ANSC 2340 Midterm 2

For the sympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic neuron extends from what? Synapses with?

the spinal cord; -a series of autonomic ganglion that make up the sympathetic chain, or -pass through the sympathetic chain and synapse with a ganglion outside the chain

What happens when a carcass is split in regards to the vertebrae? What is in that neural canal?

the vertebrae will be cut in half to expose the neural canal; the spinal cord

What are Scwann cells?

specialized glial cells wrapped around the axon

Describe a person with multiple sclerosis

-the myelin sheath is damaged -inability to see properly, loss of normal muscle control, inability to make coordinated movements -rate of conduction much slower with loss of rapid communication for complex, integrated functions

How many different levels of organization are there to protect the CNS? What do these levels do?

3 -2 levels to protect against the external environment -2 levels to protect against the internal environment (hard anatomical structures and what flows through circulation)

Neuroglial/glial cells make up how much of the cells in the nervous system? What are they not involved in?*

50%; -transmission of information or impulses

How many classes of vertebrae are there in the mammal? Purpose of the vertebrae?*

5; to protect the spinal cord

Is there any physical contact between the axon and target tissue/receptor?

No

What is a condyle?

a rounded prominence of bone used for articulation with another bone

When does synaptic transmission occur?

after the action potential has completed travel down the axon and has stimulated release of an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter

What does collateral branching allow?*

neurons to communicate with several sites

Each sodium channel opening during saltatory conduction stimulates what?*

opening of adjacent channel

Parasympathetic and sympathetic innervate many of the what?

same tissues and organs

What does the occipital bone form?

the base of the skull

What does the adrenal gland sit on top of?

the kidney

What are the elements of the temporal bones?

-2 bones ventral to the parietal bones -forms lateral walls of the cranium (helps protect the brain) -contains most of ear structures -forms joint with mandible (temporomandibular or jaw joint; there are two temporomandibulars on each side)

Describe what is happening at the beginning of repolarization*

-Na+ channels are closing -K+ channels are opening -K+ ions flow out of the cell -net charge is returning to negative direction

Describe captive bolt stunning for different animals

-captive bolt stunning used commonly in beef industry and not for sheep -captive bolt not used for market weight pigs (Struggle too much); they are stunned using carbon dioxide or electrical stunning -for mature breeding boars and bulls, they have massive skulls, but sometimes bolt stunner still used

Describe the frontal bones

-forehead of skull -rostral to parietal bones (rostral=towards nose or mouth) -forms the rostrolateral portion of cranium and a portion of the orbit (bony socket that protects the eye) -has a role in captive bolt stunning

Describe the occipital bone*

-forms base of skull -most caudal (has large hole (foramen magnum) where spinal cord emerges from the skull) -forms joint with the atlas; the atlantoocipital joint (the first cervical vertebrae) connects the occipital bone to atlas; the atlas enables animal to nod the head -damage to this bone would be a problem (but is not usually a problem due to the presence of muscles, tendons, and ligaments)

Describe inhibitory neurotransmitters

-hyperpolarizes postsynaptic membrane -inside of cell becomes more negative -membrane potential relative to the threshold is negative (due to more negative chloride ions entering) -chloride and potassium channels open with chloride entering, and potassium leaving

What are the elements of the mandible?*

-it is the lower jaw -houses all lower teeth -only moving skull bone -forms temporomandibular joint with temporal bone -2 regions: shaft/body (horizontal portion that houses teeth), and the ramus (caudal end which is vertical and is the site where powerful jaw muscles for chewing are attached)

Describe the cerebrum*

-largest part of the brain in domestic mammals -functions associated with learning and intelligence -surface covered with gyri separated by fissures and sulci -longitudinal fissure divides into right and left cerebral hemispheres

What is happening at the resting state of a neutron?*

-neuron is not being stimulated -Na+ has been pumped out of the cell -K+ has been pumped into the cell -net negative charge inside cell membrane (-70mV) -all gates closed to the movement of Na+ and K+

Describe a resting/unstimulated neuron

-presence of Na/K pump, which pumps Na+ from inside to outside of neuron, and pumps K+ from outside to inside -acts to pump against concentration gradient -this separation of Na+ and K+ polarizes the cell membrane -presence of 2 distinct poles of ions which consists of Na+ (high concentration on outside of neuron) and K+ (concentration on inside of neuron) -the cell membrane is said to be polarized because of 2 distinct poles of ions across the membrane -more negative inside than outside: -70mV resting membrane potential

How is the cerebellum involved with a horse jumping over an obstacle?

