Ancient Greece

Aristotle

-Plato's student -son of a physician -one of the brightest students at Plato's Academy -He came there as a young man and stayed for 20 years until Plato's death -opened his own school in Athens called the Lyceum, which eventually rivaled the Academy -once argued, "He who studies how things originated . . . will achieve the clearest view of them." -questioned the nature of the world and of human belief, thought, and knowledge -came close to summarizing all the knowledge up to his time -invented a method for arguing according to rules of logic -later applied his method to problems in the fields of psychology, physics, and biology -His work provides the basis of the scientific method used today -One of his most famous pupils was Alexander, son of King Philip II of Macedonia -Aristotle accepted the king's invitation to tutor the 13-year-old prince -He did so for three years, until Alexander's father called him back to Macedonia

Mycenaean

-Some of the people who settled on the Greek mainland around 2000 B.C. -adopted Minoan culture

helot

-Sparta conquered the neighboring region of Messenia and took over the land -The Messenians became helots, peasants forced to stay on the land they worked -Each year, the Spartans demanded half of the helots' crops -Later, the Messenians, resentful of the Spartans' harsh rule, revolted -The Spartans, who were outnumbered, just barely put down the revolt -Shocked at their vulnerability, they dedicated themselves to making Sparta a strong city-state -Danger of a helot revolt led Sparta to become a military state

Archimedes

-An important Hellenistic scientist -from Syracuse -studied at Alexandria -accurately estimated the value of pi (π)—the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter -explained the law of the lever -Gifted in geometry and physics -put his genius to practical use -invented the Archimedes screw, a device that raised water from the ground, and the compound pulley to lift heavy objects -demonstrated to an audience of curious onlookers how something heavy can be moved by a small force -Using Archimedes' ideas, Hellenistic scientists later built a force pump, pneumatic machines, and a steam engine

tyrant

-In many city-states, repeated clashes occurred between rulers and the common people -Powerful individuals sometimes seized control of the government by appealing to the common people for support -called tyrants -Unlike today, tyrants generally were not considered harsh and cruel -were looked upon as leaders who would work for the interests of the ordinary people -Once in power, for example, tyrants often set up building programs to provide jobs and housing for supporters

classical art

-Phidias and other sculptors during the golden age aimed to create figures that were graceful, strong, and perfectly formed Their faces showed neither joy nor anger, only serenity -Greek sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized human body in motion - wanted to portray ideal beauty, not realism -values of harmony, order, balance, and proportion became the standard of classical art

myth

-The Greeks developed a rich set of myths, or traditional stories, about their gods -Through the myths, the Greeks sought to understand the mysteries of nature and the power of human passions. -Greeks attributed human qualities and emotions to their gods, who lived forever and quarreled and competed with each other constantly

5.4 • What was the military consequence of the lack of unity among Greek city-states?

-The Peloponnesian War severely weakened several Greek city-states, causing a rapid decline in their military and economic power -In the nearby kingdom of Macedonia, King Philip II took note -took control of Greece

Colossus of Rhodes

-The largest known Hellenistic statue -created on the island of Rhodes -bronze statue -over 100 feet tall -One of the seven wonders of the ancient world -toppled by an earthquake in about 225 B.C. -Later, the bronze was sold for scrap

phalanx

-a fearsome formation -foot soldiers stood side by side, each holding a spear in one hand and a shield in the other -became the most powerful fighting force in the ancient world.

direct democracy

-a form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives -an important legacy of Periclean Athens -Few other city-states practiced it In Athens, male citizens who served in the assembly established all the important government policies that affected the city Athenian and United States Democracy: Athenian Democracy: • Citizens: male; 18 years old; born of citizen parents • Laws voted on and proposed directly by assembly of all citizens • Leader chosen by lot • Executive branch composed of a council of 500 men • Juries varied in size • No attorneys; no appeals; one-day trials Both: • Political power exercised by citizens • Three branches of government • Legislative branch passes laws • Executive branch carries out laws • Judicial branch conducts trials with paid jurors U.S. Democracy: • Citizens: born in United States or completed citizenship process • Representatives elected to propose and vote on laws • Elected president • Executive branch made up of elected and appointed officials • Juries composed of 12 jurors • Defendants and plaintiffs have attorneys; long appeals process

acropolis

-a fortified hilltop -among the places where citizens sometimes gathered to discuss city government

oligarchy

-a government ruled by a few powerful people • State ruled by a small group of citizens • Rule is based on wealth or ability • Ruling group controls military • Practiced in Sparta -as trade expanded, a new class of wealthy merchants and artisans emerged in some cities -When these groups became dissatisfied with aristocratic rule, they sometimes took power or shared it with the nobility, forming an oligarchy

Euclid

-a highly regarded mathematician who taught in Alexandria -compiled a geometry text used by Eratosthenes and Aristarchus in their work Elements: -His best-known book -contained 465 carefully presented geometry propositions and proofs -his work is still the basis for courses in geometry

Trojan War

-attack on Troy -almost certainly one of the last Mycenaean battle campaigns -legendary stories told about it tell of their army's capture of the legendary city of Troy by hiding soldiers in a hollow wooden horse.

• Why might logic and public speaking have been emphasized more in Athens than in other city-states?

-citizens were expected to debate issues in the assembly

polis

-city-state -fundamental political unit in ancient Greece -made up of a city and its surrounding countryside, which included numerous villages

Socrates

-encouraged his students to examine their beliefs -He asked them a series of leading questions to show that people hold many contradictory opinions -This question-and-answer approach to teaching is known as the Socratic method -Socrates devoted his life to gaining self-knowledge and once said, "There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance." -A critic of the Sophists -Unlike the Sophists, he believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice -he encouraged Greeks to go farther and question themselves and their moral character -Historians believe that it was Socrates who once said, "The unexamined life is not worth living." -Those who understood Socrates admired him deeply -The majority of citizens, however, could not understand this strange old man and his ideas -brought to trial for "corrupting the youth of Athens" and "neglecting the city's gods." -In his own defense, Socrates said that his teachings were good for Athens because they forced people to think about their values and actions -The jury disagreed and condemned him to death -He died by drinking hemlock, a slow-acting poison.

Dorian

-moved into the war-torn countryside of Greece after the Mycenaean civilization collapsed -spoke a dialect of Greek -may have been distant relatives of the Bronze Age Greeks -far less advanced than the Mycenaeans -The economy collapsed and trade eventually came to a standstill soon after their arrival -Greeks appear to have temporarily lost the art of writing during the Dorian Age -No written record exists from this period -little is known about this period of Greek history

Homer

-the greatest storyteller -blind -composed epics

"Fighting the Persian Wars" Reading and Guide • Please be able to answer each question on handout.

