colon. Retroperitoneal (not visible) and secondary peritoneal (ascending and descending colon) are within the peritoneal wall (secondary were at first suspended within the peritoneal cavity but then they got covered so they are visible but not mobile). Gray's 260

Pretracheal space lies between what?

Investing layer of cervical fascia (covering the posterior surface of the infrahyoid muscles) and the pretracheal fascia (covering the anterior surface of the trachea and the thyroid gland) Minimum write between the cervical fascia and pretracheal fascia gray's 1003

In each mammary gland separate compound radiate from the nipple and drain into it by separate lactiferous ducts. Which structures are they? and how many are there?

Irregular Lobes which there are 12-20 of them? Each lobe is a separate compound (highly branched) tubuloalveolar gland Netter 46.

Explain the corticobulbar (nuclear) tract

Is a Pyramidal tract UMN innervate LMN in anterior horn of SC This tract originates from upper motor neurons (UMN) located in the lateral aspect of the primary motor cortex. Specifically, this tract originates from the V-th layer of the cerebral cortex, where the giant pyramidal cells of Betz reside. Most of these cell bodies are found in Brodmann area 4 (primary motor), area 6 (premotor cortex), areas 3, 1, 2 (postcentral gyrus) and area 5 (parietal cortex). The arising fibers converge to pass within the corona radiata, the knee "genu" of the internal capsule, then continue inferiorly through the cerebral peduncle of the midbrain, to reach the brainstem. The Corticobulbar tract (medulla) also starts from the motor cortex (where the UMN are) through the Corona Radiata these fibers travel lateral to the CorticoSpinal Tract via the internal capsule anterior limb (Genu) and posterior limb. They reach the midbrain and the internal capsule becomes the cerebral peduncle (specifically the Crus Cerebri) from here they descend further to the CN in the Midbrain, pons and BS/ Medulla. only 50% decussate and then directly synapse with LMN of [CN3, CN4 midbrain] and [CN6 (for Eyes) mCN 5 pons](Muscles of Mastication), 7 (Face muscles), (Pons) CN9 CN10 CN11 (muscles of the neck) and 12 (Tongue movement) (medulla) it also provides to CN 10 in the ambiguus nucleus. All the CN other than 1,2 and 8!

What structures does the angle of louis mark?

Is at T4-T5 level. can use the mnemonic RAT PLANT 2nd Rib (the second costal cartilage articulates with the manubrium of the sternal body) Aortic Arch Trachea bifurcation Pulmonary bifurcation Left recurrent laryngeal looping under the aorta. Ligamentum Arteriosum (2 L's) Azygos Vein draining into the SVC at this level Nerve (cardiac plexus) Thoracic Trunk emptying into the left subclavian that then empties into the left brachiocephalic vein into the SVC.

Above what structures is the thymus found? What other structures are in it's area? Blood Supply and innervation?

Is found in the most Anterior component of the Superior Mediastinum and is posterior to the Manubrium of the Sternum. The Upper portion can reach into the neck as high as the Thyroid and the Lower portion can extend into the anterior Mediastinum over the PeriCardial Sac. Arterial Flow: Small Branches from the Internal Thoracic (Branch of the SubClavian) Venous Drainage: The Left BrachioCephalic Vein Lymphatics: ParaSternal Nodes (Internal Thoracic Arteries) Tracheal Bifurcation Root of the Neck Gray's 210-212

Explain the CorticoSpinal Tract Per brodal 316

Is important for precise voluntary movements. Starts in the Cerebral Cortex in BA4 (Precentral Cortex found in the Precentral Gyrus) and BA6 (Premotor Cortex and Supplementary Motor Area) Also receives fibers from SI (BA 1, 2, 3), SII and BA5 (Posterior Parietal Cortex) All the cell bodies of all the neurons of the pyramidal tract can be found in Cortical fifth layer (V) or (internal pyramidal layer). So they form the Corona Radiata, Enter the internal capsule, descend through the Cerebral Peduncle (crus cerebri), the pons, the medulla where they form the medullary pyramids. here a large majority decussate in the pyramidal decussation and descend through the lateral funicle forming the lateral pyramidal tract which descend to the ventral horn and innervate the muscles of the distal extremities. The uncrossed will form the Ventral CorticoSpinal tract that innervates the Proximal and Axial muscles It is important to note that there is a large amount of variation in how the tract cross! Per Brodal 316 - 321 CorticoSpinal starts in the motor cortex (precentral gyrus in the Frontal Lobe) where the cell bodies of the UMN are. from there through the internal capsule to reach the medullary pyramids in the BS. At the level of the medulla they split. 90% cross (at the pyramidal decussation) and form the lateral CorticoSpinal tract. Remaining 10% form the anterior CorticoSpinal tract (which still doesn't cross) Neurons of the Lateral CerebroSpinal Tract innervate LMN in the AH. Controls the muscles of the Limbs Neurons of the Anterior Cerebral Spinal Tract cross at the level of the SC they innervate and then connect at the AH. Controls the muscle of the Trunk Mnemonic: FIPCA or Flexing Involves Pyramids. Come Again? Frontal lobe Internal capsule Pyramidal Decussation Corticospinal Tract Anterior horn of the spinal cord

How is the spinal cord divided according to Rexed?

It is divided based on 10 layers (laminaes). Per Brodal 94: 1-6: Dorsal Horn 2: Substantia Gelatinosa (Important for pain) 7: Transition between dorsal and ventral (Contain mainly Interneurons) 8: Located medially in the ventral horn. (Contains many neurons that send axons to the other side Commissural Fibers) 9: Columns of motor neurons in the Ventral Horn Classification is related to function. Laminae I to IV - exteroceptive sensation (comprise the dorsal horn) [Touch, pain, hearing sight etc] Laminae II - Substantia Gelatinosa Laminae V - SpinoThalamic tract cells Lamina V -VI -proprioceptive sensation (also dorsal horn) Lamina VII- intermediate zone and relay station between muscle spindle and midbrain [Clark's column] Lamina VIII-IX -contain motor neurons whose axons innervate skeletal muscle (comprise ventral horn) Lamina X-surrounds the central canal and contains neuroglia https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsF8aiaIZAQ&ab_channel=ChenShi Per Brodal 94

Explain the Medial Leminescus (dorsal Column)

It's an ascending tract. 1st order neurons are in the Dorsal Motor Ganglion. They are a collection of neurons from receptors in the skin: Meissner Corpuscles, Merkel Disks, Pacinian corpuscles and ruffini corpuscles, Golgi Tendon Organs, ExtraFusal Fibers and IntraFusal Fibers (Nuclear Bag and Chain Fibers) These fibers reach the Dorsal Root Ganglion (PsudoUniPolar Neurons [PNS -> CNS]) and from there reach the Spinal Cord specifically the Cuneatus Fasciculus (lateral. upper limb and thorax, and neck muscles) and Gracilis Fasciculus (Lower Limb Muscles). The fasciculus reach the nuclei pairs ipsilaterally which are the 2nd order neurons. (Cuneatus Nucleus and Gracilis Nucleus) in the medulla. In the Dorsal Part of the Medulla they decussate in the Internal Arcuate Fibers. From here they reach the thalamus specifically the VentroPosteroLateral Nucleus (VPL). now they are 3rd order neurons that ascend via the posterior limb of the internal capsule and now part of the Corona Radiata they reach the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe (Primary SomatoSensory cortex and the Secondary SomatoSensory Cortex). NinjaNerd

What is clarks column from where to where does it extend?

It's found dorsally in the Spinal Cord from Spinal Nerve C8 down to L2 in Rex Lamina 7.

Where is the substantia nigra located?

It's found in the midbrain Within the tegmentum and is part of the basal ganglia (functionally not anatomically per brodal 339). there are 2 and each is divided into two (pars compacta which is dorsal to the pars reticulata which is ventral) (per brodal 345) Connects mainly to the striatum [putamen, caudate nucleus] (with smaller contingents to the subthalamic nucleus) Per brodal 346 Also sends to the superior colliculus and the pedunculopontine. https://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/know-your-brain-substantia-nigra Lentiform = Putamen + Globus Pallidus

Which are the most lateral anterior and posterior structures that delimit the perineal region?

