Anatomy/Physio Things to Know

What is the master gland of the body?

the pituitary gland.

What is the sarcolemma?

the plasma membrane of a muscle cell

The heart is divided laterally into two sides by a thing inner partition called...

the septum

Both parts of your autonomic system, sympathetic and parasympathetic, require...

two neurons in order to work, the two neurons meet in ganglia

What are considered skin appendages?

Hair nails sweat glands sebaceous (oil) glands

Caffeine and alcohol both inhibit the hormone...

antidiuretic hormone or ADH. secreted by the posterior pituitary gland

What are agglutinogens?

antigens on the surface of the RBC that is the basis for blood typing, these activate antibodies that coagulate invading materials together.

Rotational movement uses...

ball and socket joint (multiaxial movement)

What is the aortic semilunar valve?

between left ventricle and aorta

What is the Mitral or bicuspid valve?

between the left atrium and the left ventricle

What homeostasis does the thyroid keep together?

body temperature skin moisture blood levels of: oxygen, calcium, and cholesterol

Osteoclasts are...

bone breakers

Osteoblasts are...

bone makers

Ligaments connect...

bone to bone

What are synchondroses cartilaginous joints?

bones are joined by hyaline cartilage

What are your appendicular bones?

bones that help us move around, shoulder blades, pelvis (ilium, pubis, and ischium) and limbs

CNS consists of

brain and spinal cord

What is the parasympathetic defecation reflex?

involves the spinal cord = stretching of the rectum sends sensory signals to the spinal cord that you need to poop.

the stratum lucidum is?

is a translucent layer that allows sunlight to pass through the skin

What is the role of the small intestine?

mechanical breakdown and propulsion of chyme chemical digestion nutrient absorption

Muscles convert chemical energy into...

mechanical energy

What is your diaphragm?

moves your lungs, a smooth muscle where your lungs sit on top of, separates your thorax from your abdomen.

What is the endometrium?

mucosal lining of the uterus.

What is the sublingual glands?

mucous secreting cell

Stratified layer

multi layer, layers set on top of each other/stacked.

What are the three main chambers of the cochlea?

scala vestibuli scala media scala tympani

The surge of FSH to develop a follicle acts upon the pituitary to...

secrete luteinizing hormone which is usually inhibited by low levels of estrogen, but stimulated by high levels. LH finishes follicular maturation.

What are chief cells of the stomach?

secretes pepsinogen which is converted by HCL to pepsin, a protein digesting enzyme.

What is the role of the corpus luteum during implantation?

secretes surges of estrogen and progesterone to prepare the endometrium to receive the blastocyst, allowing the uterine lining to bind to little proteins on the trophoblasts, holding onto them for the duration of the pregnancy. Implantation takes about 5 days and finishes up 12 days after ovulation.

How does the body absorb vitamin D through sunlight?

skin cells contain a molecule that converts to vitamin D when it comes into contact with UV light, vitamin D then heads through bloodstream to liver and kidney where it is converted to calcitriol (activated D), which is then circulated to all bones in the body.

CLMGSB

Come lets get sunburned

What is the right lymphatic duct?

drains right upper arm and right side of head and thorax, feeds into the jugular vein.

What are the alveolar ducts?

ducts lead into terminal clusters called alveolar sacs

What is the size principle of recruitment?

during recruitment small, medium, and the large motor units are used in order during a contraction to increase force

What are the seminal vesicles?

each of a pair of glands that open into the vas deferens near its junction with the urethra and secrete many of the components of semen. Slightly alkaline to help counteract the slightly acidic environment both in the male urethra and the female vagina. Also releases prostaglandins that decrease the viscosity of a female's cervical mucous and actually triggering a reverse peristalsis of the uterus.

Primary epithelium

epidermis of skin and organs,

What is the corpus cavernosum?

erectile tissue of penis

What is the role of the HPA axis?

essentially the endocrine system's companion to the sympathetic nervous system.

What are the roles of capillary beds?

exchange nutrients help regulated blood pressure play a role in thermoregulation

Capillaries are responsible for...

exchange of gases of living cells, and absorbing nutrients

Apical side of epithelial tissue

exposed to outside of body or internal of body cavity.

What is the vulva?

external female genitalia

What is another name for sweat glands?

sudoriferous glands (3 million plus distributed throughout the body)

Rotating the your palm anteriorly is known as?

supination

What is a role of the coronary arteries?

supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients

Of the CNS Glial cell types, what is the role of Astrocytes?

support, regulate ions, exchange of materials between neurons and capillaries, anchor neurons to their blood supply,

What is the corpus spongiosum?

surrounds urethra and expands to form glans and bulb

What is the rate of action potentials travelling through the sympathetic nervous system called?

sympathetic tone

endocrine glands cook up hormones and secrete them into...

the blood without using ducts

Omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids are called essential fatty acids because...

the body can't make them, so they have to be injected, likewise with essential vitamins.

How can an autoimmune disease target the thyroid gland?

the body produces abnormal antibody like thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAb) mimic hormones. They mimic the hormones released by the pituitary gland causing hyper or hypothyroidism.

What is catabolism?

the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy; destructive metabolism.

What is the gustatory cell?

the cell that tastes

What are the synovial joints?

Free moving joints that are surrounded by joint capsules.

The spike in CO2 that is released by your active muscle tissues actually makes your blood more acidic... to what benefit?

From the bohr effect, when CO2 dissolves in blood it produces carbonic acid, which breaks down into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. These ions bind to hemoglobin changing its shape again further lowering its affinity for oxygen.

How does the heart pump blood?

Generating high hydrostatic pressure to pump blood out of the heart, while also creating low pressure to bring it back in.

What is the role of luteinizing hormone?

Gets the dormant oocyte in the follicle to start diving again.

What is the Hypoglossal Nerve?

allow you to swallow and talk

Glucagon is released in the pancreas by...

alpha cells

If the effector of norepinephrine is smooth muscle, on the smooth muscle cells controlling some blood vessels, there are receptors called...

alpha receptors, causing smooth muscle cells to contract. Vasoconstriction.

How can the brain decrease blood pressure?

altering the distribution of blood flow around the body, or by changing the diameter of certain blood vessels.

Amine group from proteins can not be used in the body and is converted to...

ammonia NH3

At what angle does the heart sit in the chest?

an angle with one end pointing inferiorly toward the left hip, and the other toward the right shoulder. Most of its mass rests just left of the midsternal line.

What are the Pulmonary veins?

carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the left atrium where it is pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.

skeletal muscle tissue

long multinucleate parallel cells, w/ striations, voluntary control (Bicep)

In the parasympathetic system, the preganglionic fibers are...

longer while the postganglionic fibers are shorter.

What is the Ovarian medulla?

loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves

A stimulus causes the sodium channels to...

open up, causing sodium to flood into the cell raising the membrane potential until it reaches its threshold.

What is the vaginal orifice?

opening of the vagina

What is the urethral orifice?

opening of urethra

What is another term for the eye socket?

orbit

In sensory and motor neurons, a single axon can...

reach all the way from your spinal cord to whatever muscle or touch receptor it works with.

What is the collecting duct?

receives fluid from the DCTs of several nephrons as it passes back into the medulla, the high salinity of the medulla pulls more water out of the collecting duct. Some Urea also exits making the medulla saltier.

The atria are...

receiving chambers

Erythema is...

red skin, (fever, inflammation, allergy)

What are the three layers of the Kidney?

renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pelvis

How does muscle contraction work?

results from the sliding together of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle cell or fiber

What is the Tricuspid valve?

right atrioventricular valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle.

Where is the Sinoatrial node?

right atrium

What are lamellae?

rings around the central canal, sites of lacunae in bone, filled with collagen fibers that run in the same direction as osteons.

The secretion of gastrin can also be stimulated by...

rise in alkalinity caused by the stomach acid getting neutralized as it does its job. As stomach acid pH decreases gastric acid is down regulated.

What enzyme is found in saliva?

salivary amylase (digests starches)

There are only two types of agglutinogens

A and B However, you can have AB or O (lack of agglutinogens)

What are T lymphocytes?

HELPER T CELLS: T . SUPPRESSOR T CELLS: CYTOTOXIC (killer) T CELLS:

Insulin is released in the pancreas by...

beta cells

What is a sarcomere?

contractile/functional unit of muscle

What are the two defenses of the adaptive immue system?

1) Humoral immunity (antibodies, B lymphocytes) 2) Cellular defenses

How do ions help regulate blood's chemistry?

maintaining pH levels and proper osmotic pressure and osmolarity.

What are the two major epithelial receptor types in the taste bud?

the gustatory cell and the basal cell.

What is the glomerulus?

"ball" of capillaries with many pores

What is the Bohr effect on hemoglobin?

*Higher/Lower pHs cause hemoglobin to be less saturated due to _Hi_ in partial pressures of CO2 and O2

What is a tropic hormone?

A hormone that has an endocrine gland as its target = a hormone that controls the release of other hormones CAUSES CASCADES

The white of the eye is called...

the sclera

What is edema?

- The excess accumulation of FLUID IN THE interstitial TISSUE spaces which is also called THIRD-SPACE FLUID. - Classified as LOCALIZED OR SYSTEMIC. Can be caused from a blockage of the lymphatic system.

What is a graded muscle response?

-ability of skeletal muscles to show different levels of contractions to generate different levels of force in relation to the needs of the body. mainly depends on: -Stimulated frequency -Number of motor units involved in muscle contraction

What is a sertoli cell?

-also called a sustentacular cell or a nurse cell -forms blood/testes barrier -provides nourishment to spermatids -makes inhibin and androgen-binding protein

A type B spermatogonium gives rise to...

-two primary spermatocytes -two secondary haploid spermatocytes they than go into meiosis II and produce four round spermatids.

If air pressure at sea level is 760 mmHg and oxygen makes up 21% of air, what is the partial pressure of oxygen?