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Peloponnesian War

Athenians and Spartans Go to War As Athens grew in wealth, prestige, and power, other city-states began to view it with hostility. Ill will was especially strong between Sparta and Athens. Many peo- ple thought that war between the two was inevitable. Instead of trying to avoid con- flict, leaders in Athens and Sparta pressed for a war to begin, as both groups of leaders believed their own city had the advantage. Eventually, Sparta declared war on Athens in 431 B.C. Peloponnesian War When the Peloponnesian War between the two city-states began, Athens had the stronger navy. Sparta had the stronger army, and its location inland meant that it could not easily be attacked by sea. Pericles' strategy was to avoid land battles with the Spartan army and wait for an opportunity to strike Sparta and its allies from the sea. Eventually, the Spartans marched into Athenian territory. They swept over the countryside, burning the Athenian food supply. Pericles responded by bringing res- idents from the surrounding region inside the city walls. The city was safe from hunger as long as ships could sail into port with supplies from Athenian colonies and foreign states. In the second year of the war, however, disaster struck Athens. A frightful plague swept through the city, killing perhaps one-third of the population, including Pericles. Although weakened, Athens continued to fight for several years. Then, in 421 B.C., the two sides, worn down by the war, signed a truce. Sparta Gains Victory The peace did not last long. In 415 B.C., the Athenians sent a huge fleet carrying more than 20,000 soldiers to the island of Sicily. Their plan was to destroy the city-state of Syracuse, one of Sparta's wealthiest allies. The expedition ended with a crushing defeat in 413 B.C. In his study of the Pelopon- nesian War, Thucydides recalled: "[The Athenians] were destroyed with a totaldestruction—their fleet, their army—there was nothing that was not destroyed, and few out of many returned home." Somehow, a terribly weakened Athens fended off Spartan attacks for another nine years. Finally, in 404 B.C., the Athenians and their allies surrendered. Athens had lost its empire, power, and wealth.

What aspects of culture did the Mycenaeans adopt from the Minoans?

Contact with Minoans -through either trade or war, the Mycenaeans came into contact with the Minoan civilization -From this, the Mycenaeans saw the value of seaborne trade -Mycenaean traders soon sailed throughout the eastern Mediterranean, making stops at other places -Mycenaeans adapted the Minoan writing system to the Greek language and decorated vases with Minoan designs -The Minoan-influenced culture of Mycenae formed the core of Greek religious practice, art, politics, and literature

• What might have been Pericles' goals in the Peloponnesian War?

Athenians and Spartans Go to War As Athens grew in wealth, prestige, and power, other city-states began to view it with hostility. Ill will was especially strong between Sparta and Athens. Many people thought that war between the two was inevitable. Instead of trying to avoid conflict, leaders in Athens and Sparta pressed for a war to begin, as both groups of leaders believed their own city had the advantage. Eventually, Sparta declared war on Athens in 431 B.C. Peloponnesian War When the Peloponnesian War between the two city-states began, Athens had the stronger navy. Sparta had the stronger army, and its location inland meant that it could not easily be attacked by sea. Pericles' strategy was to avoid land battles with the Spartan army and wait for an opportunity to strike Sparta and its allies from the sea. Eventually, the Spartans marched into Athenian territory. They swept over the countryside, burning the Athenian food supply. Pericles responded by bringing res- idents from the surrounding region inside the city walls. The city was safe from hunger as long as ships could sail into port with supplies from Athenian colonies and foreign states. In the second year of the war, however, disaster struck Athens. A frightful plague swept through the city, killing perhaps one-third of the population, including Pericles. Although weakened, Athens continued to fight for several years. Then, in 421 B.C., the two sides, worn down by the war, signed a truce. Sparta Gains Victory The peace did not last long. In 415 B.C., the Athenians sent a huge fleet carrying more than 20,000 soldiers to the island of Sicily. Their plan was to destroy the city-state of Syracuse, one of Sparta's wealthiest allies. The expedition ended with a crushing defeat in 413 B.C. In his study of the Pelopon- nesian War, Thucydides recalled: "[The Athenians] were destroyed with a totaldestruction—their fleet, their army—there was nothing that was not destroyed, and few out of many returned home." Somehow, a terribly weakened Athens fended off Spartan attacks for another nine years. Finally, in 404 B.C., the Athenians and their allies surrendered. Athens had lost its empire, power, and wealth.

• Who held the advantage during the Peloponnesian War? Explain.

Athenians and Spartans Go to War Both Athenian and Spartan leaders believed their own city had the advantage Sparta declared war on Athens -Athens had the stronger navy -Sparta had the stronger army -its location inland meant that it could not easily be attacked by sea -Pericles' strategy was to avoid land battles with the Spartan army and wait for an opportunity to strike Sparta and its allies from the sea -Eventually, the Spartans marched into Athenian territory, sweeping over the countryside, burning the Athenian food supply -Pericles responded by bringing residents from the surrounding region inside the city walls -The city was safe from hunger as long as ships could sail into port with supplies from Athenian colonies and foreign states - In the second year of the war disaster struck Athens A frightful plague swept through the city, killing perhaps one-third of the population, including Pericles -Although weakened, Athens continued to fight for several years -Then the two sides, worn down by the war, signed a truce Sparta Gains Victory -The peace did not last long the Athenians sent a huge fleet carrying more than 20,000 soldiers to the island of Sicily, planning to destroy the city-state of Syracuse, one of Sparta's wealthiest allies -The expedition ended with a crushing defeat -The Athenians were destroyed with a total destruction—their fleet, their army—there was nothing that was not destroyed, and few out of many returned home Somehow, a terribly weakened Athens fended off Spartan attacks for another nine years -Finally, the Athenians and their allies surrendered Athens had lost its empire, power, and wealth.

• How would you compare the ideals of Spartan and Athenian societies?

Athens: Athenian Education -For the most part, only the sons of wealthy families received formal education -Schooling largely prepared boys to be good citizens -They studied reading, grammar, poetry, history, mathematics, and music -Because citizens were expected to debate issues in the assembly, boys also received training in logic and public speaking -since the Greeks believed that it was important to train and develop the body, part of each day was spent in athletic activities -When they got older, boys went to military school to help them prepare for another important duty of citizenship—defending Athens -Athenian girls did not attend school -they were educated at home by their mothers and other female members of the household -They learned about child-rearing, weaving cloth, preparing meals, managing the household, and other skills that helped them become good wives and mothers -Some women were able to take their education farther and learned to read and write -A few even became accomplished writers -most women had very little to do with Athenian life outside the boundaries of family and home Sparta: -Sparta was nearly cut off from the rest of Greece by the Gulf of Corinth -In outlook and values, Sparta contrasted sharply with the other city-states, Athens in particular -Instead of a democracy, Sparta built a military state Sparta Dominates Messenians -Around 725 B.C., Sparta conquered the neighboring region of Messenia and took over the land -The Messenians became helots, peasants forced to stay on the land they worked -Each year, the Spartans demanded half of the helots' crops -In about 650 B.C., the Messenians, resentful of the Spartans' harsh rule, revolted -The Spartans, who were outnumbered eight to one, just barely put down the revolt -Shocked at their vulnerability, they dedicated themselves to making Sparta a strong city-state Sparta's Government and Society -Spartan government had several branches -An assembly, which was composed of all Spartan citizens, elected officials and voted on major issues -The Council of Elders, made up of 30 older citizens, proposed laws on which the assembly voted Five elected officials carried out the laws passed by the assembly -These men also controlled education and prosecuted court cases -two kings ruled over Sparta's military forces -Spartan social order consisted of several groups: -1st: citizens descended from the original inhabitants of the region; included the ruling families who owned the land -2nd: noncitizens who were free, worked in commerce and industry -The helots, at the bottom of Spartan society, were little better than slaves; worked in the fields or as house servants. Spartan Daily Life -Sparta had the most powerful army in Greece -paid a high price for their military supremacy: All forms of individual expression were discouraged, so Spartans did not value the arts, literature, or other artistic and intellectual pursuits; Spartans valued duty, strength, and discipline over freedom, individuality, beauty, and learning -men were expected to serve in the army until the age of 60, so their daily life centered on military training -Boys left home when they were 7 and moved into army barracks, where they stayed until they were 30 -spent their days marching, exercising, and fighting -undertook these activities in all weathers, wearing only light tunics and no shoes -they slept without blankets on hard benches -daily diet consisted of little more than a bowl of coarse black porridge -Those who were not satisfied were encouraged to steal food -Such training produced tough, resourceful soldiers -Spartan girls also led hardy lives - received some military training -ran, wrestled, and played sports -Like boys, girls were taught to put service to Sparta above everything—even love of family -A legend says that Spartan women told husbands and sons going to war to "come back with your shield or on it." -As adults, Spartan women had considerable freedom, especially in running the family estates when their husbands were on active military service -Such freedom surprised men from other Greek city-states -This was particularly true of Athens, where women were expected to remain out of sight and quietly raise children