It's the lower area of the perineum so Outlet! Lateral Ischialtuberosity and ischialpubic ramus Posterior tip of coccyx Anteriorly Pubic symphysis Gray's 426

What are the margins of the Caudate Lobe of the Liver?

It's visible on the posterior portion of the liver and is between the right and left lobes of the liver (not part of them) on the left it's bounded by the fissure of ligamentum venosum on the right by the groove of the Inferior Vena Cava Gray's 331

The lymphatic drainage of the pelvis goes to which lymph nodes?

Lymphatics of most pelvic viscera drain into nodes associated with the internal and external iliac arteries. From there into lateral aortic or lumbar nodes associated with the abdominal aorta. Then the lateral aortic or lumbar nodes empty into the origin of the thoracic duct at the level of TXII. The thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian and left internal jugular vein Gray's 501

The tract between the mamillary bodies and the thalamus is called?

MammilloThalamic Tract Per Brodal 460

Which muscles are found within the deep perineal pouch?

Maximum of 4 in women and 2 in men 1. External Urethral Muscle 2. Deep Transverse Perineal 3. Compressor Urethrae 4. Sphincter UrethroVaginalis Grays 459

What innervates the flexor digitorum superficialis muscle of the upper limb?

Median nerve Gray's 784

Explain the MedullaryReticular Spinal Tract

Medullary Reticular Spinal Tract (Also part of corticoreticulospinal pathway) (lateral) (Extremities muscles) the reticular formation Receives input from the corticoreticular fibers (which originate from BA 4 Primary Motor Cortex and BA 6 Premotor cortex and Supplementary motor area) and from Cerebellum, Basal Ganglia and Vestibular nuclei. descends via the Lateral Funical (anterior part of it) reaches the anterior/ medial portion of the gray matter (Lamina 7 and 9) and synapses with IN which then synapse with motor neurons Alpha and Gamma. activates flexor muscles (like rubrospinal and opposite of vestibular and pontoreticular). In short: ContraLateral, AnteroLateral Funiculus, inhibits pontine reticular spinal cord, arise in the medial zone of the reticular formation in the medulla. https://brainmadesimple.com/reticulospinal-tract/ Per Brodal 324, 394.

Mesencephalic flexure arises between which 2 structures?

Mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Per Bordal 134

What are the 3 mesenteries?

Mesenteries are peritoneal folds that attach viscera to the posterior abdominal wall as well as providing a conduite for nerves, blood supply and lymphatics. 1. Mesentery Proper: Connects the Jejunum and Ilium to the posterior abdominal wall. Contains: Jejunum, Ilium 2. Transverse mesocolon: Connects the Transverse Colon to the posterior abdominal wall. Moves from the anterior aspect of the pancrase to surround the transverse colon. Contains: Pancreas 3. Sigmoid Mesocolon: Is V shaped and connects the Sigmoid Colon to posterior abdominal wall. The apex is near the division of the left common iliac artery into external and internal. https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/mesentery Gray's 309

The neural crest cells forms cartillage and skin in the face and which endocrine structure?

Mesoderm cells develop into adrenal cortex Neural Crest cells develop into Adrenal medulla Netter's 234

Rhombencephalon becomes what?

Metancephalon (pons and most of the cerebellum) Myencephalon (medulla oblongata) Per brodal 134

What are the macrophages of the nervous system?

MicroGlial Cells are the macrophages of the nervous system and are derived from mesoderm. While the rest of the glial cells are derived from neuroectoderm Macrophages develop from monocytes. Per Brodal 34

In general who are the CN what do they control?

MidBrain CN1 - olfactory smell CN2 - Optic CN3 - OculoMotor (Inf Oblique, M,S,I Rectus) CN4 - Trochlear SO Pons CN5 - TriGeminal M - Mastication (S is for face and sensation of anterior 2/3 of tongue) CN6 - Abduncent Abducts the eye LR CN7 - Facial (Face Muscles) and Taste anterior 2/3 of tongue Medulla CN8 - VestibuloCochlear (Hearing and posture from Inner Ear) CN9 - GlossoPharyngeal (Pharynx, Posterior 1/3 sense and Taste of tongue) CN10 - sends to 3 Nuclei (Ambiguous, Solitary and Dorsal Nucleus Of Vagus nerve) (Levator Veli Palatini) (Larynx = speech) Epiglottis. (one muscle in tongue) CN12 - HypoGlossal (Most tongue muscles) CN11 - Accessory (SCM and Trap)

what are the two types of fibers entering the cerebellum?

Mossy fibers - come from the vestibular nuclei in the pons and medulla oblongata and from the cerebrum via the pontine nucleus. mossy fibers mostly connect with the granular cells in the granular layer. The granular cells let out fibers all the way to the molecular level and then split in two forming the parallel fibers. The parallel fibers synapse with the purkinje cell dendrites exciting them. The purkinje fibers connect and inhibit a nucleus in the deep cerebellar nuclei. Climbing Fibers - ascend/originate from the inferior olive in the medulla oblongata. Synapse with the deep cerebellar nuclei (DEGF). the rest go up to the cortex of the cerebellum wrapping with purkinje cell bodies on the way to the molecular level where they finally synapse with purkinje cells. Each climbing fiber synapses with one purkinje cell unlike mossy fibers that synapse with many.

Antigen sampling surface area: what area in the tonsils allows antigen sampling?

Most likely Tonsillar Crypts But I'm not sure Another possibility: Palatine and lingual tonsils Not sure what the **** is going on in this question.. So not sure what the real answer is.. netter or gray's who the **** knows

What is the bloods route entering the spleen? (own question)

Originates in the aorta via the cealic artery the Splenic artery enters into hilum and divides into smaller *trabecular arteries* (because they follow *trabeculae*). These arteries branch and enter the white pulp becoming arterioles known collectively as central arterioles. Lymphocytes surround the CA forming Periarteriolar Lymphatic sheaths Some of the CA branch and supply either the red or white pulp. 90% of the capillaries supplying red pulp drain into venues sinusoids (with longitudinal oriented endothelial cells {this is the inside of a blood vessel after all} directly from there into larger venules which empty into trabecular veins which merge into the splenic vein. Essentially no one is sure if there is an open or closed system or both but the open system would allow blood filtration allowing us to collect deformed and pathological RBC and recycle them.

Continuous lymphocyte circulation between the bloodstream and lymph occurs by way of lymph nodes. Lymphocytes are intrinsically mobile, so they can leave the bloodstream by preferential migration across walls of specialized blood vessels, that are in which part of the lymph node?

Paracortex So here he asks where the HEV's (High Endothelial Venules) are so this is the correct answer Netter 202

what are the layers of the pleural cavity?

Parietal pleura lines the wall of the cavity (external) Has 4 parts: Coastal - related to ribs and intercostal Diaphragmatic - covers the diaphragm Mediastinal - mediastinum Cervical - Dome shaped layer covering the cervical extension of the pleural cavity. Visceral pleura is reflected from the mediastinum at the root and onto the surface of the lungs. They enclose the pleural cavity They are continues with each other at the hilum of the lung Gray's 164 - 166

Explain the movement of the following joints: Plane, Hinge, Pivot, Bicondylar, Condylar, saddle and ball and socket?

