Animal Behavior

Allopatric Speciation

2 groups of one species are isolated geographically and diverge into separate species Most common mechanism of speciation Kaibab and Albert squirrels --> diff colors may be due to diff predators

Curt Lively and Freshwater Snails

3 hypothesis: Lottery: More sex in streams (flood periodically) than in in lakes (stable) Tangled Bank: More sex in lakes where competition is greater than in streams Red Queen: more sex wherever rates of parasite infection are greatest, regardless of habitat type (parasites should be adapted to infect sympatric snail species -share habitat-rather than generally adapted to infect a variety of snail host species) data: Higher number of males, higher rate of total infection --> means more stable environment (discards lottery) & Mixed snail site, resulted in vey little infection; specific snail site resulted in high infection of the native species. --> confirms Red Queen

Finding and Securing mates

A lot of energy invested in trying to not only find but secure that mate, rituals and behavior that have high energy costs Great Blue Heron --> twig passing Orb-weaving spider --> two concerns of male spiders: finding a female? and will she eat me?

Bateman experience

A result of anisogamy When # of males increase, female reproductive success eventually plateaus, but male reproductive success depends on # of females This then leads to increase in male variance, as variance w/in a sex increases so does competition, this leads to sexual selection

Alarm signals

Alarm calls - auditory noise made to warn others Ground squirrels and primates Chemical alarms signals - warn and communicate Minoes - release chemical signal when eaten to warn others that predator is nearby, but this also attracts other predators Bees- communicate via chemical signal, smells like bananas

Group Defense

Alarm signals, improved detection, dilution effect, selfish herd, confusion effect, mobbing

Parental Care

Allocation of parental reproductive resources, providing care, parent-offspring conflict Most animals lack parental care: most invertebrates, most cold-blooded vertebrates

Payload Capacity

Amount of food that can be carried vs animal size Wasps --> Workers carry their max payload capacity Foundresses and late reproductives could probably carry more and do not carry the max payload

Different amounts of sperm

Amount of sperm in ejaculation (fruit fly increase sperm load when another male present)

Selfish herd

Animals compete for the position that is least likely to get attacked (middle) tadpoles --> Sea bass attacks the middle

Crypsis

Avoiding detection through color -Breaking contour, counter shading, transparency, color matching/change Avoiding detection through behavior - selection of background, presence/absence of movement, modification of environment Better predator, avoid being prey? BOTH

Territoriality

Benefits: longer lasting food supplies, increased access to mates, greater opportunity to rear offspring Costs: time and energy

Displacement or inactivation of rivals sperm

Black winged damsel flies and "scooping", ghost spider crabs and "cementing", Dunnocks "ejecting"

Breaking contour

Breaking up the body outline of an individual with the background --> cant tell where the body of the animal begins or ends, predator doesn't know exactly where to strike Northern Water Snake, Texas banded Geko

Living in Groups Cost

Competition for mates, nest sites, food Conspicuousness - increased visibility for both predators and prey Disease and parasites - transmitted through social contact (swallow bugs) Reproductive interference - egg dumping and egg tossing Being subordinate

Optimality Models

Cost/benefit analysis indentify trade-offs between costs and benefits, that gives max net benefit to the individual (or individual's genes) Area on graph where there is the greatest difference (space) between costs and benefits

Anti-Predator Behavior

Crypsis, Color Polymorphism, Warning Coloration, Batesian Mimicry, Deception Mechanisms, Group defense, Intimidation and Fighting back

Feigning Injury or Death

Death may indicate that prey is not fresh and not tasty Hognose Snake Injury can distract the predator and allow for the escape of either the individual (by confusion) or others (drawing attention away) - bird draws predator away from nest

Modification of Environment

Decorator Crab --> decorates environment in order to blend in better

Sperm Competition

Different amounts Displacement or inactivation of rivals sperm Avoid displacementAvoid displacement Interfering

Optimal Foraging Theory

Discrete and measurable goal successful at reaching the goal, will have more energy for survival and reproduction Max calories in shortest time, min predation risk, min risk of starvation Mussels and birds --> Searching versus Stealing

Alien species

Disruption of behavior and hybridization Fischers lovebirds and peach-faced lovebirds Long strips and no tucking vs short strips and tucking --> hybridization intermediate strips and unsuccessful tucking, eventually only head turning (basically there can behavioral indicators of hybridization)