• What advantages did Green [Greeks?] enjoy during the Persian Wars? Support your answer

Battle at Marathon: -Persians were no match for phalanxes -Persians had light army and were not trained in this type of land combat -Persians lost over 6000 men while Athens only had about 200 casualties -Even though Greeks were outnumbered, Persians fled -after this, Athenian soldiers quickly returned to Athens, so the city was heavily defended -Persians retreated Thermopylae: -When Xerxes came to a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae, 7,000 Greeks, including 300 Spartans, blocked his way -Xerxes assumed that his troops would easily push the Greeks aside, but he underestimated their fighting ability -The Greeks stopped the Persian advance for three days -Only a traitor's informing the Persians about a secret path around the pass ended their brave stand -Spartans held the Persians back so the other Greek forces could retreat Salamis: -evacuated Athens and fought at sea -positioned their fleet in a narrow channel near the island of Salamis, a few miles southwest of Athens -warships sent to block both ends of the channel, but the channel was very narrow, and the Persian ships had difficulty turning -Smaller Greek ships armed with battering rams attacked, puncturing the hulls of many Persian warships -over one-third of the fleet sank Plataea: -another defeat when the Greeks crushed the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea -After this major setback, the Persians were always on the defensive -The following year, several Greek city-states formed an alliance called the Delian League. (The alliance took its name from Delos, the island in the Aegean Sea where it had its headquarters) -League members continued to press the war against the Persians for several more years -In time, they drove the Persians from the territories surrounding Greece and ended the threat of future attacks. Consequences of the Persian Wars -With the Persian threat ended, all the Greek city-states felt a new sense of confidence and freedom -Athens, in particular, basked in the glory of the Persian defeat -During the 470s, Athens emerged as the leader of the Delian League, which had grown to some 200 city-states. -Soon after, Athens began to use its power to control the other league members -It moved the league headquarters to Athens, and used military force against members that challenged its authority -these city-states became little more than provinces of a vast Athenian empire -The prestige of victory over the Persians and the wealth of the Athenian empire set the stage for a dazzling burst of creativity in Athens -The city was entering its brief golden age.

5.5 • Why might astronomy, math, and physics have been promoted in Alexandria?

Because they were in Greek culture and Alexander the Great liked Greek culture?

What were some of the main achievements of the Hellenistic period?

Hellenistic Culture in Alexandria As a result of Alexander's policies, a vibrant new culture emerged. Greek (also known as Hellenic) culture blended with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences. This blending became known as Hellenistic culture. Koine, the popular spoken language used in Hellenistic cities, was the direct result of cultural blending. The word koine came from the Greek word for "common." The language was a dialect of Greek. This language enabled educated people and traders from diverse backgrounds to communicate in cities throughout the Hellenistic world. Trade and Cultural Diversity Among the many cities of the Hellenistic world, the Egyptian city of Alexandria became the foremost center of commerce and Hellenistic civilization. Alexandria occupied a strategic site on the western edge of the Nile delta. Trade ships from all around the Mediterranean docked in its spacious harbor. Alexandria's thriving commerce enabled it to grow and prosper. By the third century B.C., Alexandria had become an international community, with a rich mixture of customs and traditions from Egypt and from the Aegean. Its diverse population exceeded half a million people. Alexandria's Attractions Both residents and visitors admired Alexandria's great beauty. Broad avenues lined with statues of Greek gods divided the city into blocks. Rulers built magnificent royal palaces overlooking the harbor. A much visited tomb contained Alexander's elaborate glass coffin. Soaring more than 350 feet over the harbor stood an enormous stone lighthouse called the Pharos. This lighthouse contained a polished bronze mirror that, at night, reflected the Hellenistic Culture in Alexandria As a result of Alexander's policies, a vibrant new culture emerged. Greek (also known as Hellenic) culture blended with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influ- ences. This blending became known as Hellenistic culture. Koine (koy•NAY), the popular spoken language used in Hellenistic cities, was the direct result of cultural blending. The word koine came from the Greek word for "common." The language was a dialect of Greek. This language enabled educated people and traders from diverse backgrounds to communicate in cities throughout the Hellenistic world. Trade and Cultural Diversity Among the many cities of the Hellenistic world, the Egyptian city of Alexandria became the foremost center of commerce and Hellenistic civilization. Alexandria occupied a strategic site on the western edge of the Nile delta. Trade ships from all around the Mediterranean docked in its spacious harbor. Alexandria's thriving commerce enabled it to grow and prosper. By the third century B.C., Alexandria had become an international community, with a rich mixture of customs and traditions from Egypt and from the Aegean. Its diverse population exceeded half a million people. Alexandria's Attractions Both residents and visitors admired Alexandria's great beauty. Broad avenues lined with statues of Greek gods divided the city into blocks. Rulers built magnificent royal palaces overlooking the harbor. A much visited tomb contained Alexander's elaborate glass coffin. Soaring more than 350 feet over the harbor stood an enormous stone lighthouse called the Pharos. This lighthouse contained a polished bronze mirror that, at night, reflected the mathematician who taught in Alexandria. His best-known book, Elements, contained 465 carefully presented geometry propositions and proofs. Euclid's work is still the basis for courses in geometry. Another important Hellenistic scientist, Archimedes (AHR•kuh•MEE•deez) of Syracuse, studied at Alexandria. He accurately estimated the value of pi (π)—the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. In addition, Archimedes explained the law of the lever. Gifted in both geometry and physics, Archimedes also put his genius to practical use. He invented the Archimedes screw, a device that raised water from the ground, and the compound pulley to lift heavy objects. The writer Plutarch described how Archimedes demonstrated to an audience of curious onlookers how something heavy can be moved by a small force: Using Archimedes' ideas, Hellenistic scientists later built a force pump, pneumatic machines, and even a steam engine. Philosophy and Art The teachings of Plato and Aristotle continued to be very influential in Hellenistic phi- losophy. In the third century B.C., however, philosophers became concerned with how people should live their lives. Two major philosophies developed out of this concern. Stoicism and Epicureanism A Greek philosopher named Zeno (335-263 B.C.) founded the school of philosophy called Stoicism (STOH•ih•SIHZ•uhm). Stoics proposed that people should live virtuous lives in harmony with the will of god or the natural laws that God established to run the universe. They also preached that Summarizing What were some of the main achievements of the scientists of the Hellenistic period?human desires, power, and wealth were dangerous distractions that should be checked. Stoicism promoted social unity and encouraged its followers to focus on what they could control. Epicurus (EHP•uh•KYUR•uhs) founded the school of thought called Epicureanism. He taught that gods who had no interest in humans ruled the universe. Epicurus believed that the only real objects were those that the five senses perceived. He taught that the greatest good and the highest pleasure came from virtuous conduct and the absence of pain. Epicureans proposed that the main goal of humans was to achieve harmony of body and mind. Today, the word epicurean means a person devoted to pursuing human pleasures, especially the enjoyment of good food. However, during his lifetime, Epicurus advocated moderation in all things. Realism in Sculpture Like science, sculpture flourished during the Hellenistic age. Rulers, wealthy merchants, and cities all purchased statues to honor gods, commemorate heroes, and portray ordinary people in everyday situations. The largest known Hellenistic statue was created on the island of Rhodes. Known as the Colossus of Rhodes, this bronze statue stood more than 100 feet high. One of the seven wonders of the ancient world, this huge sculpture was toppled by an earth- quake in about 225 B.C. Later, the bronze was sold for scrap. Another magnificent Hellenistic sculpture found on Rhodes was the Nike (or Winged Victory) of Samothrace. It was created around 203 B.C. to commemorate a Greek naval victory. Hellenistic sculpture moved away from the harmonic balance and idealized forms of the classical age. Instead of the serene face and perfect body of an ide- alized man or woman, Hellenistic sculptors created more natural works. They felt free to explore new subjects, carving ordinary people such as an old, wrinkled peasant woman. By 150 B.C., the Hellenistic world was in decline. A new city, Rome, was growing and gaining strength. Through Rome, Greek-style drama, architecture, sculpture, and philosophy were preserved and eventually became the core of Western civilization. Pythagorean Theorem Geometry students remember Pythagoras for his theorem on the triangle, but its principles were known earlier. This formula states that the square of a right triangle's hypotenuse equals the sum of the squared lengths of the two remaining sides. Chinese mathematicians knew this theory perhaps as early as 1100 B.C. Egyptian surveyors put it to practical use even earlier. However, the work of the school that Pythagoras founded caught the interest of later mathematicians. Shown are Euclid's proof in Greek along with a Chinese and an Arabic translation. The Arabs who conquered much of Alexander's empire spread Greek mathematical learning to the West. The formula became known as the Pythagorean theorem throughout the world.