Plane - Sliding or gliding when one bone moves across the surface of another. (AcromioClavicular) Hinge - Movement around one axis that passes transversely (across) through the join permit flexion and extension (HumeroUlnar) Pivot - movement around one axis that passes longitudinally along the shaft of the bone permits rotation (AtlantoAxial) Bicondylar - allow movement mostly in one axis with limited rotation around a second axis formed by two convex condyles that articulate with a concave or flat surface (knee) Condylar (ellipsoid) - allow movement around 2 axes that are at right angles to each other. Permit: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and limited circumduction (wrist) Saddle - allow movement around two axes that are at right angles to each other. The articulating surfaces are saddle shaped and permit: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction (CarpoMetacarpal thumb) Ball and socket - allow movement around multiple axes permit: Flexion, Extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction and rotation (hip join)

Explain the PontoReticular Spinal Tract

PontoReticular Spinal Tract: (Axial muscles Neck, back and abdomen) Very similar to the Vestibular Spinal tract only it originates in the reticular formation in the pons (receives corticoreticular fibers from BA 4 Primary motor cortex and BA 6 Supplementary motor area and premotor cortex) (as well as from the Cerebellum, Basal Ganglia and Vestibular Nuclei) It descends ipsilaterally via the Ventral Funical Effects mainly motor neurons (Alpha Extrafusal and Gamma Intrafusal) in the GH of the SC (Lamina 7 and 8). muscles that affect breathing (Could be associated with SIDS (sudden infant death) Also plays a part in autonomic functions like sweating and vasomotor effects. In short: ipsilateral, promotes extensor, Medial longitudinal fasciculus, Is medial, arise in the medial zone of the reticular formation in the pons. Per Brodal 324, 394.

Who does the posterior communicating artery anastomose? Who does the anterior communicating artery anastomosis?

Posterior Communicating Artery: Posterior cerebral artery and the internal carotid artery Anterior communicating artery: left and right anterior cerebral arteries

Branches of the grater palatine nerve?

Posterior inferior nasal nerves which pass medially through the small foramen in the perpendicular plate of the palatine bone and contribute to the innervation of the lateral nasal wall. gray's 1086, 995

What structure forms the anterior wall of pterygopalatine fossa?

Posterior surface of the maxilla Gray's 993

Which bones make up the pelvic inlet?

Posteriorly the body of S1 (Sacral Promontory) and the sacral alae (wings). Laterally a prominent rim on the pelvic bone continues the boundaries (sacral arcuate and pectineal line) of the inlet up to the pubic symphysis. (gray's 426)

What is located in the precentral gyrus?

Primary motor Cortex (BA 4) Per Brodal 108

What are the 3 structures that the develope into the brain called?

Prosencephalon - Telencephalon (Cerebrum?) + Diencephalon (NeuroHypophysis, Eye vesicles, Hypothalamus, Thalamus and pineal Bodies) Mesencephalon - MidBrain Rhombencephalon - Metencephalon (Pons + Cerebellum) + Myelencephalon (medulla Oblongata) The ventral portion of the cranial portion of the brain starts forming neuromeres which will eventually form the Cranial Nerves

The junction where the frontal, parietal, sphenoid, and temporal bones are in close proximity is the

Pterion Gray's 858

In the development of the telencephalon, which cells with processes extending from ependymal to the pia, guide the migration of postmitotic neurons towards the cortex?

Radial Glia cells (125-126 per brodal)

What are Special Afferent Fibers (SA)?

Related to smell (1), taste (7,9), vision (2), hearing (8) and balance (8). Are found in CN: 1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Grays 894

In spleen, red pulp , open-ended system drainage?

Remaining open-ended capillaries discharge blood freely into the intersinusoidal meshwork, so blood seeps out and percolates slowly between splenic cords. Netter 212

At an early stage, several neural groups in the brainstem migrate from their "birthplace" in the alar plate or basal plate. In the medulla the inferior olive is formed by neuroblasts moving from which structure/s?

Rhombic Lip So Neural Crest cells from the alar plate in the metencephalon migrate and form the inferior olive 138 brodal

From what rami are the sacral and coccygeal plexuses derived?

Sacral plexus is formed from the lumbosacral trunk (L4-L5) and the anterior rami of S1-S4 (Gray's 487) Coccygeal Plexus originates from S4-Co (S4, S5 and Co) (Gray's 490)

What is scarpa's fascia? what does it consist of?

Scarpa's fascia is part of the superficial fascia which is usually a single layer. but in the anterior abdominal region (below the umbilicus) it splits into two. A superficial fatty layer (camper's fascia) and a deeper membranous layer (Scarpa's Fascia) containing little to no fat. (Gray's 280)

into where do sinusoids drain?

Sinusoids drain into larger venules, which empty into trabecular veins. These merge to form the splenic vein.

The superior and inferior mediastinum is seperated by?

T4/T5 or the Sternal Angle

The Differentiation of the cortical plate into distinct areas is a process called arealization. Among extrinsic influences which appears to be of particular importance for the mature cytoarchitectonic characteristics of an area?

Thalamocortical Afferents. it depends on which thalamic nuclei are sending afferents to the area they will determine what the area becomes (the main extrinsic effector) Per Brodal 141

Diencephalon creats what?

Thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis), Maybe :pineal body and eye vesicles. (maybe also eye vesicles?) Per brodal 134, 139

what is the continuation of the anterior longitudinal ligament?

The Anterior atlanto occipital membrane the connects the anterior arch of the atlas to the anterior inferior portion of the foramen magnum. https://radiopaedia.org/articles/anterior-atlanto-occipital-membrane-1#:~:text=The%20anterior%20atlanto%2Doccipital%20membrane,ligament%20above%20the%20C1%20level.&text=It%20limits%20extension%20of%20the%20atlanto%2Doccipital%20joint.

As the Trachea and the Esophagus pass through the superior mediastinum they are crossed laterally by the Azygos Vein on the left side and on the right side they are crossed by who?

The Aortic Arch Gray's 218

What separates the occipital lobe and the cerebellum?

The Cerebellar Tentorium

Which tracts leads from the cerebellum to the Thalamus (Diencephalon)?

The CerebelloThalamic Tract from the Dentate to the VL nucleus of the Thalamus. Per Brodal 364 Expand at your own risk: 369

In the Hemispheres a nucleus forms a sheet of gray matter lateral to the putamen. It has reciprocal connections with most parts of the cerebral cortex, it is the?

The Claustrum. Little is known about its function or clinical significance but based on its connections and location it is suggested it deals with sensory integration. Per Brodal 109

Which nucleus is more lateral and ventral to the Abduncent Nucleus?

The Facial Nucleus (and also the Motor Trigeminal Nucleus) Per Brodal 407

The intervertebral foramen is foramen is formed between adjacent vertebral arches, by which structure / structures is its posterior margin formed?

The Foramen is formed Superiorly by the notches in the peduncle. Posteriorly by the articulating processes Anteriorly by the Intervertebral Disk Gray's 64, 101, 107, 364

What originates in the cerebral cortex and ends in the mammillary bodies?

The Fornix which is a bundle of fibers originating in the hippocampal region of the temporal lobe and terminates in the mamillary bodies. Per Brodal 103

What nerve innervates the diaphragm? from where does it originate? where is it located?

The L and R phrenic nerve originating from the 3rd, 4th and 5th cervical spinal nerves. The R Phrenic enters the superior mediastinum lateral to the right Vagus nerve and lateral and slightly posterior to the right brachiocephalic vein. Leaves the thorax with the Inferior Vena Cava (T8?)

The superior fibers of the trapezius, from the skull and upper portion of the vertebral column, descend to attach to?

The Lateral third of the clavicle and the acromen of the scapula Gray's 87

What protrudes downwards from the hypothalamus?

The Mammillary Bodies Per Brodal 103

What is attached to the Pulvinar of the Thalamus?

The Medial and Lateral Geniculate

How many cerebral layers are there? What is in each layer?

The NeoCortex (sensory perception, cognition, generation of motor commands, spatial reasoning and language.) has 6 layers: 1. Molecular Layer (barely any Cell Bodies) 2. External Granular Layer (Densely packed small cell bodies) [Afferent Receiving] 3. External Pyramidal Layer (Medium sized cell bodies)[Efferent Sending] 4. Internal Granular Layer (Densely packed small cell bodies) [especially well developed in the primary sensory cortical areas] [Afferent Receiving] 5. Internal Pyramidal Layer (Large sized cell bodies) [Efferent Sending] [Motor Cortex!] 6. MultiForm Layer (spindle shaped cell bodies) [efferent connected to the thalamus] Pyramidal cells are found in layers 3 and 5. Per Brodal 501-503

Where is the rectouterine pouch?