Securing Mating opportunities

Dominance behavior : successful copulation increasing with higher rank (elephant seals) Spider Monkeys: Alphas have more visible copulations, Subordinate have more hidden copulations Enthusiasm: males become more excited in the presence of new females even if it has already mated Coolidge effect--> renewed sexual interest with new partner present, even if they refused sex from previous

Intimidation and Fighting Back

Enhancement of Body size, Display of weaponry, chemical repellents

Sperm count

Enough sperm shows if the mate has mated and can choose to refuse or mate according to the sperm count Dorsiphilia --> males pass on chemicals that decreases females life span and male with more sperm is better

The Red Queen Hypothesis

Evolutionary Arms Race sex creates a diverse offspring to cope with an unpredictable biotic environment (hunters vs prey and hosts vs parasites) Time lagged frequency dependent selection --> Host genotype becomes common, parasites are selected (evolve) to infect it, one host phenotype is rare and can't be infected, eventually become common, the parasites are selected and catchup, so on and so on Sex creates a diverse host, Changing the lock when enemy has the key (short term)

Natural vs Sexual

Evolutionary change is driven by both, and both favor increased reproductive success Sexual selection is a subcategory of Natural selection --> it explains traits that are costly for survival but increase reproductive success Sexual selection pushes to an extreme BUT natural selection creates a barrier/threshold on the cost Dung beetles -> visual hearing is impaired due to horn and worsens with increasing size, but there is a max size Marine iguanas --> largest size more successful by sexual selection, largest size die due to low resources by natural selection (there is an optimal size)

Scramble Competition Polygyny

Expected when females or resources are widely dispersed or receptive for short period of time Ground squirrel and fireflies

Eyespots

Eyespots on individual startles predator Hypothesis --> resemble eyes of the predators own predator Proof shows that shape of spot or closer resemblance to the predator's eyes affect, The size matters --> larger spot results in increase of survival

Deception Mechanisms

Eyespots, False heads, Autotomy, Feigning Injury or death

Female Defense Polygyny

Female Fitness lowers as harem size increases yellow bellied marmots, male defends a group of females that are already social for other ecological reasons

Sexy Son Hypothesis

Female chooses an attractive polygynous male when theres no male to provide material benefits, best ways to produce reproductively successful sons

Fecundity Selection

Female fecundity is the number of offspring they can produce and also refers the number of males, sexual dimorphism may reflect fecundity (larger females can produce more offspring)

Females in space and time

Females asynchronous --> clumped or disperse females --> males nonterritorial and promiscuous Females synchronous --> clumped --> males territorial and polygamous Females synchronous --> dispersed --> males territorial and monogamous

Seychelles Warbler

Females on good territories produce fewer males (disperse) and more females ( stay to help parents) Higher quality environment, less male nesting, higher female nesting

Plant eating

Grazers - Bison

Anthropogenic impacts

Human impacts --> Habitant fragmentation, introdcution of alien species, environmental modification

Hyperphagia

Increasing in size right before migration

Simple Orientation

Kinesis and Taxis

Dilution Effect

Living in a group lowers the overall percapita chance of an individual being taken Ladybugs - live in larger groups and per capita of being taken individually is low, however the larger the group the more they are attacked which hurts the effect

Bdelloid Rotifers

Locked into asexuality, homologous chromosome have diverged to the point that there is only one functional copy of most gene Still have pathogen pressures and deal with it by drying up and blowing away from pathogen

Lek Polygyny

Male provides no parental care to offspring, males do not actively pursue females, they gather in neutral areas (with no valuable resource around) and try to lure a female with visual or chemical displays Only most attractive male mate

Disruptive Selection (gametes)

Males & females gametes extremes are favored disruptive selection in different environments can lead to speciation

Securing Fertilization

Mate Guarding: male guards mate to assure the female produces its offspring (venezuelan frog) Sperm Competition

Mate Choice Criteria

Material Benefits Territory Sufficient Sperm Parental Ability Mate quality

Inter-sexual Selection

Mating success due to between sex interactions (females choosing males) Sex that invests more on offspring (selective of mate) Done by: Mate choice criteria, Origin and maintenance preference, cryptic female choice

Intra-sexual Selection

Mating success due to within sex interactions (male male combat) Sex that invests less on offspring (compete to be chosen) Done by: Securing mating opp, securing fertilization, and interfering with competitors Ex: Broad-nosed pipefish (females compete b/w each other) and Red deer (extreme competition b/w males)

Nutrient Constriants

Max energy constrained by not only eating capacity of animal but also nutrient constraints Moose has a sodium constraint --> animal foraging max energy while also dealing with nutrient constraints