0.21 x 760 = 160 mmHg, at sea level, when mixed in the lungs the partial pressure of oxygen drops to 104 mmHg, once it is stripped away by cells the partial pressure is only 40 mmHg, allowing oxygen to flow into your lungs because as a rule dissolved gases always diffuse down their partial pressure gradients.

Simple layer:

1 layer of cells

What is a nephrons three steps?

1) Glomerular filtration 2) Tubular reabsorption 3) Tubular secretion

What is the role of the large intestine?

1) absorb remaining water 2) store feces until elimination 3) House good bacteria and digest whatever remaining nutrients they release 4) Preside over defecation

What are the chemical defenses of the innate immune system?

1) acid from skin, stomach, and vaginal secretions 2) Mucin that forms mucus in the respiratory and digestive passageways. 3) enzymes found in saliva, mucus, and eye fluid that fight bacteria 4) Defensins, or antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) 5) Other chemicals found in sweat that destroy bacteria

What happens when you experience stress like the smoke alarm going off?

1) action potentials in the brain trigger neurons in the hypothalamus to release the peptide CRG or corticotropin releasing hormone 2) corticotropin releasing hormone makes a short trip through the bloodstream binding to the outside target cells on the anterior of the pituitary gland. 3) the pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormones or ACTH. 4) adrenocorticotropic hormones are released into the blood stream to the adrenal cortices on the adrenal glands on top of the kidneys. 5) when ACTH binds to receptors on cells in an adrenal cortex (on top of kidney) it triggers the release of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid hormones. 6) glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid hormones keep blood pressure and blood sugar balanced, but in times of extreme stress these hormones like cortisol, cause the fight/flight response increasing blood pressure and dumping glucose into the blood stream. shutting down non-emergency services like digestion, immune system, and sperm/egg development. 7) hypothalamus senses all of these things occuring and stops the release of corticotropin releasing hormone, ending the panic response. because it is not electrical this process occurs more slowly and resolves more slowly as enzymes have to break down left over hormones in the blood stream.

What are the three responsibilities of blood vessels?

1) deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells 2) Carry away waste products 3) part of maintaining blood pressure

What is the process of glycolysis?

1) glucose 2) fructose-1, 6-biphosphate 3) dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) 4) 2 pyruvic acid 5) they enter krebs

What are the six steps of human digestion?

1) ingestion 2) propulsion 3) mechanical breakdown 4) chemical digestion 5) Absorption 6) Defecation

What are the three main characteristics of the adaptive immune system?

1) it is specific 2) It is systemic 3) Memory

What is the ratio of glial cell to neuron in the brain?

10 to 1

How many facial bones in the skull?

14

The septum divides the heart into four chambers, those being...

2 valves of Superior Atria (low pressure areas) 2 Inferior ventricles (high pressure areas)

What is an apocrine gland?

2000 in body, they empty into the hair follicles around armpits and groin. Secreted sweat contains fats and proteins as well.

What are lobule of the testes?

250 sections in the testes each loaded with tightly coiled seminiferous tubules.

How long is the menstrual cycle?

28 days

What is Urea Recycling?

50% absorbed in PT (50% remaining), 60% secreted at tip, 110% in DT, 40% excreted and 70% absorbed in the CD (this 70 is what is used to create the medullary gradient and is also secreted into the tip)

How many skeletal muscles are in the body?

640

What does the vertical column include?

7 cervical vertebrae of neck 12 thoracic vertebrae 5 lumbar vertebrae in the small of back 5 fused sacral vertebrate (the sacrum) that together with the hip bones form the pelvic joint 4 fused coccyx vertebrae (the tailbone)

What is the standard glucose range in a human?

70-100 mg/dL mg per deciliter

How many cranial bones in the skull?

8

What is resorption?

A condition associated with either a physiologic or a pathologic process resulting in a loss of dentin, cementum and/or bone

What is a morula?

A dense body of cells, formed 3 days after conception. Marks the end of the cleavage stage.

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A family of genes that encode a large set of cell surface proteins called MHC molecules. Class I and class II MHC molecules function in antigen presentation to T cells. Foreign MHC molecules on transplanted tissue can trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of the transplant

What's a good way to think about blood pressure?

A measure of the amount of strain your arteries feel as your heart moves your blood around.

What is the intrinsic cardiac conduction system?

A network of noncontractile (autorhythmic) cells that initiate and distribute impulses to coordinate the depolarization and contraction of the heart

Acetycholine (ACh) is...

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction, by triggering action potentials. Stimulates action potentials in several neurons on the other end in the postganglionic fibers. Signal is carried to effector organs/muscles.

What is the AV Node?

A small bundle of cells that can receive the electrical impulse from the SA node, and continue the electrical signal down into the ventricles. To initiate a pump. 40-60 beats per minute

What are the fallopian tubes?

A pair of tubes with fingerlike projections that draw in the ovum. (Female system) made of sheets of smooth muscle and a highly folded mucosa layer, oocyte travels down to meet a sperm potentially. But continues travel to the uterus.

What is the perimysium?

A thin septa of CT that extends inward from the epimysium and surrounds a bundle (fascicle) of muscle fibers

What is the Universal recipient blood type?

AB

What can block tropomyosin and troponin?

ATP and calcium

What is the atrioventricular bundle/Bundle of His?

AV node electrical path down into ventricles.

What is a B lymphocyte?

Acquired immune cell producing antibodies. Many variations, matures in bone marrow, b cell clones itself when it comes into contact with antigen from a invader, effector b lymphocytes (active fighters) surround a memory cell that preserves the genetic code for that specific antibody. B lymphocyte effector cells also release antibodies into.

What are bronchioles?

Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.

What are partly-moving joints called?

Amphiarthroses

The descending limb of the loop of henle contains?

Aquaporins on its basal side, in order to reabsorb water.

What is agglutination?

Antibody molecule binding to antigens Causes clumping of red blood cells/pathogens

What are glycoproteins on the plasma membrane of our red blood cells?

Antigens

What is the papillary layer?

Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels, friction ridges occur giving us fingerprints.

What is capacitated in sperm cells?

As the sperm travels through the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes, female secretions start to degrade some of the sperm's protective proteins until the cap on the tip of the acrosome is fragile enough to leak special hydrolytic enzymes while also weaving through granulosa cells, a layer of glycoprotein, and in this layer the sperm is welcomes by receptors that gives the sperm calcium ions to trigger the final acrosomal reaction that releases enzymes the sperm needs to dock with the innermost membrane of the oocyte and the contents of the sperm enter the oocyte proper. As the sperm delivers its payload, it causes a flash of calcium ions from the oocyte's endoplasmic reticulum. This tells the secondary oocyte to get ready for its second meiotic division and destroys all extra sperm receptors to prevent further fertilization.

What are the CNS Glial cell types?

Astrocytes Microglial cells Ependymal Cells Oligodendrocytes

What is your first vertebrae on base of skull called?

Atlas vertebra

How does MHC class I allow the cell to tell immune cells to kill it?

Attaches antigens to the ends of MHC proteins on it allowing immune cells to attack.

What is implantation?

Attachment of the blastocyst to the endometrium, a week after ovulation.

What is the external acoustic meatus?

Auditory canal

What are the small bones of the ear called?

Auditory ossicles

What is the systemic loop?

Begins in the left ventricle, because the mitral valve is shut, the blood can not go back to the left atrium, because the blood can not go back it is forced through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta

Smooth muscle around blood vessels that feed into the skeletal muscle system are full of...

Beta receptors, causing vasodilation. The blood vessels therefore leading to the stomach will undergo vasoconstriction from alpha receptor binding.

On smooth muscle cells that control other blood vessels there norepinephrine binds to...

Beta receptors, making the muscles relax, known as vasodilation.

What are the main proteins found in plasma?

Beta-globulins Alpha globulins Albumin

Deoxygenated blood flows back to the heart by entering the...

Big Superior Vena Cava and inferior vena cava veins into the right atrium. When the right atrium contracts the blood passes through the tricuspid valves and restarts the heart process.

Cyanosis is...

Blue skin color - low oxygenation of hemoglobin

What is the Trigeminal nerve?

Branches into three main strands and innervates the face and jaw muscles

What is dense irregular tissue?

CT, irregularly arranged collagen fibers with some elastic fibers, found where tension is exerted in lots of different directions, such as palms of hands.

What are the main cation electrolytes?

Calcium, Sodium, and Potassium

How do immunodeficiency diseases occur?

Can be as a result of virus attacking helper T cells/their production / immune system attacks body structures (pancreas/myelin sheaths)

What is the Auditory Nerve?

Carries sensory information from the cochlea to the brain

What do T cells cause in the body?

Cause inflammation Activate Macrophages Get other T cells fired up Regulate much of the immune response

Cardiac Tissue

Cells divide and converge, one nucleus per cell striated with intercalated disks. Involuntary

What is the vestibule?

Central egg-shaped cavity of bony labyrinth

Proximal

Closer to the center of trunk

What is the epididymis?

Coiled tube inside the testes where sperm is stored and matured.

What is the fiber of the extracellular matrix?

Collagen fibers (strongest) Elastic fibers (branching framework made from elastin, stretch and coil, found in skin and lung, and blood vessel walls) Reticular fibers (short, finer collagen fibers with an extra coating of glycoprotein, sponge like networks that cradle internal organs)

What does vitamin C do?

Collagen synthesis Amino acid metabolism Helps iron absorption Immunity Antioxidant

How does congestive heart failure occur?

Congestive heart failure can occur if the left ventricle can't pump blood out, and it backs up. Since the left ventricle receives blood from the lungs, that blood backs up back into the lungs, where plasma leaks out and fills the lungs, hence a person is congested.

Where are your parasympathetic nerve fibers located?

Craniosacral area, from base of brain and sacral spinal cord, just superior to the tailbone. "parasympathetic means beside the sympathetic"

What is the Oculomotor Nerve?

Controls four of the six muscles that control the movements of your eyes.

What is the Vagus Nerve?