The Pouch of Douglas is found between the posterior Uterus and the anterior Rectum in the lowest part of the AbdominoPelvic Cavity Gray's 481

Explain the RubroSpinal Tract Per Brodal 325

The Red Nucleus is found in the midbrain (mesencephalon) and is comprised of 2 parts: Cadual MagnoCellular (Large, motor neuron like cells) and Rostral ParvoCellular (small celled part). The large ParvoCellular receives afferents from the Cerebellum (mainly from the dentate nucleus) and sends efferent to the cerebellum (which in turn via Cerebellar pathways) sends to the motor cortex. It seems that the ParvoCellular portion influences movement via the the cerebellum and motor cortex and not by sending efferents to the spinal cord. The MagnoCellular sends fibers to the spinal cord crossing the midline just inferior to the red nucleus and descending in the lateral funicle (mixing with pyramidal tract) forming the rubrospinal tract which terminate largely in the same area the pyramidal tract does in the gray matter of the spinal cord (which lamina?). Affect flexor muscles of the distal extremities, Receives ipsilateral fibers from the cortex forming a CorticoRubroSpinal pathway. Per Brodal 325

Striated muscles in the superior portion of the esophagus originate from branchial arches and are innervated by branchial efferents from which nerves?

The Striated muscles are innervated rom the Vagus Nerves The Smooth Muscles are innervated by components of the parasympathetic Visceral innervation also from vagus Sensory information: Vagus, Parasympathetic and Splanchnic Grays 223

SubClavian Vein and Artery: Location? What drains into them and where do they drain into?

The SubClavian artery is split into 3 parts that are found in the posterior triangle of the neck. The 3rd part of the SubClavian is the largest. 1st part ascends from the Brachiocephalic Artery on the right side or from the Aortic Arch on the left side medial to the anterior scalene muscle. Supplies: 1. Vertebral Artery 2. ThyroCervical Trunk -> A. Transverse Cervical in the area of the brachial plexus (Superficial branch [Trapezes] and Deep Branch [Rhomboid]). B. SupraScapular Artery -> muscles of the posterior scapula. C. Inferior Thyroid Artery. 2nd Part between the anterior and medial scalene muscle. 3rd Part emerges from between the anterior and medial scalene muscles reaching the lateral border of rib 1 where it becomes the axillary artery which continues into the upper limb: Supplies: 1. Dorsal Scapular Artery (Rhomboid muscles) In total there are 4 branches from the subclavian artery: 1. Vertebral Arteries (the two cervical arteries) 2. ThyroCervical Arteries 3. Internal Thoracic Arteries 4. CostoCervical Subclavian Vein: Continuation of the Axillary Vein begins at the lateral border of Rib 1. Drain into it: 1. Axillary Vein 2. External Jugular Joins the Internal Jugular to form the BrachioCephalic Vein in the area of the SternoClavicular Joint Gray's 1031

The upper 2 posterior intercostal arteries derived from the *supreme intercostal artery*, branch of what artery?

The Supreme Intercostal Artery is a branch of the CostoCervical trunk which is a branch of the SubClavian Artery Gray's 155

The tunica albuginea is formed by?

The Tunica Albuginea (White irl) is a capsule covering the testis. it's made of Dense Fibroelastic connective tissue. Netter 383

What can be found in the intervertebral foramen?

The anterior root (which has the PreGanglionic Fibers) and the the posterior root join together to form the Spinal Nerve. The spinal nerves then split into Small posterior ramus and a much larger anterior ramus. Segmental arteries (That give rise to Anterior and Posterior Radicular arteries) 2-4 recurrent meningeal nerves (supply the dura, intervertebral disks, ligaments and blood vessels) The Foramen is formed Superiorly by the notches in the peduncle. Posteriorly by the articulating processes Anteriorly by the Intervertebral Disk Gray's 64, 101, 107, 364

At what vertebrae level does the spinal arachnoid mater end?

The arachnoid mater ends at the level of vertebra S2. Gray's 103

What is the area between the mamillary bodies and the infundibulum called? (It also affects the activity of the Pituitary Gland)

The area is called Tuber Cinereum and it contains neurons that influence the activity of the Pituitary Gland The Infundibulum is the stalk that the pituitary gland comes out of in the sala turka? The Mammillary Bodies (is related to memory) Per Brodal 104

What does the arterial supply to the spinal cord look like? (specifically mention the adamkiewicz!)

The arterial supply to the spinal cord is from 2 main sources: 1. Longitudinally oriented vessels arising from the superior cervical portion of the cord and descend (1 anterior and 2 posterior spinal arteries) supplied by the vertebral arteries 2. segmental spinal arteries that enter the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen at every level they arise from the vertebral and deep cervical arteries in the: neck, posterior intercostal arteries in the thorax and lumbar arteries in the abdomen. after entering the intervertebral foramen the segmental spinal arteries -> anterior and posterior radicular arteries at every vertebral level supplying the anterior and posterior roots the segmental spinal arteries also give off segmental medullary arteries which reinforce the longitudinal arteries (1 anterior and 2x posterior spinal arteries) the largest segmental medullary artery supplying them is the artery of adamkiewicz Gray's 101-102

The abdominal esophagus emerges through which part of the diaphragm? At what vertebral level?

The esophageal hiatus at the level of T10 through Right Crus (2 tendinous structures that extend below the diaphragm to the vertebral column) of the diaphragm T8 Vena Caval Foramen - Vena Cava (through the central Tendon) Along with the right phrenic nerve T12 Aortic Hiatus - Aorta Gray's 310

name the cranial fossae

The floor of the cranial cavity can be divided into 3 parts: 1. Anterior Cranial Fossa: has 4 main structures: Frontal Bone, Ethmoid Bone (Crista Galli which allows attachment of the Falx Cerebri) and Lesser Sphenoid Wings 1. Foramen Cecum (closed in adults) 2-3. Anterior and Posterior Ethmoidal Foramen (A and P ethmoidal Nerves) 4. Cribriform Plate (on either side of Crista Galli) in the ethmoid bone. Olfactory Nerves pass here to the Olfactory Bulbs. Anterior clinoid process which is the anterior attachment of the Tentorium Cerebri is in the lesser wing Anterior to the Anterior Clinoid process we can find the Optic Canal (Has Ophthalmic Artery + Optic nerve) is actually in the middle cranial fossa Right and Left Olfactory Pathways. 2. Middle Cranial Fossa (7) The bones are Greater wing of Sphenoid and temporal There are 5 foramen in the Greater Wing: Anterior 1.Optic Canal (Has Ophthalmic Artery + Optic nerve) 2.Superior Orbital Fissure (CN3, 4, 6 and ophthalmic Nerve) 3.Foramen Rotundum (Maxillary) (Sphenoid bone) 4. Foramen Ovale (Mandibular) (Sphenoid bone) 5. Foramen Spinosum (middle meningeal Artery and Vein) 6. Carotid Canal (Internal Carotid) In the temporal: 1. Foramen Lacerum (artery and nerve of pterygoid) 3. Posterior Cranial Fossa (5) (Largely the occipital bone) 1. Foramen Magnum (Spinal Cord, Vertebral Arteries) 2. Internal Auditory Meatus (Facial (via stylomastoid fossa) and Vestibulocochlear Nerves) 3. Jugular Foramen (CN 9, 10 and 11, Sigmoid Sinus which becomes the internal Jugular Vein) 4. HypoGlossal Canal (CN 12) All in all 15 foramen https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BW19nGC4g_U Gray's 865-870

Which kinds of receptors are found in the fovea centralis of the retina?

The fovea centralis is found in the center of the macula which is in the retina. This area is rich in cons (able to detect color?) and has no rods (able to detect low light). This can be demonstrated by the fact that our color recognition in the periphery is low compared to our ability to track fast moving objects. Per Brodal 240 Gray's 951

The inferior rectal nerve is often multiple, penetrate through fascia of the pudendal canal, and cross medially across the ischioanal fossa to innervate what?

The inferior rectal nerve is often multiple, penetrates through the fascia of the pudendal canal, and courses medially across the ischioanal fossa to innervate the external anal sphincter and related regions of the levator ani muscles. The nerve is also general sensory for the skin of the anal triangle. Its origin is the pudendal nerve Gray's 515

The mesentery is a double-layered fold of peritoneum that connects?