-requires coordinated movement of all the limbs -knowledge where the horse is in space -compares intended movement with what actually happened (can make adjustments to the intended movement)

Describe what happens during repolarization*

-sufficient outflow of K+ ions restored net negative charge to inside of cell -Na+ and K+ ions are on opposite sides of the cell membrane from where they started -resting state is restored

Describe the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system

-test and restore system -decrease the excitatory effects of fight or flight -facilitates the progress to replenish body stores used up in emergency situations -tries to return the body to normal -antagonizes sympathetic nervous system effects: -increases activity of GIT -reduces heart rate -reduces diameter of bronchioles -little effect on blood vessels except blood vessels in the GIT -releases acetylcholine

What are the three major levels of protection for the brain?

-the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier

1) What can a synapse be a junction between? 2) What is the synaptic cleft? 3) What is the neuron called that brings the action potential to the synapse and releases chemical? What does it secrete? 4) What is the neuron called that receives the neurotransmitter from the synapse? Does this have to be a neuron?

1) -a neuron and another neuron -a neuron and a target cell (muscle, organ, tissue) 2) a physical gap between the end of the neuron/axon, and whatever cell type that's across from the end of the axon/neuron 3) presynaptic neuron; a chemical neurotransmitter 4) postsynaptic neuron; No-could be a muscle fiber, organ, or other tissue

1) What does the cerebrospinal fluid do? 2) What is the cerebrospinal fluid derived from? 3) What is the cerebrospinal fluid needed for? 4) What does the cerebrospinal fluid maintain? 5) What is the cerebrospinal fluid a route for? 6) What does the cerebrospinal fluid circulate through?

1) -bathes the brain and spinal cord to protect the central nervous system from hard surfaces of skull and vertebral column 2) blood plasma (but it is quite different in composition for some components: i.e. proteins and electrolytes: essentially protein-free) -clear, colourless fluid 3) to minimize displacement of the brain when there are rapid directional changes in the head; protects brain from trauma 4) a constant external environment for brain cells; circulates nutrients and fluids 5) to get rid of harmful metabolites from the brain (protection from internal environment) 6) meningeal layers, brain, and spinal cord

1) What are the axial bones? 2) What are appendicular bones?*

1) -bones of the head and trunk; bones attached to the midline/axis of the body -skull, vertebral column, sternum, ribs 2) -bones of the limbs or appendages of the trunk -thoracic (held onto cavity via muscles of the shoulder) and pelvic bones (attached to the skeleton)

1) Describe afferent nerves 2) Describe efferent nerves

1) -carry nerve impulses towards CNS -includes sensory nerves which carry sensations from sensory receptors in the skin and other parts of the body 2) -conducts nerve impulses going away from CNS towards muscle and other organs -called motor nerves as will cause skeletal muscle contractions

1) What are a couple of examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters? 2) What may a postsynaptic membrane have several types of?*

1) -gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) in brain -glycine (an amino acid) in spinal cord 2) presynaptic neurons across the synaptic cleft

1) What do neurons do? 2) What happens with cardiac cells? 3) Information is transmitted from the neuron to..? 4) What is neuron involvement needed for?

1) -have property of excitability -develop action potentials (one form of electrical impulse) to carry information which gets propagated along the neuron's cellular processes -involved in the transmission of info/impulses through central nervous system 2) cardiac cells produce their own action potential 3) a neuron, muscle, organ, and some tissue 4) muscle contraction

1) What happens during the refractory period? 2) What is happening during the absolute refractory period? 3) What happens at the relative refractory period?

1) -if a 2nd stimulus arrives at the dendrites or on the soma when Na+ are open or when K+ is moving through open channels, cannot get a second depolarization -neuron is insensitive to new stimulations 2) -no depolarization under any circumstances -Na influx -early K outflow 3) larger than normal stimuli at tail end of repolarization (normal stimulus ineffective)

1) Describe somatic nervous system function 2) Describe involuntary nerve function controlled by autonomic nervous system

1) -includes conscious or voluntary control of skeletal muscles -voluntary initiation of efferent nerve impulses -includes impulses sent from receptors in muscle, skin, eye, and ear to the CNS which are consciously perceived by the brain 2) -contracts intestines -increases heart rate in response to a threat -stimulates secretion of digestive juices -self-regulating system with automatic functions -do not go to skeletal muscle: these go to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and endocrine glands