Controls the heart and digestive tract among other functions Stretches from near brainstem to most visceral organs, 2 way street using sensory peripheral nervous system to send from body to brain and motor signals from brain to the rest of the body. It has both sensory and motor functions. When digesting vagus nerve sees stomach is churning and then sends signals that slow the heart, put glucose in storage, and reduce norepinephrine that the sympathetic system was pumping out all day.

What does glomerular filtration do?

Creates a plasma like filtrate of the blood (Plasma passes from the capillaries of the glomerulus into the capsular space of the nephron) waste products, ions, glucose, and amino acids to pass from the blood into the capsule, but blood larger molecules like blood cells and proteins, these large molecules exit through the peritubular capillaries known as the vasa recta.

What is the glomerular capsule/Bowmans capsule?

Cup-shaped, hollow structure surrounding glomerulus

What is the Distal convoluted tubule?

DCT - Functions more in secretion than reabsorption. Confined to the cortex. Last segment of renal tubule. it plays a critical role in a variety of homeostatic processes, including sodium chloride reabsorption, potassium secretion, and calcium and magnesium handling.

What is the endomysium?

Delicate CT that surrounds each muscle fiber

What is the epimysium?

Dense CT that surrounds an entire muscle

What is the process of blood becoming oxygenated?

Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right ventricle through the semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk where it goes through the left and right pulmonary artery into the lung where it becomes oxygenated and then send into the pulmonary veins where it is carried to the left atrium and pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.

What is respiratory alkalosis?

Depression of pCO2 due to alveolar hyperventilation

What are fully movable joints called?

Diarthroses

What are the stages of labor?

Dilation (contractions begin until cervix is fully dilated about 10 centimeters), expulsion (lasts from full dilation through crowning and actual delivery), placental stage (30 min after delivery strong contractions dislodge the placenta to deliver the afterbirth.

MHC class II?

Display antigens derived from extracellular pathogens. Displayed by phagocytic cells. found on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells, it binds to CD4 molecules on T cells These cells display the antigen pieces to the Helper and Memory T cells to produce antibodies against it.

What are enteroendocrine cells?

Epithelial cells in the gastrointestinal mucosa. ~20 cell types which produce different hormones. Derived from neural crest cells (notice a theme here...neural crest cells and hormone signalling) when time to slow digestion somatostatin is released to inhibit secretions.

What is a fixed type macrophage?

Ex) Stellate macrophages of the liver, these are attached to fibers in specific organs, and devour anything suspicious that passes by.

hyperglycemia is defined as

FPG ≥ 126mg/dL; any measurement ≥ 140-180+mg/dL

What is the cecum?

Fermentation pouch where microorganisms aid in the digestion of cellulose

What is the Tunica Albuginea?

Fibrous capsule that surrounds the testicle/ovary

What are the structural classifications of joints?

Fibrous joints Cartilaginous joints Synovial joints

In the autonomic nervous system of the efferent division of the PNS, what is the role of the sympathetic division?

Fight/Flight the "E Division" -- ruling Exercise, Excitement, Emergency, and Embarrassment

What is serous fluid?

Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane and acts as a natural lubricant so the heart does not create friction as it beats.

What is erythropoietin (EPO)?

Glycoprotein (prod in kidney and liver) that *stimulates bone marrow* to make RBCs (which increases amount of Hgb available to carry oxygen), constantly circulates in blood.

What is the role of HCG in early pregnancy?

HCG stimulates ovarian estrogen and progesterone secretion to protect the corpus luteum and directly tells it to pump estrogen and progesterone by bypassing the HPO axis.

What is the Spinal Accessory Nerve?

Has to do with moving your head and shoulders.

What is the relation between renin and angiotensin from the kidneys and blood vessels?

Help regulate levels of sodium and fluids in your body Help expand and constrict blood vessels. When bp gets too high the kidneys try to reduce the volume of blood by getting rid of extra water by creating more urine.

Hematopoiesis begins with what cell type?

Hemocytoblast (stem cell) --> erythroblast during development once ribosomes produce enough hemoglobin the late erythroblast purges itself of most organelles and nucleus, causing the cell walls to collapse a little creating the biconcave appearance of the Reticulocyte (early erythrocyte), still has ribosomes left called a reticulum, once more hemoglobin is made from the ribosomes the reticulocyte leaves the red bone marrow and enters the blood stream as an erythrocyte.

How are sour/acidic tastes recepted?

High in hydrogen ions and take a different route by activating proton channels.

Of the CNS glial cell types, what is the role of microglial cells?

Immune defense against invading microorganisms.

Where is the heart snuggled into your chest?

In the mediastinum cavity

Why is there greater urine production during pregnancy?

Increase in metabolism, combined with the kidneys having to process wastes from the developing fetus leads to greater urine production. A pregnant woman's blood volume can increase by almost 40%.

What is the Tunica Intima?

Innermost endothelium of blood vessel "your circulatory underwear"

Of the PNS glial cell types, what is the role of Schwann cells?

Insulate, help form myelin sheath. Similar to oligodendrocytes,

What is gastrulation?

Invagination of blastocyst to form gastrula. Formation of three cell layer. and continues to grow until you make a human child.

What is compact bone tissue?

It contains few spaces and is the strongest form of bone tissue. It is found beneath the periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphysis of long bones. {makes up the shaft of long bone}. it provides protection and support and resists the stresses produced by weight and movement.

What is a myocardial infarction?

It happens when blood stops flowing properly to part of the heart and the heart muscle is injured due to not receiving enough oxygen. Causing death of cardiomyocytes.

What is a unipolar neuron?

It is a single extension that branches out in two directions. It has a receptive pole and an output zone. Mostly found in sensory receptors.

In the efferent (motor) division of the PNS, what is the role of the autonomic nervous system?

It is involuntary, allowing heart to beat, lung to breathe, and stomach digest (churn)

What is the soma of a neuron?

It is the main section of the neuron that contains the nucleus, nutrients, cell stuff etc

What is the placenta?

It is the tissue attached to the uterine wall that nourishes the fetus through the umbilical cord. Created by the melding of both maternal and embryonic tissues. With the umbilical cord Allows for the transfer of nutrients, hormones, and wastes between mother and offspring.

In the efferent (motor) division of the PNS, what is the role of the somatic nervous symptom?

It is voluntary and allows for control of skeletal muscle for movement.

What is the pulmonary circulation loop?

It is where the right side of the heart pumps blood from the body into the lungs, where deoxygenated blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen

What are the three distinct phases

Latent period Period of Contraction Relaxation period

What is the Glossopharyngeal nerve?

Leads to your tongue and your pharynx

What is the submandibular gland?

Lies beneath mandible at the angle of jaw (size of a walnut). Drains to Wharton's duct: opens on both sides of frenulum (under tongue) secretes serous.

What are the classes and subclasses of connective tissue proper?

Loose: - areolar - reticular - adipose Dense: - regular - irregular - elastic

What are the names of the auditory ossicles?

Malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) does what to follicles?

Many follicles may start ripening but only a single dominant one will make it to ovulation, the others experience atresia. The dominant follicle begins to release estrogen which makes it develop even more.

What is adipose connective tissue?

Matrix as in areolar, but very sparse, closed packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet(vacuole) . insulates against heat lost

What does the long bone diaphysis contain?

Medullary cavity that contained the yellow bone marrow (lipid storage)

What is an eccrine gland?

Merocrine, abundant on palms, soles, and forehead. Sweat 99% water, NaCl, Vitamin C, Antibodies, Dermcidin, and Metabolic Waste. Ducts connect to pores, function in thermoregulation.

What are Purkinje fibers?

Modified myocardio fibers that have less contractile elements, rapidly conduct impulses, last resort when other pacemakers fail, trigger depolarization in surround cells of ventricles causing them to contract from the bottom up like toothpaste. 20-40 beats per minute

What is the ovarian cycle?

Monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg

What is fibro cartilage?

More collagen bundles than hyaline. *Slightly compressible and tough*. Found where there is a *lot of pressure*, e.g. knee, jaw, and intervertebral discs

Pseudostratified

Mostly just one layer, cells with different shapes and sizes.

Motor Neurons or Efferent Neurons do what?

Mostly multipolar and transmit impulses away from the central nervous system and out to your body's muscles and glands.

What is a plane joint?

Movement in only one plane: transverse or frontal plane. Examples: The carpal and tarsal bones, between the articular processes of the vertebrae, and at the sternoclavicular joint

What are external intercostal muscles?

Muscles between the ribs that contract to lift the ribs up and out causing the chest cavity to expand. Causing low pressure in the lungs compared to the outside air and the air rushes into the lung. When the diaphragm relaxes the weight of the rib cage causes the air in the lung to be at a higher pressure than the outside so the air is exhaled.

What is the rete testis?

Network of tubules that carries sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the vas deferens. Concentrates sperm. a tubular network on the posterior side of the testis

What are the three common traits of different types of neurons?

Neurons are some of the longest lived cells in your body Neurons are irreplaceable (amitotic) Neurons have a high metabolic rate and 25% of consumed calories support brain.

What is the Universal donor blood type?

O contain both antibodies for A antibody and B antibody. Meaning they can not receive blood infusions of anything but O blood.

What are antagonist muscles?

Muscles that directly opposes the movement action; a muscle that directly brings about a specific action, in order to keep the prime movers from over extending.

What are stereocilia?

Non-motile microvilli found in the epididymis. Large surface area to help reabsorb extra fluid and pass along nutrients to idling sperm.

How can Rh negative blood types only tolerate Rh positive blood types once?

Once Rh negative blood is exposed to Rh positive blood, the Rh negative blood produces antibodies against the Rh positive blood and and subsequent infusion will cause the Rh negative blood to target the Rh positive blood. This can be problematic during childbirth with Rh negative mothers and Rh positive children. Any subsequent births of a positive child requires a rhogam serum injection that contains anti-Rh antigens to block the mother's immune system from attacking her own body.

How do helper T cells work?