Agressive Mimicry

Mimics another animal in order to trap Photuris vs fireflies --> Photunis fireflies gives a specific signal to attract mate and then Photuris mimics the signal and then uses it to attract a mate but it becomes the prey Photuris benefits --> jumping spider rejects it bc of bitter chemical transferred when it ate photunis

Mixed Strategies

Monomorphic --> frequency dependent --> equal average fitness Different Tactics Sex ratio determine by environment (crocodiles) or society (clownfish) Paper Wasps --> sit and wait females (adopt an abandoned nest) or females that start nests found a nest females have a lower fitness when less frequent and higher when more frequent (backwards for sit and wait females)

Taxis

Movement in response to stimulus dictated by the stimulus negative - away from the stimulus positive - towards the stimulus Photo-light Rheo - water currents Thigmo - touch Phono - sound

Migration

Movement of animal populations between habitats hypothesis that Migration first developed form dispersal: indvls dispersed and then decided to migrate back to the original space for mating Sedentary--> short distance --> long distance

Elevational

Movement up and down mountains slopes --> due to weather and food availability ex: deer or Elk, spotted owls

Sexual Dimorphism

Not all sexual dimorphism arises from sexual selection , natural selection can also differ b/w sexes Evolved through Anisogamy (union of two dissimilar gametes) only eukaryotes Disruptive selection for larger, immobile or small, mobile gametes (quality vs quantity)

Material Benefits

Nuptial gifts: Hangingflies bring prey as a gift Sexual cannibalism: mate is eating by other mate after copulation (Redback Spiders --> male lets female eat him: female less likely to mate after feeding, assures that the eggs are fertilized by male)

Parent offspring conflict

Offspring are more related to parents and own offspring than siblings and nieces/nephews rB>C r=coefficient of relatedness B=benefit to recipient for help provided C = cost to self for providing help Parents preferred end of dependency and offpsprings preferred end of dependency is different (parents shorter, offpsrings longer) depends on benefit to current offspring and cost to future offspring

Territory

Once copulated the mate receives territory with quality benefits for offspring

Phenological Mismatch

One species normally migrates in sync to another species appearance --> this is the mismatch Pied flycathcer usually migrates in sync with flies appearing (increasing in density) due to warmer weather (can eat along the way) --> now they are mismatched and the migrate before the fly increase in density

Marginal Value Theorem

Optimality Foraging theory - patch theory Determines what the optimal amount of time spent in a specific patch depending on the possible of energy that can be extracted AND the amount of time spent traveling between patches (areas b/w patches has no resources) depending on distance between patches Animal will spent more time at a patch with more food than with less food Patches will be abandoned more quickly if they are closer together than patches that are further apart

Compass

Orientation and Navigation -- travel in a straight line without landmarks, using stars Indigo Bunting -- Funnel experiment and changing the star map (uses north star) Monarch -- light angle changing experiment, use sun compass and time compensated when manipulated, cant tell in overcast skies

Piloting

Orientation and navigation -- using landmarks, most useful in short distances Digger wasps -- Niko tinberg experiment Gray whales -- costal landmarks

Mate quality

Physical well-being --> parasite load, nutritional state, attentiveness (The color of Finch shows well being) Level of Dominance --> display of dominance, means strongest mate (Fiddler crab --> male build towers and smash other towers to show dominance) Longevity --> oldest show higher fitness (Weed Warblers have a high repertoire of songs as age increases - higher repertoire, longer life, more survival)

Alternative strategies

Polymorphic --> frequency dependent --> equal average fitness Through genetic polymorphism --> discontinuous genetic variation that leads to diff forms or types of individuals among a single species At equilibrium alternative are selectively maintained Frequency dependent (vs fitness) --> positive trend then trait becomes fixed and negative trend then multiple traits are maintained Sponge Isopods --> alpha defends the harem, beta mimic females to sneak in and mate, gamma stay in the periphery to mate = when alpha males are more common, beta and gamma have higher fitness

Costs of Sex

Production of males, Sexually transmitted disease, finding and securing mate opportunities, breaking up co-adapted gene complexes

Living in Groups Benefits

Queuing for dominance: cooperative courtship (long-tailed manakins) --> best tactic hypothesis Ability to locate mates Increased ability to detect/thwart predators (Group defense) Increased hunting efficiency (african wild dogs) Improved foraging (Ravens --> yelling recruitment signals) Survivorship insurance - steady survivorship Disease resistance - social vaccination (termites)and behavior fever (honey bees) Enhanced reproductive success (elephant seals) Increased Access to food