The jejunum and ileum to the posterior abdominal wall Gray's 309

The lacunar ligament is a crescent shaped extension of fibers at the medial end of the inguinal ligament that pass backward to attach to what?

The lacunar ligament is a crescent-shaped extension of fibers at the medial end of the inguinal ligament that pass backward to attach to the pecten pubis on the superior ramus of the pubic bone . Grays 289

The lateral sacral arteries originate from which trunk of the internal iliac artery?

The lateral sacral arteries, usually two, originate from the posterior division of the internal iliac artery and course medially and inferiorly along the posterior pelvic wall. Gray's 496

The abdomen communicates with the thigh through a foramen. Which are the major structures that pass through this canal?

The lower limb communicates with the abdomen via the a gap formed between the inguinal ligament (formed mainly from the external oblique and slightly from the transverse abdominis) and the pelvic bone. Medially: adductor longus Lateral: Sartorius Floor: Pectineus and adductor longus. Iliopsoas The structures that pass through here are: 1. 3 Muscles (Psoas Major, Iliacus and pectineus) 2. 2 vessels (femoral artery and vein) 3. 3 Nerves (femoral, femoral branch of genitofemoral nerve and the lateral cutaneous branch of the thigh) 4. lymphatics gray's 545, 572 This ISN'T THE INGUINAL CANAL! that's at pg 294

The pelvis communicates with the thigh through a foramen/canal. Which are the major structures that pass through these

The lower limb communicates with the pelvis via the greater sciatic foramen and the Obturator Canal. greater sciatic foramen is formed by the sacrospinous ligament. The structures that pass through greater sciatic foramen are: 1. muscle (Piriformis) 2. Nerves (Sciatic, superior and inferior gluteal and the pudendal nerves) gray's 545 Obturator Canal: Obturator Nerve and Vessels (Vein and Artery?) Gray's 562

Lymph node, cortex consists of?

The lymph node consists of 3 layer: 1. Outer Cortex (Dark Stained) has Lymphoid Nodules (Primary and Secondary) The secondary has a germinal center surrounded by a mantel zone). B-Lymphocytes. 2. Paracortex - T-Lymphocytes. 3.Inner Medulla (netter 200)

What are the parts of the prostatic male urethra?

The male urethra is divided into 4 parts: 1. Pre-prostatic: Internal urethral sphincter (prevents semen from entering the bladder) 2. prostatic: A fold of mucosa called the urethral crests. there are 2 depressions (one on each side) called the prostatic sinuses which the ducts of the prostate empty into. A blind pouch is found here called the prostatic utricle in the Seminal colliculus which is just a landmark. Inferior to the prostatic utricle we can find two openings of the ejaculory ducts. 3. Membranous: passes through the perineal membrane and the deep perineal pouch 4. spongy: is surrounded by erectile tissue (corpus spongiosum) of the penis. forms a bulb at the base of the penis and at the end of the peins forming the navicolar fossa.

What is the media of the thoracic duct consist of? What do the valves consist of? Valves in the thoracic duct are similar to those in veins. Arranged in pairs they consist of?

The media of the Thoracic Duct: 1. Circular and Helically arranged smooth muscle 2. Rich network of elastic fibers Valves (like in veins): 1. Endothelium 2. This collagenous core 194 netter

Which is an important sensory tract, which leads from neurons in the dorsal column nuclei to nuclei in the diencephalon (thalamus?)

The medial lemniscus Per Brodal 99

Which regions in the hypothalamus also lacks a blood brain barrier. This region does not contain neuronal cell bodies but receives nerve fibers from other parts of the hypothalamus?

The median eminence Per Brodal 123

Mediastinum: What are its limits? What divisions does it have? What does each division have in it?

The mediastinum separates the two lateral pleural cavities. Horizontally: It extends from the sternum to the vertebral bodies Vertically: From the superior thoracic aperture to the diaphragm It's further subdivided into: Superior mediastinum and Inferior mediastinum by a horizontal plane from the angle of luis to the intervertebral disk between TIV - TV Superior mediastinum: Jugular notch to TI - superior border Angle of luis to TIV - TV - inferior border Structures: Thymus, R and L Brachiocephalic veins, L Superior intercostal vein, SVC, Aortic Arch with its 3 branches, Trachea, esophagus, phrenic nerves, vagus nerves, L recurrent laryngeal branch of L vagus, Thoracic duct. The inferior mediastinum is further divided into: Anterior, Middle and Posterior mediastinum by the pericardial sac. Anterior Mediastinum: Anterior to the pericardial sac and posterior to the sternum Posterior Mediastinum: Posterior to the pericardial sac and diaphragm and anterior to the vertebral bodies Structures: Esophagus and nerve plexus, Thoracic aorta and branches, azygos system, Thoracic duct, sympathetic trunk, thoracic splanchnic nerves Middle Mediastinum: Pericardial sac, Heart, Origin of great vessels, Gray's 180

The pudendal nerve and internal pudendal artery leave the pelvic cavity through which aperture?

The nerve and artery of the perineum (the internal pudendal artery and pudendal nerve) pass out of the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen into the gluteal region and then immediately pass around the ischial spine and sacrospinous ligament and through the lesser sciatic foramen to enter the perineum. Gray's 545

Which Thalamic nuclei communicate with the Somatosensory portion of the cortex?

The neurons of the VPL and the VPM send their axons into the internal capsule and further through this to the postcentral gyrus. This part of the cortex, made up of cytoarchitectonic fields 3, 1, and 2, constitutes the primary somatosensory area, SI. In addition, some fibers from the VPL and the VPM end in the secondary somatosensory area, SII, situated in the upper wall of the lateral cerebral fissure. Per Brodal 209

The neurovascular bundle of the intercostal spaces passes in a plane between which muscles?

The neurovascular bundles associated with the intercostal spaces pass around the thoracic wall in the costal grooves in a plane between the innermost and internal intercostal muscles Gray's 154

muscles does the obturator nerve descend in to enter the pelvis?

The obturator nerve arises from the anterior rami of nerves L2 to L4. It descends in the psoas major muscle, emerging from its medial side near the pelvic brim. Gray's 401

Pericardium

The pericardium is a fibrous sac surrounding the heart and the roots of the great vessels. it has two parts: Fibrous pericardium - Fibrous and forms the boundaries of the middle mediastinum. Serous pericardium - has 2 parts: Visceral and Parietal (epicardium) inbetween is the pericardial cavity that has serous fluid in it. Gray's 181

Which Thalamic nuclei communicate with the Motor portion of the cortex?

The physiologically defined MI corresponds fairly closely to Brodmann's area 4. It receives main afferents from SI, SII, SMA, PMA, and the posterior parietal cortex, in addition to afferents from "motor" parts of the thalamus (the ventrolateral nucleus, VL; see Figs. 6.21 and 14.16). The cerebellum, especially, sends important information about movement performance to MI via VL (the basal ganglia mainly influence the MI via connections to area 6). Per Brodal 330

The posterior gluteal line descends almost vertically from the iliac crest to a position near what?

The posterior gluteal line descends almost vertically from the iliac crest (superior posterior) to a position near the posterior inferior iliac spine gluteus maximus muscle attaches posterior to the posterior gluteal line. gluteus medius muscle attaches to bone between the anterior and posterior gluteal lines Gluteus minimus muscle originates from between the inferior and anterior gluteal lines So posterior posterior anterior anterior inferior Gray's 552

Which ligament is bigger? the anterior longitudinal ligament? or the posterior longitudinal ligament?

The posterior longitudinal ligament that also becomes the tectorial ligament.

Which are the limits (proximal and distal) of the abdominal GI tract that are formed from the foregut?

The proximal limit is the abdominal esophagus. The distal limit is the Major duodenal papilla Gray's 344

What visceral muscles does the pudendal nerve innervate?