Once primed by APC presentation of antigen, they Help activate T and B cells Induce T and B cell proliferation Activate macrophages and recruit other immune cells Without TH, there is no immune response communication by cytokines

What is the facial nerve?

Operates the muscles that make most facial expressions

What is the basic structural unit of bone?

Osteons

Renal tube is composed of...

PCT, Loop of Henle, DCT

What are the main anion electrolytes?

Phosphate, Sulfate, and Bicarbonate

Where does a scent go when smelled?

Picked up by the receptors and sent through the ethmoid bone and then the glomerulus and to the Mitral cells which relay message to the brain.

The glomerulus accepts?

Plasma from the capillaries that enter the glomeruli.

What is the ground substance of blood?

Plasma, which also contains protein fibers floating around it, therefore making it a connective tissue.

What does vitamin B do?

Promotes growth, energy, muscle tone, digestion, normal appetite, release energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, formation of blood cells production of ATP from glucose

What are glial cells?

Provide support, nutrition, insulation, and help with signal transmission in the nervous system.

What are the dendrites of the neuron?

Receive incoming signals

What are cutaneous receptors/corpuscles?

Receptors in the dermis that make the skin sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

What are the Glial cell types of the PNS?

Satellite cells Schwann Cells

What makes your thumbs imposable?

Saddle joint

Endocrine glands

Secrete hormones right into your bloodstream or to nearby cells.

Exocrine glands

Secrete their juices into tubes or ducts that lead to the outside of the body. exocrine gland --> duct --> epithelial surface

How does ADH regulate water reabsorption?

Sends aquaporins from storage to the apical side of the collecting duct, allowing more water to leave the urine.

Parietal lobe processes...

Sensations of pain and pressure

What are the three principle functions of the nervous system?

Sensory Input Integration Motor Output

How do we boil down our six major special senses into one thing?

Sensory cells translating chemical, electromagnetic, and mechanical stimuli into action potentials that our nervous system can make sense of.

What is the excitement phase of the sexual response cycle?

Sexual arousal triggers the parasympathetic nervous system to act on external genitalia arterioles by dilating and filling them with blood.

What is the detrusor muscle?

Smooth muscle found in the wall of the bladder that remains relaxed to allow the bladder to fill and store urine, and contracts during urination to release urine.

What are myoid cells?

Smooth muscle-like cells that may squeeze sperm and testicular fluids out of testes into the rete testis.

How are salty tastes recepted?

Sodium channels in the gustatory cells open, which generate a graded potential, and spark an action potential.

What is the basic structure of all neurons?

Soma (Cell body) Dendrites (receive signals) Axons (Transmit signal away from cell body to other cells)

what is a merkel cell?

Tactile cell that combine with nerve endings to create a sensory receptor for touch

What is the Olfactory nerve?

Takes scent information gathered by the nose and sends it to the brain

What are the ovarian follicles?

Specialized structure of cells surrounding the developing primary oocyte. (incomplete proto-egg)

What are leydig cells?

Stimulated by: LH, they Produce: testosterone (resp for secondary sex characteristics). Stimulate: the spermatogonia to become sperm.

What is the Abducens?

Stimulates some of the muscles in your eyes

Of the PNS glial cell types, what is the role of satellite cells?

Surround neuron cell bodies.Do mainly in the peripheral system what astrocytes do in the central system. They surround and support neuron cell bodies.

What are non-moving joints called?

Synarthroses

What are the axial bones?

The axial skeleton includes 80 bones divided into the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (rib cage) regions.

What structure in the ear is important for equilibrium?

The Vestibular Apparatus

What is Hemophillia?

The body can not make an effective fibrin clot.

What are the two components of the labyrinth in the ear?

The bony Labyrinth & membranous labyrinth

What happens when you exhale CO2 faster than your cells release it?

The concentration in your blood drops, with less carbonic acid around your body the pH rises and the blood becomes more basic.

What is gluconeogenesis?

The formation of glucose by non-glucose precursors. Proteins and fats.

What is the size characteristics of the heart?

The heart is hollow, vaguely cone-shaped, and only weighs about 250 to 350 grams

What is the relationship between blood vessels and blood pressure?

The heart is the pump, the arteries are pressure reservoirs, the arterioles control distribution, the capillaries are the exchange sites, and the veins are blood reservoirs.

What is the trabeculae?

The irregularly arranged lamella in spongy bone

What is the haldane effect?

The lower the PO2 and hemoglobin saturation with O2, the more CO2 can be carried in the blood. (exhale), when O2 binds to the hemoglobin in lung it cases shape changes that causes CO2 and waste products to be released into the breath.

What is Grave's disease?

The most common cause of hyperthyroidism. It is an autoimmune disease.

What are bronchi?

The passages that direct air into the lungs

Where does a signal go after the mitral cell picks up the signal from the olfactory neuron?

The signal moves from the olfactory tract, to the olfactory cortex of the brain. The smell is then brought to two places, one is the frontal cortex so it can be consciously identified, and the limbic system (hypothalamus, amygdala, etc), allowing an emotional response.

What is the short reflex arc?

The signals also zip around within the stomach's own nervous system.

What hormones does the thyroid produce?

Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3) Calcitonin

What is the basal cell of the taste bud?

The stem cells that replace the gustatory cell after they are damaged.

What is Dalton's Law?

The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressure that each gas would exert independently. The partial pressure of oxygen alone is directly proportional to the percentage of that gas in the mixture.

What are suppressor T cells?

These inhabit activity of B-cells and of macrophages when infection is under control. / regulate T lymphocytes that suppress the immune system.

What is unique about natural killer cells?

They can kill your own cells if they are infected with viruses or become cancerous.

What three characteristics do all connective tissue types share?

They develop from mesenchyme Different degrees of vascularity/blood flow All connective tissues are composed of nonliving material called the extracellular matrix

What happens when white blood cells and macrophages run into more foreign invaders than they can handle?

They release pyrogen that stimulates the hypothalamus to raise the body thermostat by calling in a systemic fever.

What is lipogenesis?

This term refers to the process of converting protein into fatty acids. liver converts glucose to triglycerides and ships them off for storage in adipose tissue

Where are your sympathetic nerve fibers located?

Thoracolumbar area, from your thoracic vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae. Inferior to ribs.

What is the menstrual cycle?

Time period when blood, tissue and unfertilized egg leaves the body to make way for new egg.

What are vasa vasorum?

Tiny blood vessels that provide blood to Tunica Externa in area where wall is very thick (i.e. proximal aorta)

What is the purpose of the Tympanic cavity?

To amplify sound waves so they're stronger when they enter the inner ear. Focuses the pressure of the sound waves so that they're strong enough to move the fluid in the inner ear, does this using the auditory ossicles.

What are the lymphoid organs of the human body?

Tonsils, Adenoids, Thymus, and Spleen

What is hypocapnia?

Too little CO2 - respiratory alkalosis can occur from hyperventilation.

Transverse/Horizontal Plane

Top and Bottom division

Medial

Towards the midline

What are interneurons or association neurons, from the CNS?

Transmit impulses between those sensory and motor neurons, most abundant of body's neurons and are mostly multipolar.

What is another term for the middle ear?

Tympanic cavity

What is the term for the ear drum?

Tympanic membrane

How do Beta receptors work?

Used to reduce the risk of heart disease by blocking the beta receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine. When these hormones bind to beta receptors on smooth muscle it causes vasoconstriction and on the heart is causes more forceful and faster contractions. Therefore blocking Beta Receptors leads to more dilated blood vessels and a slower, softer heart even under stress.

During ejaculation the pathway for the sperm includes what?

Vas deferens,

Coronal/Frontal Plane

Vertical Front and Back cut

Sagittal/Median plane

Vertical Left and Right halves

What is pyuria?

WBCs/Pus in urine urinary tract infection

What is bile made of?

Water, ions, bilirubin, cholesterol, and bile salts, bile pigments, triglycerides, phospholipids, and various electrolytes.

What is the period of contraction?

When myosin contractions are occurring over and over.

What is cooperativity?

When the first O2 binds to Hb, it's affinity for O2 at the other 3 binding sites increases. Allosteric interference... this causes oxyhemoglobin to form as it is oxygenated fully. HbO2 so when the blood goes to oxygen deficient cells it goes down its gradient from high to low causing oxygen to diffuse into the cells and simultaneously decreasing the partial pressure of oxygen allowing it to absorb fresh oxygen molecules in the lung. CO2 and waste products decrease oxygens affinity for hemoglobin allowing more oxygen to be released into oxygen deprived target cells. WHEN A RED BLOOD CELL ENCOUNTERS A VERY ACTIVE WARM TISSUE AT 20 MMHG IT GIVES UP 80% OF O2, 60% DUE TO LOWER PO2 BUT ALSO ANOTHER 20% DUE TO THE TEMPERATURE. CO2 ALSO ADDS TO OXYGENS LOWER AFFINITY AS IT BINDS TO HEMOGLOBIN CAUSING ALLOSTERIC CHANGES CAUSING THE RELEASE OF MORE OXYGEN MOLECULES FOR DIFFUSION.

What are Rhesus (Rh) Antigen Blood Groups?

You are either Rh positive or Rh negative. Most of the population is Rh positive, meaning they can accept both positive or negative blood because they do not have anti-Rh antibodies. However, those that are Rh negative can only obtain negative blood because they have anti-Rh antibodies.

What is the difference between the nervous system and the endocrine system?

Your nervous system uses neurons to send and deliver messages that are fast-acting, localized, and short-lived. While the endocrine system sends slower-moving hormones through the blood that target broad areas and have more lingering effects.

What are symphyses cartilaginous joints?

a fibrocartilaginous fusion between two bones

What is the epiglottis?

a flap that flips down to cover the entry to the trachea during swallowing

What is the renal pelvis?

a funnel-shaped tube surrounded by smooth muscle that uses peristalsis to move urine out of the kidney, into the ureter, and to the bladder.