Adaptive prey detection

Rattle snake can use sent by tongue to detect prey, gland to detect temp--> hunt blind

Origin and Maintenance of Mate Choice Preferences

Runaway sexual selection, Choosing males with good genes, sensory bias, mate-choice copying

Improved detection

Scanning of environment improves when it is done in groups Mongoose

DNA Repair hypothesis

Sex invented to repair genes, repairs DNA breakage Repair is possible when a template exists --> homologues provide the template and repair uses crossing over Problems: environments where DNA damage is highest, asexual reproduction dominates/diploidy could provide template for repair

Muller's Ratchet

Sexual reproduction produces mutation-free offspring Asexual accumulate mutations Once a mutated individual is produced, cannot regenerate a mutation free individual (irreversible loss of superior phenotype -- fitness then declines) Salmonella typhimurium --> evidence, none had higher fitness than wildtype Problems: in large pops, the advantage of sex is not fast enough for the two-fold numerical advantage of asexual reproduction BUT short-term benefits to sex

Latitudinal (north to south)

Short distance -> within a continent -three wattled bellbird Long Distance --> between continents -Arctic Tern

Siblicide

Siblings fight and eventually kill each other for parental care Spotted Hyenas: same sex siblings fight for dominance and weak ones dies from lack of parental care Why? efficient brood reduction when food is scarce, youngest serves as insurance if older one dies (strongest one survives)

Pseudocopulation

Similar to copulation, reproductive function, but actual sexual union between the mates Whiptail Lizards

Females in space

Sparse, patchy and slowly renewed resources --> territorial females, evenly distributed --> nonterritorial males abundant, evenly distributed rapidly renewed resources --> nonterritorial females --> territorial males

Chemical Repellents

Spraying foul or toxic chemicals when threatened Skunk

Hunting

Traps, agressive mimicry, antidetection adaptations, adaptive prey detection

Prey Choice

Type of Optimal Foraging Theory profitability = energy/ handling time if two items of diff profitability are encountered in the env, should always take the one with the higher profitability If more profitable item is encountered more often (common), then the less profitable item should be ignored when encountered Great Tit - conveyor belt and 2 worms, predicted bird should immediately choose larger worm, but trend takes longer If higher profitability item has high encounter rate, then it might not always be chosen, if it is rare (low encounter rate) then it will always be chosen

Color Change

Used in avoiding predator and mate choice cuddle fish

True Naviagtion

Using both Piloting and Compass in order to migrate, sense of direction and geographic position Turtles and Rocky Lobsters

Counter Shading

White underside to blend in with sky as predator looks up at indvl, dark underside to blend in with ground as predator looks down on indvl Squirrel and sharks

Reintroductions

Whooping crane , human mimics mother crane and carries out its duties, then teaches flight and facilitates its reintroduction

Transparency

Works better in water, due to the increasing bending of light, and less excpecte UV radiation Jellyfish

Parental Ability

ability to defend territory or offspring

Autotomy

ability to detach or remove a part of body Little brown Skink (Lizard) removal of tail, which continues to thrash after removal. If tail continues trashing after removal, predator attacks tail and not body of prey, increasing the chances of its survival

Alternative Phenotypes maintained

alternative strategies, mixed strategies, conditional stategies

Leaf cutter ants

ants cut leafs (extension of phenotype) and the plant a garden in order to grow fungus to then eat

Zugunruhe

anxiety of migrating/flying, affects ability to fly Indigo bunting

Adoption

benefit appears a result from dilution effect In ducks there is little to no cost to adoption (chicks forage for themselves)

Promiscuity

both sexes mate with multiple partners , parental care carried out by both either or neither , low parental investment by males and often females anchovy: females lay over 1000 eggs most wont survive

Warning Coloratio

certain bright colors warn predators that prey does not taste good and can be toxic

Color matching

changing color or pattern matching to background Gray Tree Frog

Filter feeding

combing water for plankton and such flamingoes

Trivers Willard Effect

condition dependent sex allocation Red Deer can do selective miscarriage Females in higher ranks give birth to more males

Traps

conditional strategy and mixed strategy Conditional strategy - when behavior changes according to the environment (orb weaving spider - three strategies matching conditions) Antlions - make holes and ants fall in

Avoid displacement

continued copulation (bighorn sheep), copulatory plug (mice), chemical repellants (cabbage white butterfly --> anti aphrodisiac)