Hellenistic

Hellenistic culture, a blend of Greek and other influences, flourished throughout Greece, Egypt, and Asia. a result of Alexander's policies a vibrant new culture Greek (also known as Hellenic) culture blended with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences Koine, the popular spoken language used in Hellenistic cities, was the direct result of cultural blending The word koine came from the Greek word for "common." The language was a dialect of Greek enabled educated people and traders from diverse backgrounds to communicate in cities throughout the Hellenistic world

• What was meant by the Spartan saying, "come back with your shield or on it".

It's better to come back dead than to flee a battle

Philip II

King of Macedonia dreamed of taking control of Greece and then moving against Persia to seize its vast wealth hoped to avenge the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 B.C. Philip's Army After becoming king of Macedonia, quickly proved to be a brilliant general and a ruthless politician Philip transformed the rugged peasants under his command into a well-trained professional army organized his troops into phalanxes of 16 men across and 16 deep, each one armed with an 18-foot pike used this heavy phalanx formation to break through enemy lines Then used fast-moving cavalry to crush his disorganized opponents After employing these tactics successfully against northern opponents, Philip began to prepare an invasion of Greece Conquest of Greece Demosthenes, the Athenian orator, tried to warn the Greeks of the threat Philip and his army posed urged them to unite against Philip Greek city-states could not agree on any single policy. Finally, Athens and Thebes—a city-state in central Greece—joined forces to fight Philip, but it was too late The Macedonians defeated the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea. This defeat ended Greek independence. The city-states retained self-government in local affairs. However, Greece itself remained firmly under the control of a succession of foreign powers Although Philip planned to invade Persia next, he never got the chance. At his daughter's wedding in 336 B.C., he was stabbed to death by a former guardsman. Philip's son Alexander immediately proclaimed himself king of Macedonia

Why is the Dorian period often called Greece's Dark Age?

No writing so little is known about it?