What is the prostate gland?

a gland surrounding the neck of the bladder in male mammals and releasing prostatic fluid. Releases the enzyme PSA which makes the fluid more fluid and antioxidant amine spermine also increases motility within the sperm. PSA gives semen odor and is why some claim is good for skin.

What is a lymph duct?

a great lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins of the heart

What is a motor unit?

a group of muscle fibers that get their signals from the same motor neuron

What is the complement system?

a group of serum proteins that act in a cascade to destroy invading microbes; these function to keep blood pathogen-free

What is a blastocyst?

a hollow ball of cells lined with trophoblast cells with a cluster of cells inside known as the inner cell mass

What is a multipolar neuron?

a neuron that has many processes coming off of the cell body; motor neurons are multipolar 99% of neurons, 3+ processes one axon and many dendrites

What is a bipolar neuron?

a neuron with only one axon and one dendrite, extending from opposite sides of the cell body. (retina of eye) rare

What is plasma?

a non-cellular liquid that contains dissolved substances, cells and cell fragments and makes up 55% of the blood.

What is bilirubin?

a orange-yellow pigment formed in the liver by the breakdown of hemoglobin and excreted in bile/feces

What is fibrillation?

a rapid, uncoordinated shuddering of the heart muscle

What is a baroreceptor?

a receptor that monitors changes in blood pressure by monitoring the "stretch" in a vessel found in large arteries like carotid and aorta.

What is the ciliary body of the eye?

a ring of muscle tissue that surrounds

What is the basilar membrane of the Cochlea?

a stiff band of tissue that runs between the scala media and scala tympani. Hears all sounds and communicates it to the nervous system.

What is the olfactory epithelium?

a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the chemoreceptors for smell

WHat is the role of bile?

a.Breaks up large fat globules into smaller fat droplets which enhances fat absorption b. Acts as an emulsifier, helping enzymes make contact with the fat and digest it

What is the pigmented layer of the retina?

absorb light so it does not scatter around eyeball

(hormones) preganglionic fibers release...

acetylcholine

(neurotransmitters) Preganglionic fiber releases...

acetylcholine

In terms of the nervous system communications, what is considered the coin of the realm, the premium currency, can be used for multiple purposes...

acetylcholine

What is parturition?

act of giving birth

What is the sarcomere made of?

actin and myosin myofilaments.

When the duodenum receives chyme it signals the gallbladder to?

activates the enteroendocrine cells to release hormones that tell the gallbladder to contract and release bile through the cystic and bile ducts into the duodenum. These same two hormones also signal the pancreas to release trypsin, peptidase, amylase, lipase, and nucleases.

What is the hypodermis?

adipose connective tissue

What is an aneurysm?

an excessive localized enlargement of an artery caused by a weakening of the artery wall. This artery can become too thin and leak or burst.

What is the Vasa Recta?

another countercurrent mechanism that maintains the NaCl concentration gradient in the renal medulla, large molecules leave the kidney and enter the blood stream.

What is a gland?

any structure that makes and secretes a hormone

What are the six special features of the Synovial joints?

articular cartilage that covers the opposing bone surfaces bandlike ligaments a joint cavity synovial fluid lubricant a fibrous joint capsule sensory nerve fibers and blood vessels separated by synovial fluid filled joint cavity

How do baroreceptors function?

as blood vessels stretch mechanically gated sodium channels open, sending more action potentials to the midbrain so the body knows how much pressure the arteries are feeling. Can adapt to high blood pressure after awhile and reads the new bp as normal causing chronic hypertension.

What is the intestinal phase?

as partially digested food enters the duodenum,

How does parturition take place?

as the due date nears, the mother undergoes a sudden decline in progesterone, causing estrogen to take over, the fetus releases cortisol telling the placenta to release even more estrogen. This increase in estrogen causes the uterus to receive new chemical signals by myometrial cells to start making receptors for the hormone oxytocin. It also triggers the formation of gap junctions (action potential w/out synapse) between smooth muscle cells in the uterus, the fetus then releases oxytocin that binds to the new receptors and tells the placenta to release prostaglandins. Oxytocin and prostaglandins stimulate the uterine muscles to contract, once the contractions become strong enough to distend the cervix, it stimulates the release of even more oxytocin and prostaglandins keeping the contractions coming in a positive feedback loop initiating labor.

Arteries (red) carry blood...

away from the heart

What is the gastric phase?

begins with the arrival of food in the stomach, when food hits the stomach it causes mechanically gated potassium potassium pumps to send signals to the vagus nerve so more gastrin is secreted into the stomach.

posterior

behind

What is retroperitoneal?

behind the peritoneum

What do condylar joints do?

biaxial movement

What is the shape of human red blood cells?

biconcave shape anucleated

What are mass peristalsis movements?

big intense contractions that clear out a large swath of intestine at once, pushing feces into the rectum, this often occurs just after eating.

Roles of connective tissue

binding and supporting protection insulation storing reserve fluid and energy transporting substances within the body movement

What are lymphatic capillaries?

blind-ended vessels that weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries at the location of nutrient/exchange with secretion of blood plasma as lymph (3L a day) all over the body but absent in bones, bone marrow, teeth, and the whole central nervous system, which has its own drainage system.

What does vitamin K do?

blood clotting

How does the body respond when you are cold?

blood enters the hypothalamus where temperature-sensitive sensory neurons, which act like a thermostat, perceive a change in blood temperature, the hypothalamus then secretes thyrotropin releasing hormones that then acts on the pituitary gland that releases thyroid stimulating hormones, when then acts on the thyroid which, thyroid hormones are lipid soluble and can exert their effects all over the body. There the hormones released by the thyroid can decide to increase function, decrease function, or maintain function.

What is hematuria?

blood in the urine due to bleeding in the urinary tract

What influences target cell activation with hormones?

blood levels of the hormone number of receptors for that hormone on/in the target cell strength of the binding

If you wanted to move your arm how would that be accomplished?

brain sends an action potential along the motor neuron until it synapses with a muscle cell in the arm. The receptors on that muscle cell are ligand-gated sodium channels, so when the motor neuron releases acetylcholine into the synapse, the sodium channels open up and create a rush of sodium into the cell as a graded potential, which, if its strong enough, causes nearby voltage-gated sodium channels to open. The action potential occurs in the muscle cells and the action potential zips along a muscle cell's membrane, the sarcolemma, which has T-tubules, when an action potential travels down a T-tube, it eventually triggers the voltage-sensitive proteins that are linked to the calcium channels on the cell's sarcoplasmic reticulum. When those channels are opened calcium rushes into the rest of the muscle cell. The calcium then binds to troponin and then causes troponin to pull the tropomyosin away from the sites on the actin strands. Myosin becomes phosphorylated and stretches, while still holding onto ADP and phosphate. Once this is complete myosin binds with actin. Upon binding the myosin releases all the stored energy and the excitement of it causes the myosin to change shape and pull on the actin strand. This causes the sarcomere to contract causing the muscle to contract. After contraction the ADP and phosphate unbind from myosin and a fresh ATP binds in its place. That binding causes a shape change that allows the myosin to release the actin, when this occurs the myosin breaks down the ATP into ADP and Phosphate, and resets the process. The body during this is trying to restock the calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, so they start grabbing available calcium causing the calcium to unbind from troponin and tropomyosin. After calcium unbinds troponin and tropomyosin interact with actin again immobilizing it.

What is glycogenolysis?

breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate and glycogen

What does mammalian respiratory system take full advantage of?

bulk flow and simple diffusion.

What is a fascicle?

bundle of muscle fibers, form to make larger muscles

How does the vibration of the stapes continue?

by coming into contact with the superior oval window

Because the Ganglia of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are in different locations, how do their neuron forms differ?

by length of axon

How do neutrophils kill bacteria?

by producing oxygen free radicals, hydrogen peroxidase, and lysosomal enzymes, phagocytosis and respiratory burst

What is the relaxation period?

calcium gets pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and the actin and myosin stop the binding cycle and the muscle relaxes.

The walls of the sarcoplasmic reticulum are filled with...

calcium pumps, which use ATP to save up a bunch of calcium ions. Also contains calcium channels that are linked to voltage-sensitive proteins in the membrane of the muscle cell.

The renal arteries of the kidneys end in...

capillaries

The stratum spinosum is?

cell regeneration is active.

What is a melanocyte?

cell that synthesizes melanin,

What are follicle cells?

cells that support growth/development of the primary oocyte in oogenesis

What is an isotonic movement?

change in length

What are the types of lipoproteins?

chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL

Cuboidal cells

circular, absorb nutrients, and produce secretions

What is the ganglia of the autonomic system?

clusters of neuron cell bodies that house millions of synapses

What are alveolar sacs?

common chambers connected to many individual alveoli

What is hyaline cartilage?

common type, plyable support, connects ribs to sternum and in nose. Ground substance is rich with proteoglycans and not as many elastic fibers.

What is opsonization?

complement proteins "flag" the microorganism for phagocytosis.

What are the fibrous joints?

connect bones with dense fibrous connective tissue

What is anabolism?

construct things and consume energy, metabolic process

The stratum granulosum is?

contains living keratinocytes,

What is the inner neural layer of the Retina?

contains photoreceptors, ganglion neurons (connects to optinc nerves), and bipolar (bridge) neurons.

What are the three types of capillaries?

continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid.

What is autoregulation of GFR?

controlling the filtration rate by vasoconstricting or vasodilating the capillaries of the glomerulus depending on blood pressure to maintain a constant GFR. intrinsic control

What is the Trochlear Nerve?

controls just a single muscle of the eye

the most anterior part of the eye and transparent is...

cornea

After ovulation the damaged follicle now slots its estrogen production while morphing into...

corpus luteum.

Proper epithelium

covers and lines your outer and inner body

PNS consists of

cranial and spinal nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors

What is the germinal epithelium?

cuboidal epithelial cells, part of the peritoneum.

What are osteons?

cylindrical, weight-bearing structured that run parallel to the bone's axis.

What are risks of prolonged high blood pressure?

damage arterial walls, mess with your circulation and ultimately endanger your heart, lungs, brain, kidneys, and nearly every part of you.