Anti-detection Adaptations

crab spider --> ambush, invade other webs and eat the spiders and other prey caught in it Vinesnake -->active hunting

Mate-choice copying

cultural transmission of of mating preference Guppy experiment: females behind glass partition would watch model female choosing between two mates, female copied the model female's choice even if the mate was "lower quality"

Care given to brood

depends on brood size, genetic relatedness, and future mating opportunities Bluegill sunfish: if brood size decreases, time spent on defending brood does too If sneaker males are present, they take it as a sign that the brood might not be theirs, when born and related, the parental care goes up Rainbow cichlids: if female presence increases, males desert brood

Mating system evolution

developed due to the need of parental care and spatial distribution of females

Forms of Parental Care

egg guarding, guarding newly emerged young, juveniles may follow or be transported by adults, thermoregulation, provision of nutrients, teaching

Choosing Males with Good genes

exaggerated male traits and offspring viability: mates attracted to exaggerated trait --> trait connected to a stronger offspring (peacocks -> fem attracted to males with more eyespots, offspring will be heavier and survive longer) Parasite load: representative of parental efforts (frog --> shows parasite load) Symmetry and genetic quality: honest indicator of quality, developmental stability especially in hostile environment (Barn swallow --> Second matings more common for males with longer tails, more offspring with longer tails, premating period longer for males with shorter tails, short tails cheated on more often with longer tails) Genetic similarity: inbreeding avoidance, increased disease resistance (MHC in mice and humans)

Sexual Selection

explain extravagant traits that seem to reduce survival/fitness (peacocks tails) --> different than natural selection because it produces traits that could compromise survival Arrises through variance in mating success - basic principle as natural selection -->favors whatever gets more genes into the next generation Two types: Intra-sexual and Inter-sexual selection

Resource Defense Polygyny

females are clumped and offspring require little to no parental care African Cichlid

Sensory Bias

females have latent preferences that male signals exploit, preference for a trait evolves in a non-mating context and then exploited by one sex to obtain more mating opportunities Trinidad Guppies -> attracted to orange, selecting for the ability to locate ripe fruit (The trait is already in place) Swordtails: females prefer males with swords even though in the genus, males do not have swords

Obtaining Food

filter feeding, plant eating, hunting

Brood Parasitism

fitness cost to recipient and fitness benefit to donor Facultative: Lay eggs in own nest and in nests of conspecifics (starlings) Obligate: lay only in nests of other species Interspecific: between species (cichlids and jawfish) Intraspecific: within species (bar-headed goose) Why allow? Bird can risk mistakenly discarding one of its own eggs (reed warbler) or Mafia behavior --> parasite bird will destroy nest of host if the host discards the parasite eggs, animals able to reject/eject offspring have least amount of own offspring (brown-headed cowbirds)

Production of Males

genetic costs of males --> less DNA into the next generation Asexual individuals can get twice as much of their own DNA to the next generation

Strategy

genetically based program

Mobbing

hypothesis: confuse the predator, discourage predator by intimidation or showing detection, alerting other of danger, teaching young to fear the mobbed animal

Habitat fragmentation

increases dispersal due to local interactions decreases emigration Hyraxes - cannot hear their conspecifics in order to emigrate to rock outcrop, due to intruding noise

Enhancement of Body size

increasing size in order to intimidate, puffer fish

Batesian Mimicry

individual mimicking appearance of another in order to avoid preator Viceroy mimics Monarch in order to avoid Bluejay --> does not eat Monarchs because of taste

Maternal or Paternal care

internal fertilization = female care external fertilization = male care why? certainty of paternity (fem knows it's its baby and male knows it's its fertilized egg), gamete order (left with developing young) , association

Socially Monogamous

long term living arrangement between one male and one female, not about reproductive preference (doesn't mean the pair sexually interacts) --> share territory, share obtaining resources, share parental care Prairie vole

Best Tactic Hypothesis

making the best out of a bad situation

Conditional strategy

monomorphic --> status dependent --> unequal average fitness tactic fitness depends on environment or condition, choose tactic that has max fitness in that condition Wasps --> territory males can become periphery and periphery can become territory orb-weaving spider Horse shoe crabs --> patrol or satellite depends on body size

Kinesis

movement in response to stimulus but stimulus does not dictate the direction (sowbug and humidity)

Stotting

movement of deers, jumping and hunching n shape benefit to idnvl: pursuit deterrence, prey displays health, startle predator, confusion effect, show predator is detected, Conspecifics: warns others Reduces chances of successful chase, increases chances of abandoned race, does not affect an unsuccessful chase