The pudendal nerve originates from the sacral plexus carrying fibers from s2-s4. Leaves the pelvic cavity through the greater sciatic foramen (inferior to the Piriformis muscle) enters the anal triangle through the minor sciatic foramen (Gray's 513) External urethral sphincter Deep Transverse Perineal Compressor Urethrae (women only) Sphincter urethrovaginalis (women only) (Gray's 459) Skeletal Muscles: Anal sphincters and Levator Ani (pubococcygeus, the iliococcygeus, and the puborectalis). Skin of the perineum, penis and clitoris. (grays 489) Ischiocavernosus Bulbospongiosus superficial transverse perineal (Gray's 509)

Close to the lower end of the medulla, on the transition to the cord, bundles of fibers can be seen to cross the midline, forming what?

The pyramidal decussation Per Brodal 98

What is the tegmentum?

The region between the crus cerebri (anterior portion of the cerebral peduncle containing motor tracts from the cerebral cortex to the pones and spine) and the tectum (The colliculi) General area within the brainstem the ventral part of the midbrain. (the tactum is the dorsal part of the midbrain) (wiki) Found in the mesencephalon (fig 6.20 pg 102 per brodal) Includes the periaqueductal gray, the red nucleus and the substantia nigra. (Per Brodal 100)

Sciatic nerve innervates what?

The sciatic nerve is branch of the sacral plexus. It's the largest nerve and carries contributions from L4 - S3. Know at a minimum: All muscles in the posterior compartment of the thigh. The part of the adductor magnus originating from the ischium. All muscles in the leg and foot. Skin on the lateral side of the leg. Skin on the lateral side and sole of the foot. If you want to expand: It branches into: 1. Common Fibular Nerve 2. Tibial Nerve All 3 muscles of the posterior compartment of the thigh: 1. Bicep Femoris 2. SemiTendinosus 3. SemiMembranosus All muscles in the leg and foot Skin on the lateral side of the leg and lateral side of the sole of the foot. It forms on the posterior surface of the piriformis muscle and leaves the pelvic cavity via the greater sciatic foramen inferior to the piriformis. Innervates in the Hamstring portion of the adductor magnus. (the addoctur portion is via the obturator nerve) Grays 545, 548, 565.

Cervical vertebra how high?

The seven cervical vertebrae are characterized by their small size and by their transverse foramen. in addition they have uncinate processes on the posterior vertebral body forming the uncovertebral joints The vertebral body is short in height and square shaped when viewed from above and has a concave superior surface and a convex inferior surface. The spinous process is short and bifid. Vertebral foramen is triangular. Gray's 69

What is the somatosensory tract?

The somatosensory tract is an afferent pathway carrying signals of vision, smells, hearing, taste as well as general somatic sensation (Pain, temp, proprioception and touch) They are classified in 3 categories: 1. Non myelinated (type C slowest. sense temp and burning pain) 2. Small myelinated (Type A-Delta sense sharp pain, gross touch and cold temps) 3. Large myelinated fibers A-Alpha and A-Beta (fastest sense proprioception, vibration and fine touch) Through these fibers somatosensory info travels to the brain forming the somatosensory pathways. in the SC there is gray matter that is divided into 2: 1. SpinoThalamic (AnteroLateral): Temperature and Pain. 2. Posterior/Dorsal Horn: take sensory info from the outside and process it. Surrounding the gray matter is the white matter that carries info from and to the brain. there are 2 main paired pathways that carry information to the brain: 1. Medial (Dorsal) Lemniscal pathway: (ipsilateral up to the level of the medulla where it decussates this is called internal arcuate fibers) Fine touch and proprioception via 1st order neurons A-alpha and A-Beta fibers. most through the dorsal funiculus which can be further divided into the cuneate fascicle (arms and chest) and the gracilis fascicle (trunk and legs) They reach the corresponding nucleus in the medulla and become 2nd order that decussate forming the medial lemniscus thus fibers on the right provide info to the left side of the brain. then through the pons and midbrain to the thalamus (3rd order) here they reach the VPL (VentroPostoLateral nucleus) go through the posterior limb of the internal capsule then they fan out to form the corona radiata which eventually connects to the cerebral cortex specifically the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe 4th order neurons which has the sensory cortex split into 3 top, medial and lateral. The reflex arc is when the 1st order neurons doesn't reach the brain but instead IN in the dorsal horn of the SC. These IN synaps with the anterior horn of the SC where they synapse with MN which gives us the reflex arc 2. Spinothalamic (anterolateral) tract (has lissures tract): Carries sharp pain and cold temp via 1st order A-Delta Crude touch and hot pain through C-fibers Both types of fibers synapse in the dorsal horn where there is a synapse of 1st and 2nd order. The C-Fibers will ascend or descend and form a small bundle dorsal to the dorsal horn called the Lissauer tract they enter the SC in Lamina II (Substantia Gelatinosa) Most of the fibers then cross slightly ventrally and horizontally across the midline through the gray substance to the opposite side. Then enter the lateral funiculus (the anterior portion of it hence the anterolateral) and ascend to the thalamus forming the spinothalamic tract. Along the way send collaterals in the brain stem to areas associated with circulation and breathing (this is why pain and temp can affect our breathing, pulse etc) They mostly reach the VPL nucleus in the thalamus but can also reach: VentroMedial (VM), Intralaminar Nuclei: Central Lateral (CL) in the Medial Dorsal (MD) nucleus. From the thalamus (VPL and VPM) to SI (Primary Somatosensory Area) and SII (Secondary Somatosensory Area) but also areas such as MI (Motor Cortex) in the Precentral Gyrus Per Brodal 211 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JpA1NHDww3s&ab_channel=MemorablePsychiatryandNeurology https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=somatosensory+pathways https://teachmeanatomy.info/neuroanatomy/pathways/ascending-tracts-sensory/

Where is it safest to perform a spinal tap?

The spinal cord ends at L1/L2 and the subarachnoid space continues to SII so between L3/L4 Gray's 105-106

cauda equina

The spinal cord ends at around L2-L3. From here the Posterior and anterior roots of the spinal cord descend inferiorly reaching there exit points (after merging to form the spinal nerves). It includes the Spinal nerves of L2-Co. It's called so after the tail of the horse. Gray's 107

In the midline of the tentorium, which sinus drains into the superior sagittal sinus at the confluence region, from which the transverse sinus originate?

The straight sinus 127 brodal

the CNS is wrapped in three membranes of connective tissue, the meninges with fluid‐filled spaces between the membranes. Which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid ?

The subarachnoid space is found between the pia (innermost) and the arachnoid which is found on the inner part of the dura mater Per Brodal 112

Which branches of the brachial plexus innervates the subscapularis muscle?

The subscapularis is innervated by branches of the brachial plexus (the superior and inferior subscapular nerves), which originate in the axilla. Its origin is in the subscapularis fossa and inserts in the lesser trabecule of the humerus Gray's 730

The superior mesenteric vein begins in which part of the abdominal cavity?

The superior mesenteric vein drains blood from the small intestine, cecum, ascending colon, and transverse colon. It begins in the right iliac fossa as veins draining the terminal ileum, cecum, and appendix join, and ascends in the mesentery to the right of the superior mesenteric artery. Gray's 355

Explain the Dural Venous system

The superior sagittal sinus receives venous blood from the arteries in the brain and CSF from the Arachnoid villi that together form the Arachnoid Granulations. (the transfer is probably due to the higher hydrostatic pressure in the subarachnoid space) The: 1. Superior Sagittal Sinus 2. Straight Sinus (formed by the inferior sagittal sinus and the great cerebral vein aka vein of galen) The Vein of Galen is formed by Internal Cerebral Veins and Basal Vein of Rosenthal 3. Occipital Sinus (from the inferior portion via the foramen magnum upwards to the confluence of sinuses) all converge into the confluence of sinuses which empties into the transverse sinuses into the Sigmoid Sinuses (Go Through the Jugular Foramen) which drain into the Internal Jugular Vein which drain into the subclavian veins that merge and form the SVC Per Brodal 112, 117 First Aid 2020 pg 503 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TX5Fxrg4SD4&t=152s&ab_channel=AnatomyZone

Where do the supraspinatus and infraspinatus start (origin) and end?