Where are taste buds located?

deep down between the fungiform papillae (projections that make tongue rough)

CPR can help prolong heart function during cardiac arrest, but it usually can't save a life without help from a...

defibrillator

What is atresia?

degeneration of primordial follicles

The dermis is made of...

dense irregular connective tissue

What is the reticular layer?

dense irregular connective tissue

What is the nephron loop, loop of Henle?

descending and ascending limbs Starts in renal cortex and dips into renal medulla before returning to renal cortex. This process drives the reabsorption of water by creating a concentration gradient in the tissue of the medulla. Does this by pumping out salts in the ascending limb, creating salty interstitial fluid in the medulla. This allows water to passively flow out and into the super salty interstitial space when it is in the descending limb of the loop of Henle.

What do photoreceptors do?

detect light waves

What do mechanoreceptors do?

detect sound waves and pressure on the skin and in the inner ear

What is the equation for blood flow?

difference in blood pressure/resistance DeltaP/R = F

What are important stimulations of the parasympathetic nervous system?

digest food reproduce excrete waste fight off infection

What are spermatogonia?

diploid stem cells when not in puberty: cells uses mitosis to continuously divide into two identical daughter cells When in puberty: divides into two distinct daughter cells. Known as type A cells which stays up near the basal lamina and never stops dividing so you never run out of spermatogonia. The type B cells get pushed down the tubule toward the lumen, and turn into a primary spermatocyte.

The ventricles are...

discharging chambers

What is the cephalic phase?

earliest phase of digestion when the brain prepares the body in anticipation of food. Sensory input gets relayed to the hypothalamus, which stimulates the medulla oblongata, which then taps the parasympathetic fibers in the vagus nerve. Then the signals are sent to stomach for the release of gastrin in anticipation of food.

The aorta and its major branches are...

elastic arteries

When ultraviolet radiation in sunlight damages the epidermis...

elastic fibers clump up

What is titin?

elastic protein, keeps thick and thin filaments aligned

What happens after a pacemaker cell fires?

electrical impulses spread to cardiac muscle cells throughout the Atria. These impulses jump across gap junctions and continue down the conduction system until they reach the atrioventricular node or AV.

Columnar cells:

elliptic and tall, (stomach lining)

What are G cells?

endocrine cells that secrete gastrin in the stomach,

Glandular epidermis consists of...

endocrine glands + exocrine glands

What are lymphatic capillaries consisting of?

endothelial cells that look like roof shingles that form flaplike minivalves which ensures that lymph fluid does not leak back into the interstitial space

What are Brush border enzymes?

enzymes associated with the microvilli of the small intestine mucosal cells maltase, sucrase, lactase

Distal

farther from center/trunk

What is the mons pubis?

fatty, rounded area overlying the pubic symphysis

What is the organ of Corti in the Cochlea?

fibers that resonate at different frequencies. short fibers respond to high frequency long fibers respond to low frequency. contains mechanically gated sodium channels that can lead to graded potentials and likely action potentials.

What are the three layers of the eye?

fibrous layer, vascular layer, and inner layer

Physiological responded to non-immediate stresses are largely the same as when you're...

fight/flight

What is the ground substance of the extracellular matrix?

fills in spaces between cells, protects cells from surrounding, made from starch and protein molecules mixed with water. Anchored by proteoglycans with glycosaminoglycans radiating out from the proteoglycans to form big tangles that trap water, protein, and starches.

What is the Ileum?

final part of the small intestine, absorbs important vitamins like A,B12, E, D, and K.

What is the duodenum?

first part of the small intestine where chemical digestion occurs. receives chyme and gastric juices from the stomach, but also imports bile from liver and gallbladder and enzymes from the pancreas, contains brush border enzymes (lactase).

What is the epiphyses of bone?

flared ends of long bones

squamous cell

flat, scale-like epithelial cell. Fast absorption and diffusion, thin membranes. (oxygen diffusion of alveoli)

What are angular movements?

flexion extension hyperextension abduction adduction circumduction

What is glycogenesis?

formation of glycogen from glucose with the help of insulin

glandular epithelium

forms your glands and secretes hormones, and other substances.

Where are lymphocytes found in lymph nodes?

found and mature in the loose reticular connective tissue that makes up a large part of the nodes and most of your other lymphoid organs.

What are characteristics of the sympathetic ganglia?

found closer to the spinal cord, must be able to quickly send a single message far and wide. This allows excitatory signals to travel into a ganglion near the spine and trigger action potentials in other neurons and causing cascades that lead to many effectors like heart, stomach, and adrenal glands.

What does hypoxia inducible factor do?

found in kidney, monitors blood's levels of oxygens. HIF gets broken down by oxygen, if oxygen levels decrease, HIF builds and stimulates the kidney to release erythropoietin to them stimulate the red bone marrow to undergo hematopoiesis.

MHC Class 1?

found on all nucleated cells (excluding RBC) expressed on almost all nucleated cells, not expressed on RBC, Binds to TCR and CD8; examples = HLA-A, B, C Lets immune cells know what is self and current cellular state (pathogenic or not)

What are the characteristics of the parasympathetic ganglia?

found way out from the spine, found near, or even inside, their effector organs. (food digestion, waste excretion)

What food source does mono and disaccharides come from?

fruits, honey, sugar beets, and sugar cane

Even though the liver creates bile, it gets stored and concentrated in the...

gallbladder

How does the ability to smell work?

gaseous particles like fats and protein fragments, land on olfactory epithelium and dissolve in the mucus that coats it. Once in the mucus, they are able to bind to receptors on your olfactory sensory neurons, which assuming they hit their necessary threshold, fire action potentials up their long axons, through the ethmoid bone into the olfactory bulb in the brain. Each olfactory neuron only has the ability to interpret one kind of smell.

What is areolar connective tissue?

gel-like matrix with all three fiber types:elastic fibers, collagen fibers, and reticular fibers; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells. common all over body, just under your epithelial tissue, and wrapped around your organs. Has a lot of open space in it.

Marfan Syndrome

genetic disorder of connective tissue, substantially weakening connective tissue over time by targeting elastic fibers causing weakness in the matrix causing aorta heart problems due to support for the artery decreasing causing the aorta to enlarge.

Where do old blood cells go?

getting broken down in spleen, liver, and bone marrow by macrophages which break them down and recycle their constituent parts.

What is the renal corpuscle?

glomerulus + Bowman's capsule

Alpha cells in the pancreas secrete...

glucagon, which raises the blood glucose level.

How does glucagon raise blood sugar?

gluconeogenesis

What is glycosuria?

glucose in the urine, diabetes mellitus

What are triglycerides broken down into?

glycerol and free fatty acids

What are the two components of the extracellular matrix?

ground substance and fibers

In the body calcium, magnesium, and phosphorous are used to...

harden bones and teeth

Axial parts

head/neck/core body

What is the labia majora?

heavy folds of skin that surround the opening of the vagina

What is the role of the network of lymphatic vessels?

help reabsorb fluid and 600-700 lymph nodes that monitor and cleanse the lymph.

How do synergist muscles aid prime moving muscles?

helps the prime movers by lending more power/stabilizing joints against dislocation.

iron in the body is a crucial part of...

hemoglobin

What is deoxyhemoglobin?

hemoglobin (hb) without oxygen

What is oxyhemoglobin?

hemoglobin bound to oxygen

The adrenal glands release norepinephrine as a...

hormone

What do lymph nodes do

house: T cells that directly attack invaders and manage the immune system, B cells that secrete antibodies into the blood, macrophages that eat up foreign substances, and reticular cells that make the stroma scaffolding network that supports all the other cells in lymphoid tissues.

In classifying neurons what is the main feature to focus on?

how many processes (projections) extend out from the cell body

The parietal cell in the stomach secretes...

hydrochloric acid

What is the HPA axis?

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

What is the Hub of where the nervous and endocrine system work together in a time of crisis?

hypothalamus

What is the HPT axis?

hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis

anterior

in front

What is anosmia?

inability to smell

What is leukocytosis?

increase in WBC

What is the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle?

increase muscle tension, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing

The sympathetic system in times of high stress...

increases heart rate, directs blood away from the digestive organs and to the muscles.

What is pericarditis?

inflammation of the pericardium that roughens those serous membranes, so when the heart beats it rubs against the sac, makes a creaky noise, and generally hurts. Over time that can lead to adhesions and impede heart activity.

What does the pontine storage area of the pons do?

inhibits urination

What is the cochlea?

inner ear structure containing the central hearing apparatus (snail)

What is the visceral pericardium?

inner layer of pericardium

What is the renal medulla?

inner portion of the kidney into which the loop of Henle descends a set of cone-shaped masses of tissue that secrete urine into tiny sac-like tubules

Basal side of epithelial tissue

inner surface, tightly attached to basement membrane. a thing layer of mostly collagen fibers that holds the epithelium together and anchors it to the next deeper layer, your connective tissue.

What is the endocardium?

innermost layer of the heart

When a muscle contracts the bone that moves is called the muscle's...

insertion point

Steroid hormone receptors are located...

inside the cell as the cellular membrane is made of lipids and allows for the steroid to pass into the cell passively.

THe pancreas regulates blood sugar levels by releasing...

insulin and glucagon

After entering the pulmonary trunk and discharging from the left and right pulmonary artery

into the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygen moves into the blood and carbon dioxide moves out.

Each muscle is rigged up with...

its own personal nerve to stimulate contraction, and its own artery and vein.

Where is the AV node located?

junction of atria and ventricles, just superior to the tricuspid valve.

What are pacemaker cells?

keep heart beating at the correct rhythm, and ensure that each cardiac muscle cell contracts in coordination with the others. They do not need initial threshold stimulation. Because their membranes are dotted with leaky sodium and potassium channels that don't require external triggers. Because the leaky sodium and potassium channels allow it to slowly and inevitably drift towards threshold everytime.