Presence/absence of movement

moving or freezing behavior is unpredictable and predators cannot find a pattern or predict movement Voles

Co-adapted Gene complexes

multiple genes on a chromosome that may be linked, they might have coevolved in order to produce an adaptive phenotype (epistasis) the genetic cost of Recombination is breaking up these complexes

Polyandry

one female mates with multiple males at a time, males do parental care Cooperative Polyandry: more than one male assists a female, due to shortage in mating opportunities bc of few territories available Resource defense polyandry:females compete for and defend resources important to males developed: highly male-biased operational sex ratios, high predation rates, limited clutch sizes (clutch - all eggs produced)

Polygyny

one male mates with multiple females at a time, females do parental care

Allocation of Parental Reproductive Resources

own resources to devote to reproduction allocating among offspring: bluethroats give more resources to larger sibling offspring investment decreases as parent's lifespan increases

Mate Assistance hypothesis

parental care is needed to ensure offspring survival, synchronization of male and female reproductive cycles Seahorse males carry eggs in pouch

Tactic

phenotype that results from a strategy

Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis

polygyny should be more common in patchy environments, Females will choose aa paired male over an unpaired male if that male has higher quality territory, female gain fitness by mating with a male that already has a mate

Color Polymorphism

population of species come in multiple colors Multiple colors may increase the survival rate - predator can't form template and doesn't understand what it is looking for

False Heads

predators usually aim for the head --> if predator attacks "wrong head" prey can escape

Runaway Sexual Selection

preferred trait is initially advantageous but then it takes on a life of its own. genes for female preference become linked to preferred trait. Trait become more and more exaggerated until survival cost becomes too great Fisher's model: three stages-> survival advantage, survival and female choice, female choice Stalk-eyed flies: longest eyes wins territory, longer eye stalk then male to female ratio is closer to 50/50

Sex

process of DNA transfer from one cell to another by mechanisms other than cell division (not always related to reproduction -- bacterial transformation) Sexual reproduction has to evolve, Sex has large energy costs First forms were probably like plasmid transfer

Tangled Bank Hypothesis

producing diverse offspring to cope with a spatially heterogeneous physical and competitive environment Offspring that disperse may have decreased competition among siblings and greater chances of successfully exploiting diverse environments

Monogamy

prolonged association and exclusive mating b/w one male and one female, both do parental care inability to monopolize more than one female (females are scarce or widely distributed and mating is synchronous) Necessity for biparental care (California mouse, silver-backed jackals)

Wildlife underpass and overpass

reserve design and corridor planning elk overpass

Alternative mating phenotypes

securing mating opp not all successful matings is due to being dominant Alternative strategies : sponge isopods Conditional strategies: horseshoe crabs most alternative pheno are conditional strategies, change in tactics occur via polyphenism (developmental switch) or monitoring of condition Doesn't usually have equal average fitness = conditional

Selection of Background

selecting background that will reduce chances of predation Stonefly Nymphs --> experiment on whether a light or dark background chosen more often through day = dark background chosen more often during daylight hours (nightime hours didnt matter) Survival has higher in darker backgrounds

Lottery Hypothesis

sex evolved to produce diverse offspring in order to cope with an unpredictable physical environment asexual reproduction is like buying several lottery tickets with the same numbers

Display of Weaponry

showing or signaling the defense mechanism Puffer Fish, porcupine, skunk

Increasing reproductive success

socially facilitated breeding fake flamingos aids in facilitating breeding between single couple of mates

Interfering

spermatophore transfer interference (exactly as it sounds) Pseudofemale behavior (mimics female and tricks male, wastes spermatophore with courtship) Amplexus interference (intruder cause amplexus male to pause wasting time and energy)

Howler Monkeys

study looked at conflicts that emerged depending within the groups formed, fitness vs sex ratio fewer males in group, male fitness is higher and even surpass female fitness

Confusion Effect

the number of prey available, confuses the predator and decreases success of capture

Sympatric speciation

through polyploidy (organism with more than two homologous chromosomes) in one environment

Mate Guarding hypothesis

unguarded females will seek other mates, male is expected to guard mates if sex ratio is male-biased or mating is synchronous, Female enforced monogamy, females may also guard mate or attack if mate shows interest in other female Burying beetles - males attract females to the carcass hey posses and females can choose to push them off perches so they can't release pheromones

Cloaking

using environment in order to cloak sent or appearance Squirrel rubs rattlesnake old skin on body and this makes it harder for the snake to recognize/detect