Alexander the Great

One of Aristotle's most famous pupils son of King Philip II of Macedonia Aristotle accepted the king's invitation to tutor the 13-year-old prince Alexander's status as a student abruptly ended three years later, when his father called him back to Macedonia after his father was stabbed to death by a former guardsman, Alexander immediately proclaimed himself king of Macedonia. Because of his accomplishments over the next 13 years, he became known as Alexander the Great. Alexander Defeats Persia Although he was only 20 years old when he became king, he was well prepared to lead Under Aristotle's teaching, Alexander had learned science, geography, and literature Alexander especially enjoyed Homer's description of the heroic deeds performed by Achilles during the Trojan War As a young boy, Alexander learned to ride a horse, use weapons, and command troops Once he became king, Alexander promptly demonstrated that his military training had not been wasted. When the people of Thebes rebelled, he destroyed the city About 6,000 Thebans were killed The survivors were sold into slavery Frightened by his cruelty, the other Greek city-states quickly gave up any idea of rebellion Invasion of Persia With Greece now secure, he felt free to carry out his father's plan to invade and conquer Persia led 35,000 soldiers across the Hellespont into Anatolia. Persian messengers raced along the Royal Road to spread news of the invasion army of about 40,000 men rushed to defend Persia two forces met at the Granicus River Instead of waiting for the Persians to make the first move, Alexander ordered his cavalry to attack Leading his troops into battle, Alexander smashed the Persian defenses Alexander's victory at Granicus alarmed the Persian king, Darius III Vowing to crush the invaders, he raised a huge army of between 50,000 and 75,000 men to face the Macedonians near Issus Realizing that he was outnumbered, Alexander surprised his enemies ordered his finest troops to break through a weak point in the Persian lines army then charged straight at Darius To avoid capture, Darius fled, followed by his army This victory gave Alexander control over Anatolia Conquering the Persian Empire Darius tried to negotiate a peace settlement offered Alexander all of his lands west of the Euphrates River Alexander's advisers urged him to accept the rapid collapse of Persian resistance fired Alexander's ambition rejected Darius's offer announced his plan to conquer the entire Persian Empire Alexander marched into Egypt, a Persian territory The Egyptians welcomed Alexander as a liberator crowned him pharaoh—or god-king During his time in Egypt, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile After leaving Egypt, Alexander moved east into Mesopotamia to confront Darius, who assembled a force of some 250,000 men The two armies met at Gaugamela, a small village near the ruins of ancient Nineveh Alexander launched a massive phalanx attack followed by a cavalry charge the Persian lines crumbled, Darius again fled Alexander's victory at Gaugamela ended Persia's power Later, Alexander's army occupied Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis These cities yielded a huge treasure, which Alexander distributed among his army A few months after it was occupied, Persepolis, Persia's royal capital, burned to the ground Some people said Alexander left the city in ashes to signal the total destruction of the Persian Empire Greek historian Arrian, writing about 500 years after Alexander's time, suggested that the fire was set in revenge for the Persian burning of Athens the cause of the fire remains a mystery. Alexander's Other Conquests reigned as the unchallenged ruler of southwest Asia more interested in expanding his empire than in governing it left the ruined Persepolis to pursue Darius and conquer Persia's remote Asian provinces Darius's trail led Alexander to a deserted spot south of the Caspian Sea, where he found Darius already dead, murdered by one of his provincial governors instead of returning to Babylon, Alexander continued east. During the next three years, his army fought its way across the desert wastes and mountains of Central Asia. He pushed on, hoping to reach the farthest edge of the continent. Alexander in India He and his army reached the Indus Valley. At the Hydaspes River, a powerful Indian army blocked their path. After winning a fierce battle, Alexander's soldiers marched some 200 miles farther, but their morale was low. They had been fighting for 11 years and had marched more than 11,000 miles. They had endured both scorching deserts and drenching monsoon rains. The exhausted soldiers yearned to go home. Bitterly disappointed, Alexander agreed to turn back. By the spring of 323 B.C., Alexander and his army had reached Babylon. Restless as always, Alexander announced plans to organize and unify his empire. He would construct new cities, roads, and harbors and conquer Arabia never carried out his plans became seriously ill with a fever and died a few days later, at the age of 32 Alexander's Legacy After Alexander died, his Macedonian generals fought among themselves for control of his empire. Eventually, three ambitious leaders won out. Antigonus became king of Macedonia and took control of the Greek city-states. Ptolemy seized Egypt, took the title of pharaoh, and established a dynasty Seleucus took most of the old Persian Empire, which became known as the Seleucid kingdom Ignoring the democratic traditions of the Greek polis, these rulers and their descendants governed with complete power over their subjects. Alexander's conquests had an interesting cultural impact. Alexander himself adopted Persian dress and customs and married a Persian woman included Persians and people from other lands in his army Greek settlers throughout the empire also adopted new ways A vibrant new culture emerged from the blend of Greek and Eastern customs. When Alexander was only eight or nine years old, he tamed a wild horse that none of his father's grooms could manage. Alexander calmed the horse, whose name was Bucephalus, by speaking gently. Seeing the control that Alexander had over the horse, Philip II said: "You'll have to find another kingdom; Macedonia isn't going to be big enough for you." Alexander took his father's advice. Riding Bucephalus at the head of a great army, he conquered the lands from Greece to the Indus Valley. When the horse died in what is now Pakistan, Alexander named the city of Bucephala after it. Maybe he was tired of the name Alexandria. By that time, he had already named at least a dozen cities after himself!

• What evidence exists to suggest that Pericles also pursued policies that were not democratic?

Pericles also used money from the Delian League to beautify Athens. Without the league's approval, he persuaded the Athenian assembly to vote huge sums of the league's money to buy gold, ivory, and marble. Still more money went to pay the artists, architects, and workers who used these materials Pericles' goal was to have the greatest Greek artists and architects create magnificent sculptures and buildings to glorify Athens Pericles came from a rich and high-ranking noble and aristocratic family

Why would Pericles not have been satisfied with securing Athens' political and economic strength? Why did he also demand the city-state's artistic glorification?

Pericles' Plan for Athens A wise and able statesman named Pericles led Athens during much of its golden age. Honest and fair, Pericles held onto popular support for 32 years. He was a skillful politician, an inspiring speaker, and a respected general. He so dominated the life of Athens from 461 to 429 B.C. that this period often is called the Age of Pericles. He had three goals: (1) to strengthen Athenian democracy, (2) to hold and strengthen the empire, and (3) to glorify Athens. Stronger Democracy To strengthen democracy, Pericles increased the number of public officials who were paid salaries. Earlier in Athens, most positions in public office were unpaid. Thus, only wealthier Athenian citizens could afford to hold public office. Now even the poorest citizen could serve if elected or chosen by lot. Consequently, Athens had more citizens engaged in self-government than any other city-state in Greece. This reform made Athens one of the most democratic governments in history. The introduction of direct democracy, a form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives, was an important legacy of Periclean Athens. Few other city-states practiced this style of government. In Athens, male citizens who served in the assembly established all the important government poli- cies that affected the polis. In a speech honoring the Athenian war dead, Pericles expressed his great pride in Athenian democracy: PRIMARY SOURCE Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people. When it is a question of settling private disputes, everyone is equal before the law; when it is a question of putting one person before another in positions of public responsibility, what counts is not membership in a particular class, but the actual ability which the man possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to be of service to the state, is kept in political obscurity because of poverty. PERICLES, "The Funeral Oration," from Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War Athenian Empire After the defeat of the Persians, Athens helped organize the Delian League. In time, Athens took over leadership of the league and dominated all the city- states in it. Pericles used the money from the league's treas- ury to make the Athenian navy the strongest in the Mediterranean. A strong navy was important because it helped Athens strengthen the safety of its empire. Prosperity depended on gaining access to the surrounding waterways. Athens needed overseas trade to obtain supplies of grain and other raw materials. Athenian military might allowed Pericles to treat other members of the Delian League as part of the empire. Some cities in the Peloponnesus, however, resisted Athens and formed their own alliances. As you will read later in this section, Sparta in particular was at odds with Athens. Glorifying Athens Pericles also used money from the Delian League to beautify Athens. Without the league's approval, he persuaded the Athenian assembly to vote huge sums of the league's money to buy gold, ivory, and marble. Still more money went to pay the artists, architects, and workers who used these materials. Glorious Art and Architecture Pericles' goal was to have the greatest Greek artists and architects create magnificent sculptures and buildings to glorify Athens. At the center of his plan was one of architecture's noblest works—the Parthenon. ArchitectureandSculpture TheParthenon,amasterpiece of architectural design and craftsmanship, was not unique in style. Rather, Greek architects constructed the 23,000- square-foot building in the traditional style that had been used to create Greek temples for 200 years. This temple, built to honor Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the protector of Athens, con- tained examples of Greek art that set standards for future generations of artists around the world. Pericles entrusted much of the work on the Parthenon to the sculptor Phidias (FIDH•ee•uhs). Within the temple, Phidias crafted a giant statue of Athena that not only contained such precious materials as gold and ivory, but also stood over 30 feet tall. Phidias and other sculptors during this golden age aimed to create figures that were graceful, strong, and perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither joy nor anger, only serenity. Greek sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized human body in motion. They wanted to portray ideal beauty, not realism. Their val- ues of harmony, order, balance, and proportion became the standard of what is called classical art. Pericles 495-429 B.C. Pericles came from a rich and high- ranking noble family. His aristocratic father had led the Athenian assembly and fought at the Battle of Salamis in the Persian Wars. His mother was the niece of Cleisthenes, the Athenian noble who had introduced important democratic reforms. Pericles was well known for his political achievements as leader of Athens.

philosopher

Philosophers Search for Truth After the Peloponnesian war, many Athenians lost confidence in democratic government and began to question their values. In this time of uncertainty, several great thinkers appeared. They were determined to seek the truth, no matter where the search led them. The Greeks called such thinkers philosophers, meaning "lovers of wisdom." These Greek thinkers based their philosophy on the following two assumptions: • The universe (land, sky, and sea) is put together in an orderly way, and subject to absolute and unchanging laws. • People can understand these laws through logic and reason. One group of philosophers, the Sophists, questioned people's unexamined beliefs and ideas about justice and other traditional values. One of the most famous Sophists was Protagoras, who questioned the existence of the traditional Greek gods. He also argued that there was no universal standard of truth, saying "Man [the individual] is the measure of all things." These were radical and dangerous ideas to many Athenians.