The supraspinatus starts in the superior portion of the scapula (medial 2/3rds of the supraspinous fossa) and ends in the most superior facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus. The infraspinatus starts inferior to the supraspinatus on the medial 2/3rds of the scapula from the infraspinous fossa ending at the middle facet on the posterior surface of the greater trabecule of the humerus Gray's 717

What is the name of the specialized lower part of the facia sheath of the eyeball?

The suspensory ligament Supports the eye Gray's 936

The tendon of the fibularis brevis muscle passes behind the lateral malleolus and then curves across the lateral surface of the calcaneus to attach to what?

The tendon of the fibularis brevis passes behind the lateral malleolus with the tendon of the fibularis longus muscle and then curves forward across the lateral surface of the calcaneus to attach to a tubercle on the lateral surface of the base of metatarsal V (the metatarsal associated with the little toe). It plantar flexes the toes. Gray's 628

Who are the pyramidal and extrapyramidal tracts?

There are 2 Pyramidal tracts 1 of which splits into 2: 1. CorticoSpinal Tract 2. CorticoBulbar Tract The CorticoSpinal Tract splits into the Lateral CorticoSpinal Tract 80-90% (Decussates at the pyramidal decussating) and the Anterior CorticoSpinal Tract 10-20% (Decussate at the level of SC they innervate) There are 4 main ExtraPyramidal Tracts 1 of which also splits into 2: 1. Vestibular Spinal Tract 2. PontoReticular Tract 3. MedullaryReticular Tract 4. RubroSpinal Tract The Vestibular Spinal Tract also splits into the Lateral and Medial Vestibular Spinal Tract where the Lateral one is bigger. Ninja Nerd

What are interneurons? what molecules do they use? how is it produced?

There are 2 types of groups of neurons: projection (spine to muscle or cerebral cortex to brain stem use Glutamate glutamatergic) and interneurons (short axon that branch). Interneurons are primarily inhibitory, Use GABA (GABAergic) using the enzyme Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase Spinal interneurons can use Glycine as an inhibitory molecule But can also be excitatory using ATP, glutamate, and acetylcholine. (per brodal 20)

What are synovial joints? where can they be found?

There are 2 types of joints in general: 1. Synovial Joints - where the skeletal elements are separated by a narrow articulating cavity. 2. Solid Joints - there is no cavity and the components are held by connective tissue Gray's 18 Synovial Joints have a number of characteristic features: 1. Layer of Cartilage (usually Hyaline Cartilage) covering the articulating surfaces of the bone (it's closes to the bone) 2. Joint Capsule - consisting of an inner synovial membrane and outer Fibrous membrane. The Synovial membrane attaches to the Cartilage enclosing the articular cavity. The synovial membrane is highly vascular and produces synovial fluid which percolates into the articular cavity and lubricates the articulating surfaces. (Bursa is also synovial membrane and fluid and can be found between structures like tendons and bones anywhere that reduces friction like the elbow olecranon bursa) Fibrous membrane is formed by dense connective tissue it surrounds and stabilizes the joint. may thicken and form tendons. Movement of the joints is as follows: Plane - allow sliding or gliding movements when one bone moves across the surface of another (e.g. , acromioclavicular joint) Hinge - Movement around one axis that passes transversely (across) through the join permit flexion and extension (HumeroUlnar) Pivot - movement around one axis that passes longitudinally along the shaft of the bone permits rotation (AtlantoAxial) Bicondylar - allow movement mostly in one axis with limited rotation, flexion and extension around a second axis formed by two convex condyles that articulate with a concave or flat surface (knee) Condylar (ellipsoid) - allow movement around 2 axes that are at right angles to each other. Permit: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and limited circumduction (wrist) Saddle - allow movement around two axes that are at right angles to each other. The articulating surfaces are saddle shaped and permit: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction (CarpoMetacarpal thumb) Ball and socket - allow movement around multiple axes permit: Flexion, Extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction and rotation (hip join)

What are the foramen the Trigeminal Nerve uses?

There are 3 foramen: 1. Superior Orbital Fissure - Ophthalmic 2. Foramen Rotundum - Maxillary 3. Foramen Ovale - Mandibular

What are the main cerebral arteries? Which areas do they supply?

There are 3 main cerebral arteries: 1. Anterior Cerebral Artery - Supplies anteromedial surfaces 2. Middle Cerebral Artery - Supplies lateral surfaces 3. Posterior Cerebral Artery - Superior posterior and inferior surfaces (occipital lobes and inferior temporal lobes) First Aid 2020 pg 503

The Mantle Zone of the basal part of the Telencephalic vesicles thicken rapidly to form what?

They thicken to form the Corpus Striatum (Has ventral (Nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle) and Dorsal (Caudate and Putamen)) of the Basal Ganglia (Caudate Nucleus + Lentiform Nucleus [Putamen + Globus Pallidus]) The Telencephalic Vesicles are the two vesicles that form lateral to the Prosencephalon in the 5th week of development. Per Brodal 139

What are the main divisions of the motor cortex?

There are 3 main ones: 1. Primary motor cortex - in the frontal lobe precentral gyrus 2. PreMotor Cortex - located anterior to the Primary Motor Cortex. 3. Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) - located on the midline of the hemispheres anterior to the primary motor cortex. 4. Primary Somatosensory Cortex - located in the postcentral cortex. 5. Posterior Parietal Cortex - it's located dorsal to the somatosensory cortex https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/functional-systems-of-the-cerebral-cortex/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex

What are the synovial joints on each side of the head?

There are 3 pairs: TemporoMandibular Joint - (between the temporal bone and the mandible) The other two are between the 3 tiny bones in the Middle ear: Incudomalleolar joint - Mallus and Incus Incudostapedial joint - Incus and stapes

What is unique about the aortic valve?

There are 3 semilunar cusps Left, Posterior and Right. each with a thicker middle part (nodule) and a thin lateral part (lunule). The unique thing is that the left and right semilunar cusps have an opening allowing blood to reach the left and right coronary arteries.

What are the functional zone divisions of the cerebellum?

There are 3: 1. Spinocerebellum - medial portion (vermis and adjacent area): Trunk and limbs. Sensory input from the body (muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs). Sends info to the SC to the dorsal (ipsilateraly inferior peduncle) and ventral (contralateral before entering but once it enters it crosses again making it ipsilateral superior peduncle) to the spinocerebellar tracts. Synapse with the fastigial and interposed nuclei (Emboliform and Globose). The Fastigial nucleus sends axons to the reticular formation (in the BS) which sends axons through the ReticuloSpinal tract (trunk and limbs) Interposed nuclei send through the superior peduncle cross contralaterally reaching the red nucleus in the midbrain. The red nucleus crosses over again (ipsilateral now) forming the rubrospinal tract (flexor muscles in the upper limb) 2. Cerebrocerebellum (PontoCerebellum) acts on the cerebral cortex - lateral portions of the cerebellar hemisphere. Initiates movements and coordinates fine motor and controls motor learning. Input from the cerebral cortex which passes through the thalamus before reaching the cerebellum via the middle cerebellar peduncle. Synapse with the contralateral dentate nucleus and axons exit and go through the superior cerebellar peduncle to synapse with the contralateral cortex. 3. VestibuloCerebellum [Because it communicates with the vestibular apparatus and vestibular nuclei] [consists of the nodules and the flocculus] flocculoNodular Lobe)(balance) Communicates with the VestibuloSpinal tract and Reticular Formation- Flocculonodular lobe control the neck and back. Receives information from the semicircular canal and vestibular in the inner ear. the info goes through the vestibular nuclei in the pons and medulla which then sends axons through the inferior peduncle to the ipsilateral vestibularcerebellum. Doesn't synapse with the deep nuclei of the cerebellum. instead the purkinje cells send axons to the vestibular nucleus via the inferior peduncle. from the vestibular nucleus fibers go via the vestibulospinal tract to the axial and extensor muscles of the leg So essentially the area is calle by where it receives and sends fibers to which are both the same. So Spinocerebellar Vestibulocerebellar and Cerebrocerebellar Per brodal 360

What are the muscles of mastication?