What does the hypothalamus do?

keeps tabs on whats going on all over the body and when it detects something wrong in the blood.

Oxygenated blood enters the kidney through the?

large renal arteries

What is the parotid gland?

largest of the salivary glands, secretes serous fluid

What is the pulmonary semilunar valve?

lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, allows blood to flow from the heart to the lungs.

Of the CNS glial cell types, what is the role of Ependymal cells?

line cavities in brain and spinal cord, and create, secrete, and circulate cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and cushions those organs

Smooth muscle tissue

lines wall of blood tissues and hollow organs. Short tapered cells but, no striations.

Steroids hormones are...

lipid soluble

What is the role of sebaceous glands?

lubricate skin and hair, and help slow water loss from the skin in dry environments.

What is albumin?

made by the liver and maintains osmotic pressure.

What are alpha globulins?

made in the liver and transport proteins that bind to lipids fat soluble vitamins, and metal ions.

What is the fibrous pericardium?

made of dense connective tissue

What is the Tunica Media?

made of smooth muscle cells and sheets of the protein elastin. Plays key role in vasodilation/constriction

What is ADH (antidiuretic hormone)?

maintain fluid balance, control BP, and cardiac output in your body. Antidiuretic - holds fluids Diuretics allow fluids to be lost through the kidneys Hypothalamus sense if the plasma volume has decreased, if the Na level has risen (or the osmolality of the blood) and will send ADH to increase the amount of fluid retained by the kidneys. ACTS UPON THE DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

What kind of other effects does the thyroid hormone produce?

maintaining blood pressure promoting the growth of tissues triggering the secretion of digestive juices.

potassium, sodium, and chlorine aid the body in...

maintaining body's pH balance and used in action potentials.

Only if and when an egg fuses with a sperm does it actually complete...

meiosis II

Melanocytes...

melanin producing cell in skin that protects against UV rays.

What is reticular tissue?

mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts forms structural framework of organs provides soft internal framework of spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow, holds your blood in place in many of your organs, spongy.

What is the jejunum?

middle section of the small intestine, where a majority of nutrient absorption takes place.

What is the choroid of the eye?

middle, vascular layer, has a dark pigmentation to prevent light from reflecting internally and is heavily vascularized. supplies blood.

What is the role of the retina?

millions of photoreceptorys that converts light energy to electrical signals. the two receptor cell types are rods and cones.

What is an arteriole?

mini-arteries that branch out into the capillaries

The first lub you hear when listening to the heart is made by the...

mitral and tricuspid valves closing

What is dense elastic tissue?

more elasticity than rigidity near joints, large artery walls made from this.

Because small mammals have faster heart rates but shorter life spans, and large mammals have slower heart rates but longer life spans....

most mammals have a surprisingly similar total number of heart beats in their lifetime.

What is a large motor unit?

motor neurons may synapse with, and innervate, a thousand muscle fibers.

What is a buccal cavity?

mouth

Tendons connect...

muscle to bone

What is the myometrium?

muscular wall of the uterus

What are muscle fibers made of?

myofibrils

What is the conducting zone of the respiratory system?

nasal cavity pharynx trachea nose mouth larynx lungs

Where are the cones located?

near the retina's center and detect fine detail and color. They can be broken down in two red blue or green sensitive types.

(neurotransmitters) postganglionic fiber releases...

norepinephrine

How does the HPT axis turn itself off?

negative feedback

What is contained in the central canals of the osteons?

nerves and blood vessels

The stratum basale is?

new cell production happen, connects epidermis to dermis.

What is an isometric contraction?

no change in length, contraction but muscle does not change in length (trying to pick something up that is too heavy and does not move)

Norepinephrine is described differently because function is different, how is this possible?

norepinephrine increases blood flow to skeletal muscles by moving blood access away from digestion. This is due to the different effector receptors that receive the norepinephrine,

What does the olfactory epithelium contain?

olfactory receptor cells, insulating columnar supporting cells, basal cells

The kindey's are located...

on the peripheral wall of the body

What is a gliding movement?

one flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface

An insertion bone is always pulled toward the...

origin bone

Muscles pull their insertions towards their...

origins

As bone develops from cartilage...

osteoblasts secrete a glue-like structure using phosphate and calcium to produce calcium phosphate, and collages, and enzymes. Calcium phosphate forms the bone matrix.

What is the Parietal pericardium?

outer layer of the pericardium

What is the perimetrium?

outer layer of uterus

What is the renal cortex?

outer portion of the kidney where the Bowman's capsule and proximal and distal tubules are located

What is the ovarian cortex?

ovarian follicles surrounded by dense irregular connective tissue

What is the SA Node?

pacemaker of the heart 60-100 Beats per minute

What is automaticity?

pacemakers cells singular ability to independently generate and fire their own action potentials.

What are the bulbourethral glands?

paired, pea-sized glands distal to prostate gland that secrete clear mucus to neutralize any acidic urine in the urethra prior to ejaculation.

What are the layers of the dermis?

papillary layer and reticular layer

What is the rate of action potentials travelling through the parasympathetic nervous system called?

parasympathetic tone

What is a free type macrophage?

patrol tissues looking for things to ingest

What is the orgasm phase of the sexual response cycle?

pelvic and other muscles around the body contract rhythmically and ejaculation occurs

Where are the rods located?

periphery of the retina, more numerous, rule peripheral vision on edges of retinas, only register a grayscale of black and white.

What is the resolution phase?

phase in human sexual response following orgasm, in which people report relaxation and a sense of well-being

In the peripheral nervous system, what is the afferent division?

picks up sensory stimuli and sends to CNS (brain/spinal chord)

What are the different structural types of synovial joints?

plane hinge condylar pivot ball-and-socket saddle

What is proteinuria/albuminuria?

presence of protein in urine, working out too much, pregnancy, high blood pressure, heart failure, severe hypertension.

What are the four functional groups of skeletal muscles?

prime movers antagonists synergists Fixators

Muscles that are mainly responsible for producing a certain movement are...

prime movers or agonist muscles.

Rotating the palm posteriorly is known as?

pronation

What is the Axon of the neuron?

propagates signal from cell body to target cells.

Occipital lobe functions by...

processing bright visual cues

What is the purpose of Ovaries?

produce and release female gametes and sex hormones like estrogen and progesterone.

What does the thyroid do?

produced thyroxine which stimulates metabolism and binds to receptors in most of the cells in your body.

What does the pituitary do?

produces many hormones including follicle-stimulating hormone helps regulate growth and trigger sexual maturity.

What stops the release of FSH and LH?

progesterone, a little estrogen, and some inhibin.

What does the pontine micturition center of the pons do?

promotes urination

What are Eicosanoids?

prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes biologically active lipids that have hormonal effects, including prostaglandins that spur pain, blood clotting, and inflammation.

What is a globin?

protein made of 4 polypeptide chains 2 beta globin 2 alpha globin each globin has its own heme molecule, and at the center of that heme molecule is an iron atom.

When stepping on a tack what do nociceptors do?

provide base sensation

What does the thymus and spleen provide the human body?

provides a nursery for the maturation of lymphocytes.

The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the...

pulmonary trunk

How does the cell maintain the resting potential?

pumping sodium ions out and potassium ions in

What is the role of a lamellar corpuscle?

registers deepter pressure sensations

What is the role of a tactile corpuscle?

registers feeling shallow touch sensations

What are the roles of the urinary system?

regulating your water volume, concentrations, and pH levels influencing your red blood cell production and blood pressure

In the autonomic nervous system of the efferent division of the PNS, what is the role of the parasympathetic division?

relaxes the body responsible for maintaining your body and conserving energy for later the "D Division", responsible for Digestion, Defecation, and Diuresis (urination)

As the placenta develops and releases progesterone and estrogen it also releases...

relaxin in order to loosen joints and ligaments to increase flexibility and human placental lactogen (hPL) to tell the fetus to grow, get breasts ready to lactate, and tells the body to start hoarding glucose for the fetus to use.

What are Gamma Globulin Antibodies?

released by plasma cells during an immune response.

When is a molecule considered a neurotransmitter?

released from a neuron and travelling across a synapse

How does the hypothalamus start the ovarian cycle?

releasing gonadotropin-releasing hormone about once a month. This stimulates the anterior pituitary to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

All epithelial tissues are avascular, what do they rely on for nutrients?

rely on connective tissue

In the peripheral nervous system, what is the efferent (motor) division?

sends directions from CNS (brain) to muscles and glands.

What is olfaction?

sense of smell and is a chemoreceptor.

What is gustation?

sense of taste and is a chemoreceptor.

What is the z line?

separates one sarcomere from the next and where actin filaments attach

What is the peritoneum?

serous membrane of the abdominal cavity

What is temporal summation?

several impulses from one neuron over time

What is the diaphysis?

shaft of a long bone

the tissues first name is the number of layers and its last name is the...

shape of its cells.

In the sympathetic system, the preganglionic fibers are...

shorter than postganglionic fibers. This is because they are close to the spinal cord. Fibers leading out of Ganglion are shorter.

What is elastic cartilage?

similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix

The inner GI tract is lined with...

simple columnar epithelial cells to secrete and absorb nutrients. These mainly secrete mucus that protects the cells from being digested by bodies own digestive enzymes. (mucosal layer)

What is the respiratory zone?

site of gas exchange including: bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.

What is the seminiferous tubules?

site of sperm production

What are haustral contractions?

slow segmenting movements that move the contents of the colon

What are lacunae?

small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes

What is the Venule?

smallest vein components that suck blood out of the capillaries

WHat is the iris made of?

smooth muscle, contains sphincter muscles to allow the pupil to expand or constrict.

What is spongy bone tissue?

soft, interior layer of bone tissue. Found in flat bones like the sternum. strong but porous.

The temporal lobe helps...

sort out auditory information and contains wernicke's area an area important for written and spoken language.

Muscular arteries distribute blood to...

specific body parts, and account for most of your named arteries.

Characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue:

squat, branched out, and interconnected, each one with one or two central nuclei. 25-35% of cell = mitochondria both physically and electrically, these cells need to be linked in order to have perfect timing

What is the cleavage stage?

starts 24 hours after fertilization when a zygote turns from 1 cell into 16 blastomeres.

Chemically, most hormones are amino acid based, though a few, like the gonadal and adrenocortical hormones are...

steroids synthesized from cholesterol.

What are helper T cells?

stimulate the proliferation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells / lymphocytes that orchestrates cellular immunity by direct contact with other immune cells and by releasing chemical called lymphokines: also helps mediate the humoral response by interacting with B cells.

the role of glucagon is...

stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver to release glucose in times of low BS

What does the HPT axis do?

stimulates the thyroid gland, hypothalamus --> pituitary --> thyroid your endocrine system gets involved as soon as your body senses that the temperature of your blood has changed

What is hemostasis?

stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel. As a result vasoconstriction occurs in the damaged vessel and platelets gather at the injury site. From here fibrin threads gather and join together to make a mesh that traps platelets and blood cells. These fibrin threads then overtime pull the two sides of the wound together to seal the wound.

What does yellow bone marrow do?

stores energy as fat (lipids)

The epidermis is made of...

stratified squamous epithelial tissue, bulk including keratinocytes, build keratin.

What is the equation for Cardiac output?

stroke volume (mL/Beat) x Heart rate (beats/min) = CO

What is a nephron?

structural and functional units that form urine

Lateral

structures farther away from the midline

High pressure caused by ventricular contraction is called...

systole

What is the Optic Nerve?

takes visual information gathered by the eyes and sends it to the brain

A hormone can only cause a response in specific cells called...

target cells

Every canal widens in its base in the Vestibular Apparatus, these wide canals are called?

the Utricle and Saccule.

The dub sounds you hear when listening to the heart is made by...

the aortic and semilunar valves closing at the start of diastole.

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

the endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell

What is the proximal convoluted tubule?

the first segment of a renal tubule Walls made of cuboidal epithelial cells, lots of pumps that pull sodium ions from the filtrate, using active transport.

What is your alimentary canal?

the gastrointestinal tract

What is the cellular immune response?

the immune system's third line of defense, involving the attack of pathogens by T cells

What is heart failure?

the inability of the heart to pump sufficient blood to meet the needs of the tissues for oxygen and nutrients, likely due to cardiac muscle cells dying.

What is the tear producing apparatus of the eye?

the lacrimal apparatus, containing the Lacrimal gland, Lacrimal punctum, Lacrimal canaliculus, and lacrimal sac.

The pulmonary trunk splits to form...

the left and right pulmonary artery.

What focuses the light and projects the light to the retina?

the lens

What is the pericardium?

the membrane enclosing the heart, consisting of an outer fibrous layer and an inner double layer of serous membrane.

the stratum corneum is?

the most superficial stratum, the cells are dead, interlocking keratinized cells, and cells are anucleate

What is tubular secretion?

the movement of substances from the blood into the tubular fluid

What is the myocardium?

the muscular tissue of the heart.

What is the lymphatic system?

the network of vessels through which lymph drains from the tissues into the blood. Quietly plays a vital supporting role to both your cardiovascular and immune systems.

What is the postganglionic cell?

the neurons after the ganglion

What is the preganglionic cell?

the neurons before the ganglion

In order to smell an odor...

the odorant must be volatile (in a gaseous state)

What is the pyloric sphincter?

the opening through which chyme leaves the stomach and enters the duodenum of the small intestine

Amino acid based hormones target receptors are on...

the outside of the cell requiring an outside receptor that then initiates a cascade reaction.

When hitting puberty the female hypothalamus and pituitary gland set up two cycles...

the ovarian cycle and the menstrual cycle.

What is the Tunica Externa?

the overcoat made of loosely woven collagen fiber

What organs does the endocrine system include?

the pancreas, gonads, ,placenta, hypothalamus

What is systolic blood pressure?

the peak pressure, produced by the contracting ventricles.

What is the embryonic stage?

the period from two to eight weeks following fertilization during which significant growth occurs where the blastocyst differentiates into various cell types and develops into an embryo surrounded by an amniotic sac, and hooked up to the placenta. After week 8 this thing is an official fetus.

What is partial pressure?

the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases

What is diastolic blood pressure?

the pressure in your arteries when the ventricles are relaxed.

Where do signals from hormones go after the preganglionic fibers release acetylcholine...

the signal from acetylcholine triggers the adrenal medulla to release a flood of epinephrine and norepinephrine (hormones), towards the organs.

After the eye absorbs light and the potential hits the optic nerve what happens?

the signal goes to the thalamus and then the brains visual cortex.

What is arteriosclerosis?

the thickening and hardening of the walls of the arteries due to plaque formation.

What is the Pinna or Auricle?

the visible part of the ear that leads to the auditory canal.

What are mucosa associated lymphoid tissues (MALTs)?

they are found in mucous membranes around the body, outside of the lymphatic vessels. ex) Tonsils (remove pathogens before they can enter the GI tract or lungs) Peyer's Patches (lymphoid checkpoint along GI tract, distal portion of small intestine) Appendix (contains lymphoid tissue to destroy any remaining bacteria before it can breach the intestinal wall.

how to cytotoxic T cells work?

they create pores on target cell plasma membrane and enzymes enter and degrade cell contents causes apoptosis they roam the blood and lymph looking for MHC Class I (self) cells that are presenting foreign antigens (infection/cancer) on their surface and kill them once they do

Myosin strands are...

thicker lumpy-looking strands

Actin strands are...

thinner

What is organ crowding during pregnancy?

this can lead to heartburn and constipation as the expanding uterus squishes the intestines and stomach and may displace the esophagus.

What is the left lymphatic duct?

thoracic duct which takes lymph from the rest of the body and dumps it into the subclavian vein.

What is grave's ophthalmopathy?

thyroid eye disease, where the eye inflames causing the eyes to bulge from the socket, common treatments include: beta-blockers, anti-thyroid medications, radioactive iodine therapy, and surgery.

The pituitary gland signals other glands including...

thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, and pineal gland.

How does thyroid hormone exert it's effects?

thyroid hormone binds to receptors inside the nuclei of your muscle cells, triggering the transcription of DNA that makes the enzymes to break down that glucose. causing more ATP to be produced from the breakdown of glucose. This process has a calorigenic or heat producing effect.

Hair follicles are also apart of recepting...

touch when moved.

Veins (blue) carry blood...

toward the heart

Inferior/caudal

towards the bottom, below

superior/cranial

towards the top

What are the beta-globulins?

transferrin, helps bind and transport iron in blood.

What is spermiogenesis?

transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa, each primary spermatocyte produces 4 spermatids.

Sensory Neurons or Afferent Neurons do what?

transmit impulses from receptors toward the CNS, most are unipolar

What is the role of semen?

transportation nutritional energy chemical protection activates motility

How does the female body fend off menstruation after implantation occurs?

trophoblasts of the blastocyst secrete a luteinizing hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Actin is typically blocked by a couple of protein bodyguards called...

tropomyosin and troponin

Capillaries only contain the...

tunic intima, and a basement membrane, deliver oxygen and nutrients through diffusion.

What are the three layers of a blood vessel?

tunica intima, tunica media, tunica adventitia

What is the Labia Minora?

two smaller folds of skin located in the labia majora

What is the pivot joint?

uniaxial movement, pivot point between your radius and ulna allow you to rotate your palm anteriorly.

What are the cartilaginous joints?

unite bones using cartilage 2 types

The liver converts ammonia to...

urea

What is micturition?

urination

More basic blood causes...

vasoconstriction (consequence of hyperventilation)

What food source does polysaccharides come from?

vegetables and grains (starches)

What is diastole?

ventricles relax to receive the next volume of blood from the atria.

What is the epicardium?

visceral layer of serous pericardium

What do fibrinogen proteins do?

vital to forming blood clots and stopping bleeding. (coagulation)

What is the glomerular filtration rate?

volume of filtrate formed per minute by both kidneys 15 how much blood passes through the glomeruli every minute

Amino acid based hormones are...

water soluble

What is Lymph?

watery solution that does not contain red blood cells, which remain in the closed circulatory loop because they are too large to pass through capillary membranes. Most starts out as blood plasma that gets forced out of your capillaries,

What are alveoli made of?

wet simple squamous epithelium tissue, from here oxygen passes through the epithelial cell of the alveoli, then the fused basal lamina, and through the endothelial cell lining the capillaries to enter the bloodstream. Also where CO2 diffuses out of the blood.

What is neutralization?

when antibodies bind to specific sites on bacterial exotoxins and block their harmful effects/physically block binding sites on viruses or bacterial toxins

What is the latent period of muscle contraction?

when calcium ions are flooding into the sarcomere to pull away troponin and tropomyosin.

When is a molecule considered a hormone?

when the molecule is secreted by a gland into the bloodstream for more widespread distribution.

What is the long reflex arc?

when the signals travel to the brain and back

What is the inferior epididymis?

where sperm gain mitochondria so they have energy to swim at a moments notice.

Many molecules can be both a neurotransmitter or a hormone depending on...

where they are used in the body.

Why is there not free range hemoglobin?

would thicken the blood making it so viscous that it would impede blood flow.

Of the CNS glial cell types, what is the role of Oligodendrocytes?

wrap and insulate, form myelin sheath. Produce an insulating barrier called the Myelin sheath.

Jaundice is...

yellow skin, may indicate liver disorder, bile starts accumulating in the blood stream.

What are cytotoxic T cells (NK)?

● form ⅓ of T cell population. Assoc w/ MHC I ● cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) are able to kill target cells by directly inducing apoptosis ● pre-formed perforins are released at the target cell surface to generate transmembrane pore in target cell ● granulysins gain entry through these pores into the cytosol to induce apoptosis ● apoptotic signaling via membrane-bound molecules can occur via Fas on the target cell surface and Fas ligand on the CTL surface