Plato

Plato -Born into a wealthy Athenian family -had careers as a wrestler and a poet before he became a philosopher -After Socrates, his teacher, died, Plato left Greece -later returned to Athens -founded a school called the Academy, which lasted for about 900 years -once stated, "Philosophy begins in wonder." -A student of Socrates -was in his late 20s when his teacher died - Later, Plato wrote down the conversations of Socrates "as a means of philosophical investigation." -The Republic was his most famous work in it, he set forth his vision of a perfectly governed society -It was not a democracy -In his ideal society, all citizens would fall naturally into three groups: 1) farmers and artisans 2) warriors 3) ruling class -person w/ greatest insight and intellect from ruling class would be chosen philosopher-king -his writings dominated philosophic thought in Europe for nearly 1,500 years -only rivals in importance: - his teacher, Socrates - his student, Aristotle

Sparta DBQ Documents • Please be familiar with all document questions Where is Sparta located? What military technique helped Sparta become so strong? Who fought against who in the Peloponnesian Wars [Some other questions but I'm just going to but the answers because typing :P]

Sparta located on Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece military technique that helped Sparta become so strong: Phalanx Peloponnesian Wars: Sparta vs. Athens At Thermopylae, stood their ground against Persians, all died, but Persians never reached Sparta Athens, helots, and Persians posed threats to Sparta population of Spart was mostly Helots, fewer pure Spartans Peloponnese: Peninsula in southern Greece where Sparta was city-state: Independent city in Greece Phalanx: A battle formation in which they locked shields together and had swords and spears Helots: Foreign conquered people, considered enemy from w/in, not slaves but not free. Gave half of what they grew to Spartans Spartiates: Pure Spartans, owned land Spartan boys spent 13 years in the agoge evidence that Spartan boys developed stronger attachment to their agoge groups than to their families: -barely spent time with family -With agoge for longer Spartan values suggested by document: -Strength, bravery, cunning, obedience, nationalism, courage, leadership, loyalty Strengths of Spartan education: -Strength, militaristic training, athletic -Know how to fight, survive better -Strong, survival skills, able to prevent rebellion -Offspring may have been stronger b/c women were strong Weaknesses of Spartan education: -Don't get a real education -get whipped for trying to eat -taken from families so early -taught to be thieves -no morals -Being starved, not healthy -Hungry, bad morals, no luxuries, gross food, nothing to live for but war -Hard to get allies, everyone hates them, they kill people -Only strength education, regulated marriages Clothing worn by Spartan boys: One garment throughout the year Reason for small rations of food: So they could go longer w/out food, be able to fight, etc. while hungry Reason for encouraging boys to steal: Know how to plan, be resourceful, figure out a way to get food if they didn't have it Reason for whipping boys who were caught stealing: They got caught, so they didn't know how to steal well enough Krypteia: The most sensible of young Spartiates, law enforcement officers, carried daggers and food, killed helots Plutarch's reason for killing helot's: -So they wouldn't rebel -display of dominance Spartan children taught: 1. the importance of reading was only for practical reasons 2. Treatment of a boy or man who's older than you: Respect, obedience, regard for them 3. working w/ hands: Not important, helots for that 4. Importance of money: no jobs, Helots for that 5. travel: Not important, couldn't leave, not allowed 6. attending plays: Didn't attend them 7. music: Used for dancing, fighting Sparta always concerned about being attacked. Spartan attitude towards the seven topics mentioned above address this concern about security by: -Had no interaction w/ outsiders outside of war, didn't know there was life aside from that Judging from Document D, were strengths of Spartan educations greater than weaknesses? explain No Description of figure of female Spartan dance shown: athletic According to Xenophon and Plutarch, purpose for training Spartan girls to wrestle, run, and throw: So they could produce better children, withstand the pain of childbirth

• How did tragedy differ from comedy?

The Greeks wrote two kinds of drama: tragedy and comedy Tragedy: A tragedy was a serious drama about common themes such as love, hate, war, or betrayal. These dramas featured a main character, or tragic hero. The hero usually was an important person and often gifted with extraordinary abilities. A tragic flaw usually caused the hero's downfall. Often this flaw was hubris, or excessive pride. Comedy: In contrast to Greek tragedies, a comedy contained scenes filled with slapstick situations and crude humor. Playwrights often made fun of politics and respected people and ideas of the time

• How did the Peloponnesian War pave the way for Phillip's conquest of Greece?

The Peloponnesian War severely weakened several Greek city-states. This caused a rapid decline in their military and economic power. In the nearby kingdom of Macedonia, King Philip II took note. Philip dreamed of taking control of Greece and then moving against Persia to seize its vast wealth. Philip also hoped to avenge the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 B.C. Demosthenes, the Athenian orator, tried to warn the Greeks of the threat Philip and his army posed, urged them to unite against Philip the Greek city-states could not agree on any single policy. Finally, Athens and Thebes—a city-state in central Greece—joined forces to fight Philip, but by then, it was too late. The Macedonians soundly defeated the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea. This defeat ended Greek independence. The city-states retained self-government in local affairs. However, Greece itself remained firmly under the control of a succession of foreign powers

5.1 What impact did nearness to the sea and mountainous land have on the development of Greece?

The Sea -The sea shaped Greek civilization just as rivers shaped the ancient civilizations of Egypt, the Fertile Crescent, India, and China -In one sense, the Greeks did not live on a land but around a sea -Greeks rarely had to travel more than 85 miles to reach the coastline -The Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the neighboring Black Sea were important transportation routes for the Greek people -These seaways linked most parts of Greece -As the Greeks became skilled sailors, sea travel connected Greece with other societies -Sea travel and trade were also important because Greece lacked natural resources, such as timber, precious metals, and usable farmland The Land -Rugged mountains that covered about three-fourths of ancient Greece divided the land into a number of different regions, significantly influencing Greek political life -Instead of a single government, the Greeks developed small, independent communities within each little valley and its surrounding mountains -Most Greeks gave their loyalty to these local communities. -In ancient times, the uneven terrain also made land transportation difficult -few roads existed -It often took travelers several days to complete a journey that might take a few hours today -Much of the land itself was stony, and only a small part of it was arable (suitable for farming) -Tiny but fertile valleys covered about one-fourth of Greece -The small streams that watered these valleys were not suitable for large-scale irrigation projects -With so little fertile farmland or fresh water for irrigation, Greece was never able to support a large population -Even this small population could not expect the land to support a life of luxury -A desire for more living space, grassland for raising livestock, and adequate farmland may have been factors that motivated the Greeks to seek new sites for colonies