There are 4 1. Medial Pterygoid 2. Lateral Pterygoid 3. Temporalis 4. Masseter Innervated by the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve

Name the muscles of the occipital bone area

There are 4 SubOccipital Muscles: 1. Rectus Capitis Posterior Major 2. Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor 3. Obliquus Capitis Inferior 4. Obliquus Capitis Superior Innervated by the Posterior Ramus of C1 These muscles for the border of the SubOccipital Triangle. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aw3CDQx19Is Grays 97-98

What are the ascending spinocerebellar tracts?

There are 4 in total and they all transfer proprioceptive and also touch and vibration information. Information is received from receptors like: Mercinnin corpuscles, Merkel Disks, Ruffini corpuscles (all epidermis) and pacinian corpuscles (Dermis) Also Muscle spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs. 1. Ventro Spinocerebellum (lower limbs L3 down) (Mossy Fibers): Picks information from below L3 to the Co. DRG [1st order] -> Dorsal Gray Horn [2nd order] -> cross via the anterior white commissure -> superior cerebellar peduncle (midbrain to cerebellum) where it enters the cerebellum and then cross dorsally to the other side (now ipsilateral) to connect with the cerebellar cortex [3rd order] 2. Dorsal SpinoCerebellum (upper limbs L3-C8) (Mossy Fibers): Go through the psudounipolar axons of the Dorsal Root Ganglion [1st Order Neuron]into Lamina Rex 7 from here into Clarke's Column [2nd order neurons] (L2 - C8) from here ascends ipsilateral and enter the cerebellar cortex [3rd order] via the inferior peduncle (Medulla to Cerebellum) 3. Cuneo SpinoCerebellum (upper limbs C8-C1) (Mossy Fibers): DRG -> Accessory Cuneate Nucleus (medulla) -> inf cerebellar peduncles via the external arcuate fibers to the Cerebellar cortex 4. Inferior Olivary Tract (Climbing Fibers): Receptors -> DRG [1st order] -> SC cross contralaterally ascend to the Inf Olivary Nuclei (Medulla?) Cross (now ipsilateral) and enter the cerebellum via the inf cerebellar peduncle. Middle cerebellar peduncle pons to cerebellum https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gqJMcNpNgA&t=1s&ab_channel=NinjaNerdScience

Which structures participate in fine touch?

There are 4 main MechanoReceptors found in the skin: 1. Meissner corpuscles (Epidermis) (Phasic) and 2. merkel disks (Epidermis) (Tonic) are important for discriminative sensation 3. Pacinian corpuscles (phasic) (dermis) might also be involved but specifically for vibrations (one indentation activates only a small action potential in afferent fibers so many indentations ie vibrations above 100 Hz) (deep pressure netters 469) 4. Ruffini corpuscles which are tonic (Epidermis) Per brodal 180, 184-185 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/somatosensation/

In which regions in the brain are the capillaries fenestrated? What happens here?

They are found around the 3rd and 4th ventricles and are called Circumventricular Organs. They are areas that allow unfiltered (that didn't pass the BBB) blood to reach neurons. Include the 1. Area Postrema (chemoreceptors that can induce vomiting) posterior to the medulla near the 4th ventricle. 2. SubFornical Organ - near the InterVentricular Foramen (3rd ventricle at the roof) anterior to the Fornix (Sensory sensitive to hormones) Release hormones directly into the blood 3. Pineal Gland - Melatonin (sleep circadian cycle) 4. Posterior Pituitary Gland - Oxytocin, ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) A.K.A Vasopressin Per Brodal 119, 123

Explain and name the muscles of the eye

They are split into 2: Extraocular - movement of the eyeball Intrinsic - shape of lense and size of pupil ExtraOcular muscles: Levator Palpebrae Superioris - Elevation of the upper eyelid Superior Rectus - Elevates and adducts (CN3) Inferior Rectus - Depresses and Adducts (CN3) Medial Rectus - Adduction (CN3) Inferior Oblique - Elevates, abducts (CN3) Lateral Rectus - Abduction (CN6) Superior Oblique - Depresses, Abducts (CN4) Intrinsic Muscles: Ciliary Muscles - constricts ciliary muscles which are connected to zonules. When the ciliary muscles are contracted there is less tension of the lens and it is more rounded. (CN3 parasympathetic) Sphincter Pupillae - Constricts the pupil (CN3) Dilator Pupillae - Dilates the pupil (superior cervical ganglion of T1) Gray's 936, 950

What are General Somatic Afferent fibers (GSA)/ (Somatic Sensory Fibers)?

They arise from neurons in sensory ganglia and function for pain, touch and temperature. CN: 5 (facial Sensations), 7 (sensation of the posterior ear), 9 (External Ear) and 10 Gray's 894

The prostatic part of the urethra is marked by a longitudinal midline fold of mucosa name?

Urethral Crest the depressions are the prostatic sinuses Gray's 468

Where does the medial lemniscus ends?

VPL Ventral postrolateral nucleus of the thalamus (it's the Dorsal Column) With fibers from the gracilis terminate more laterally and the fibers from the cunate terminate more medially (in the VPL) The sensory trigeminal nucleus ends in the VPM Per Brodal 208

What is the choroid plexus? What is it's pathway to the SubArachnoid Space?

a network of blood vessels in each ventricle of the brain. It is derived from the pia mater and produces the cerebrospinal fluid. They are in all the ventricles (2x Lateral, 3rd and 4th) but the most CSF is produced in the Lateral. From the Lateral to the 3rd via the Interventricular Foramen of Monro. From here to the 4th via the narrow cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius. From here exits the Enter the Cisterna Magna through 3 openings in the 4th ventricle. medial Foramen (of Magendie) and 2x lateral Foramina (of Luschka) From here to the SubArachnoid Space via the Cistern Magnus (one of 3 subarachnoid cisterns other 2 are Pontine cistern and interpeduncular cistern) The CSF drains into the venous system via Arachnoid Villi which project as clumps (Arachnoid Granulations) mainly found in the Superior Sagittal Sinus which has lateral extensions called Lateral Lacunae Gray's 877 Per Brodal 114

Venous sinusoids are a tortuous network of thin-walled vessels with irregular lumina, they have a unique structure related to high permeability. They are made of what?

spindle-shaped, longitudinally oriented endothelial cells. 212 netter

Explain the TectoSpinal Tract

start Superior Colliculus which receives input from our auditory system (Inferior Colliculus which receives info from the cochlear nuclei. The inf colliculus then sends to the medial geniculate body of the thalamus from there to the primary auditory in the temporal lobe (in the lateral sulcus)) receives also from the: Retina, Visual cortex and the frontal eye field. As well as M1 (Motor Cortex BA4?) and S1 (Somatosensory Cortex BA 1,2,3?) At the posterior tegmental decussation they become contralaterally and goes down to the Cervical Spinal Cord n lamina VI, VII, and VIII to coordinate the movement of the eyes and the muscles of the head and neck Communicates with CN3 (OculoMotor), CN4 (Trochlear) Midbrain and CN6 (Abduncent) in the pons. It functions as a reflex which causes us to look and pay attention to new sudden stimulus (bang making us look) https://www.imaios.com/en/e-Anatomy/Anatomical-Parts/Tectospinal-tract2 https://books.google.co.il/books?id=xP-kmKiziAQC&pg=PA194&lpg=PA194&dq=corticoreticular+fibers&source=bl&ots=pYBVsPb3Ze&sig=ACfU3U1yxM-nuES83t7s71t4xZD0ocPAqQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj_9pKa3cTpAhXGMewKHdHBA_8Q6AEwEXoECFsQAQ#v=onepage&q=corticoreticular%20fibers&f=true pg 194 Per Brodal 325

What are the 3 main sulcuses in the brain?

superiorly anteriorly is the central sulcus posteriorly is the parietal occipital sulcus? laterally inferiorly is the lateral sulcus

The superior hemiazygos vein descends on the left side from the superior portion of the posterior mediastinum to approximately which vertebral level ?

to approximately vertebral level TVIII (Fig. 3 . 9 4) . At this point, it crosses the vertebral column to j oin the azygos vein, or ends in the hemiazygos vein, or has a connection to both veins. Usually, it also has a connection superiorly to the left superior intercostal vein. Gray's 227