Persian Wars

The greatest danger of all— invasion by Persian armies—moved Sparta and Athens alike to their greatest glory. Battle at Marathon The Persian Wars, between Greece and the Persian Empire, began in Ionia on the coast of Anatolia. Greeks had long been settled there, but the Persians conquered the area. When Ionian Greeks revolted, Athens sent ships and soldiers to their aid. The Persian king Darius the Great defeated the rebels and then vowed to destroy Athens in revenge. A Persian fleet carried 25,000 men across the Aegean Sea and landed northeast of Athens on a plain called Marathon. There, 10,000 Athenians, neatly arranged in phalanxes, waited for them. Vastly outnumbered, the Greek soldiers charged. The Persians, who wore light armor and lacked training in this kind of land combat, were no match for the disciplined Greek phalanx. After several hours, the Persians fled the battlefield. The Persians lost more than 6,000 men. In contrast, Athenian casualties numbered fewer than 200. Pheidippides Brings News Though the Athenians won the battle, their city now stood defenseless. According to tradition, army leaders chose a young runner named Pheidippides to race back to Athens. He brought news of the Persian defeat so that Athenians would not give up the city without a fight. Dashing the 26 miles from Marathon to Athens, Pheidippides delivered his message, "Rejoice, we conquer." He then collapsed and died. Moving rapidly from Marathon, the Greek army arrived in Athens not long after. When the Persians sailed into the harbor, they found the city heavily defended. They quickly put to sea in retreat. Thermopylae and Salamis Ten years later, in 480 B.C., Darius the Great's son and successor, Xerxes, assembled an enormous invasion force to crush Athens. The Greeks were badly divided. Some city-states agreed to fight the Persians. Others thought it wiser to let Xerxes destroy Athens and return home. Some Greeks even fought on the Persian side. Consequently, Xerxes' army met no resistance as it marched down the eastern coast of Greece. When Xerxes came to a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae, 7,000 Greeks, including 300 Spartans, blocked his way. Xerxes assumed that his troops would easily push the Greeks aside. However, he underestimated their fight- ing ability. The Greeks stopped the Persian advance for three days. Only a traitor's informing the Persians about a secret path around the pass ended their brave stand. Fearing defeat, the Spartans held the Persians back while the other Greek forces retreated. The Spartans' valiant sacrifice—all were killed—made a great impression on all Greeks. Meanwhile, the Athenians debated how best to defend their city. Themistocles, an Athenian leader, con- vinced them to evacuate the city and fight at sea. They positioned their fleet in a narrow channel near the island of Salamis, a few miles southwest of Athens. After setting fire to Athens, Xerxes sent his warships toblock both ends of the channel. However, the channel was very narrow, and the Persian ships had difficulty turning. Smaller Greek ships armed with battering rams attacked, puncturing the hulls of many Persian warships. Over one-third of the Persian fleet sank. Persians faced another defeat in 479 B.C., when the Greeks crushed their army at the Battle of Plataea. After this major setback, the Persians were always on the defensive. The following year, several Greek city-states formed an alliance called the Delian League. (The alliance took its name from Delos, the island in the Aegean Sea where it had its headquarters.) League members contin- ued to press the war against the Persians for several more years. In time, they drove the Persians from the territories surrounding Greece and ended the threat of future attacks. Consequences of the Persian Wars With the Persian threat ended, all the Greek city-states felt a new sense of confidence and freedom. Athens, in particular, basked in the glory of the Persian defeat. During the 470s, Athens emerged as the leader of the Delian League, which had grown to some 200 city-states. Soon thereafter, Athens began to use its power to control the other league members. It moved the league headquarters to Athens, and used mili- tary force against members that challenged its authority. In time, these city-states became little more than provinces of a vast Athenian empire. The prestige of victory over the Persians and the wealth of the Athenian empire set the stage for a dazzling burst of creativity in Athens. The city was entering its brief golden age.

Macedonia

The kingdom of Macedonia, located just north of Greece, had rough terrain and a cold climate. The Macedonians were a hardy people who lived in mountain villages rather than city-states. Most Macedonian nobles thought of themselves as Greeks. The Greeks, however, looked down on the Macedonians as uncivilized foreigners who had no great philosophers, sculptors, or writers. The Macedonians did have one very important resource—their shrewd and fearless kings.

5.3 • How did paying public officers strengthen Athenian democracy?

To strengthen democracy, Pericles increased the number of public officials who were paid salaries. Earlier, most positions in public office were unpaid, so only wealthier Athenian citizens could afford to hold public office. Now even the poorest citizen could serve if elected or chosen by lot, soAthens had more citizens engaged in self-government than any other city-state in Greece. This reform made Athens one of the most democratic governments in history.

Alexandria

Trade and Cultural Diversity Alexander named many cities Alexandria after himself one of these cities was an Egyptian city of the Hellenistic world that became the foremost center of commerce and Hellenistic civilization occupied a strategic site on the western edge of the Nile delta Trade ships from all around the Mediterranean docked in its spacious harbor it's thriving commerce enabled it to grow and prosper Alexandria became an international community, with a rich mixture of customs and traditions from Egypt and from the Aegean. Its diverse population exceeded half a million people. Alexandria's Attractions Both residents and visitors admired Alexandria's great beauty. Broad avenues lined with statues of Greek gods divided the city into blocks. Rulers built magnificent royal palaces overlooking the harbor. A much visited tomb contained Alexander's elaborate glass coffin. Soaring more than 350 feet over the harbor stood an enormous stone lighthouse called the Pharos. This lighthouse contained a polished bronze mirror that, at night, reflected the light from a blazing fire. Alexandria's greatest attractions were its famous museum and library. The museum was a temple dedicated to the Muses, the Greek goddesses of arts and sciences. It contained art galleries, a zoo, botanical gardens, and even a dining hall. The museum was an institute of advanced study. The Alexandrian Library stood nearby. Its collection of half a million papyrus scrolls included many of the masterpieces of ancient literature. As the first true research library in the world, it helped promote the work of a gifted group of schol- ars. These scholars greatly respected the earlier works of classical literature and learning. They produced commentaries that explained these works. Science and Technology Hellenistic scholars, particularly those in Alexandria, preserved Greek and Egyptian learning in the sciences. Until the scientific advances of the 16th and 17th centuries, Alexandrian scholars provided most of the scientific knowledge available to the West. Astronomy Alexandria's museum contained a small observatory in which astronomers could study the planets and stars. One astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, reached two significant scientific conclusions. In one, he estimated that the Sun was at least 300 times larger than Earth. Although he greatly underestimated the Sun's true size, Aristarchus disproved the widely held belief that the Sun was smaller than Greece. In another conclusion, he proposed that Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. Unfortunately for science, other astronomers refused to support Aristarchus' theory. In the second century A.D., Alexandria's last renowned astronomer, Ptolemy, incorrectly placed Earth at the center of the solar system. Astronomers accepted this view for the next 14 centuries. Eratosthenes, the director of the Alexandrian Library, tried to calculate Earth's true size. Using geometry, he computed Earth's circumference at between 28,000 and 29,000 miles. Modern measurements put the circumfer- ence at 24,860 miles. As well as a highly regarded astronomer and mathematician, Eratosthenes also was a poet and historian.

tragedy

Tragedy -a serious type of Greek drama about common themes such as love, hate, war, or betrayal -featured a main character, or tragic hero, who was usually an important person and often gifted with extraordinary abilities -A tragic flaw usually caused the hero's downfall -this flaw was often hubris, or excessive pride. -Greece had three notable dramatists who wrote tragedies -Aeschylus wrote over 80 plays -His most famous work is the trilogy Oresteia, based on the family of Agamemnon, the Mycenaean king who commanded the Greeks at Troy -the plays examine the idea of justice -Sophocles wrote more than 100 plays, including the tragedies Oedipus the King and Antigone -Euripides, author of the play Medea, often featured strong women in his works

• If you were a leader of a small Greek city-state, would you have joined the Delian league? Support your answer.

Yes because I would want to stope my city-sate from being invaded and conquered. If I joined the Delian league, I would stand a better chance of preventing this because I would have allies to help me defend my city-state.

aristocracy

a government ruled by a small group of noble, landowning families -these very rich families often gained political power after serving in a king's military cavalry • State ruled by nobility • Rule is hereditary and based on family ties, social rank, wealth • Social status and wealth support rulers' authority • Practiced in Athens

monarchy

a king ruled in a government • State ruled by a king • Rule was hereditary • Some rulers claimed divine right • Practiced in Mycenae

comedy

a type of Greek drama that contained scenes filled with slapstick situations and crude humor -Playwrights often made fun of politics and respected people and ideas of the time -Aristophanes wrote the first great comedies for the stage, including The Birds and Lysistrata -Lysistrata portrayed the women of Athens forcing their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War -The fact that Athenians could listen to criticism of themselves showed the freedom and openness of public discussion that existed in democratic Athens

5.2 • What were the advantages and disadvantages of the city-states as a form of government?

advantages: - disadvantages: -power struggles between rich and poor

Why were the epics of importance to the Greeks of the Dorian period?

because they lacked writing, the Greeks of this time learned about their history through the spoken word

epics

narrative poems celebrating heroic deeds

• What was the main concerns of the Stoic and Epicurean philosophy?

philosophers became concerned with how people should live their lives. Two major philosophies developed out of this concern. Stoicism: -school of philosophy founded by Zeno, a Greek philosopher -Stoics proposed that people should live virtuous lives in harmony with the will of god or the natural laws that God established to run the universe -preached that human desires, power, and wealth were dangerous distractions that should be checked -Stoicism promoted social unity and encouraged its followers to focus on what they could control Epicureanism -the school of thought founded by Epicurus, who taught that gods who had no interest in humans ruled the universe -believed that the only real objects were those that the five senses perceived -taught that the greatest good and the highest pleasure came from virtuous conduct and the absence of pain -Epicurus advocated moderation in all things -Epicureans proposed that the main goal of humans was to achieve harmony of body and mind

• Which Athenian leader's reforms most resemble aspects of U.S. democracy? How is Athenian democracy different than modern democracy?

similarities: -Draco: idea that all people are equal under the law -Solon: social classes according to wealth; all citizens, regardless of class, could participate in the Athenian assembly; the legal concept that any citizen could bring charges against wrongdoers -Cleisthenes: cities organized based on where they lived; allowed all citizens to submit laws for debate and passage; had a body that proposed laws and counseled the assembly; allowed Athenian citizens to participate in a limited democracy differences: -Draco's democracy: harsh penalties, death the punishment for almost every crime, debtors worked as slaves to repay their debts -Solon's democracy: only people in top three classes could hold office -Cleisthenes' democracy: body chosen at random; citizenship restricted to a relatively small number of Athenians: only free adult male property owners born in Athens were considered citizens; women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from citizenship and had few rights

Darius III

the Persian king Vowing to crush the invaders led by Alexander raised a huge army of between 50,000 and 75,000 men to face the Macedonians near Issus Alexander ordered his finest troops to break through a weak point in the Persian lines. The army then charged straight at Darius. To avoid capture, the king fled, followed by his panicked army Conquering the Persian Empire tried to negotiate a peace settlement offered Alexander all of his lands west of the Euphrates River Alexander rejected Darius's offer and confidently announced his plan to conquer the entire Persian Empire. Alexander marched into Egypt, a Persian territory After leaving Egypt, Alexander moved east into Mesopotamia to confront Darius He assembled a force of some 250,000 men. The two armies met at Gaugamela, a small village near the ruins of ancient Nineveh. Alexander launched a massive phalanx attack followedby a cavalry charge. As the Persian lines crumbled, Darius again panicked and fled. Alexander's victory at Gaugamela ended Persia's power. murdered by one of his provincial governors at a deserted spot south of the Caspian Sea

• Do you think Thucydides was right in his assertion that history sometimes repeats itself? Support your answer?

the greatest historian of the classical age was the Athenian Thucydides. He believed that certain types of events and political situations recur over time. Studying those events and situations, he felt, would aid in understanding the present. The approaches Thucydides used in his work still guide historians today. Yes. There have been wars in the past and there are wars today. Types of government are repeated. There was democracy in Athens and there's democracy in the US now.

democracy

• State ruled by its citizens • Rule is based on citizenship • Majority rule decides vote • Practiced in Athens by about 500 B.C. Struggles between rich and poor led Athens to become a democracy -The idea of representative government began to take root in some city-states, particularly Athens -Like other city-states, Athens went through power struggles between rich and poor - Athenians avoided major political upheavals by making timely reforms -Athenian reformers moved toward democracy, rule by the people -citizens participated directly in political decision making. Building Democracy Draco: The first step toward democracy came when a nobleman named Draco took power -he developed a legal code based on the idea that all Athenians, rich and poor, were equal under the law. His code dealt very harshly with criminals, making death the punishment for practically every crime. It also upheld such practices as debt slavery, in which debtors worked as slaves to repay their debts. Solon: More far-reaching democratic reforms were introduced by him Stating that no citizen should own another citizen, Solon outlawed debt slavery He organized all Athenian citizens into four social classes according to wealth Only members of the top three classes could hold political office all citizens, regardless of class, could participate in the Athenian assembly introduced the legal concept that any citizen could bring charges against wrongdoers Cleisthenes: the Athenian leader Cleisthenes introduced further reforms broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth increased the power of assembly by allowing all citizens to submit laws for debate and passage Cleisthenes created the Council of Five Hundred This body proposed laws and counseled the assembly. Council members were chosen by lot, or at random. His reforms allowed Athenian citizens to participate in a limited democracy, but citizenship was restricted to a relatively small number of Athenians. Only free adult male property owners born in Athens were considered citizens. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from citizenship and had few rights.