1) What are the main functions of the cerebrum? 2) Which sensations are brought to the consciousness? 3) How does the cerebrum get you moving?*

1) -learning, intelligence, and awareness -receiving and processing sensory info for all the major senses -initiates conscious or voluntary nerve impulses to skeletal muscles -integration of neuron activity for communication, expressing emotions, learning, and memory (deals with functions that are part of conscious activity) -reasoning and planning 2) -hot, cold, pain, touch from skin -sight from visual area; smells from olfactory area -hearing from auditory area; taste from taste buds -impulses from muscles, tendons, joints 3) -initiates voluntary movements but doesn't coordinate or finely tune the movements (this is the responsibility of the cerebellum)

1) What are the elements of the ramus? 2) What is the joint between the skull and lower jaw formed by? 3) What kind of mandibular condyles do cows and sheep have? What does this allow? 4) The amount of rumination per day is governed by what?

1) -located medial to zygomatic arch -allows muscle leverage to be exerted on mandible -coronid process is where major muscles for chewing are attached 2) mandibular condyle 3) flat; considerable movement in horizontal plane for grinding 4) the particle size of the forage

1) What does the blood-brain barrier do? Elaborate. 2) What are astrocytes and what is their role?*

1) -separates brain capillaries from nervous tissue -capillaries typically have small pores or fenestrations to allow compounds to pass through -these pores not present here to prevent ions, drugs, and other compounds from passing from blood to brain -CO2, O2, steroids, alcohol, and prostaglandins readily diffuse from capillaries into brain (all of these are lipid soluble) 2) specialized glial cells which act to transport substances (carrier-mediated transport); these cells are very selective about what they transport

1) Describe the sodium-potassium pump 2) Describe the resting membrane potential*

1) -specialized molecule to help maintain cell resting state -pumps Na+ to the outside -pumps K+ to the inside 2) -difference in electrical charge across neuron's membrane -net negative charge

1) What percentage of the brain mass does the cerebellum make up? Of neurons? 2) Describe the functions of the cerebellum

1) 10%; 50% 2) -coordinates motor activity (muscle movements): coordinated movements such as posture, maintaining balance, complex reflexes -compares intent of body with actual position: it's a collecting house for information on real time physical status of the body -fine tunes movements (makes adjustments): cerebrum can start a limb in motion but cerebellum is responsible for making adjustments if the limb encounters resistance -acts to smooth and coordinate muscle activity

1) What are the cranial nerves? 2) Primarily, where do the cranial nerves emerge from? 3) What do they connect directly to? 4) What may cranial nerves include?*

1) 12 nerve pairs originating from the brain 2) the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata 3) the brain 4) sensory neurons, motor neurons, or both

1) How many incisive/premaxillary bones are there? 2) What are they? 3) What do two of the nasal bones form? 4) What varies with species? Examples?*

1) 2 2) most rostral/forward bones -house the upper incisors except in ruminants 3) the bridge of the nose (upper part, boundary of nasal cavity) 4) Size of the nasal bones: length of animal face: -horses and long face dogs have long and thin nasal bones -cats and short face dogs have short, triangular nasal bones

1) How many maxillary bones are there? 2) What do they make up most of? 3) Which bones make up the rest of the upper jaw? 4) What do the maxillary bones house? 5) What do the maxillary bones form? 6) What is the bony separation between the mouth and nasal cavity? What forms the rostral portion? Caudal portion?*

1) 2 2) the upper jaw 3) premaxillary bones 4) the canines and cheek teeth (premolars and molars) 5) the hard palate with the palatine bones 6) the roof of the mouth; maxillary bones; palatine bones

1) Efferent nerves for both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have a sequence of what? 2) Describe the first neuron 3) What is the 2nd neuron?

1) 2 neurons 2) -has a cell body in the brain/central nervous system -axon extends from the central nervous system to a cluster of cell bodies outside the central nervous system called autonomic ganglion -here, first neuron synapses with one or more secondary neurons which then connect to the target tissue (ie endocrine gland, smooth muscle) -first neuron is the preganglionic neuron as it carries the impulse to the ganglia 3) the postganglionic neuron as it carries the impulse from the ganglia to the target organ

1) How many named openings are there in the skull? 2) What do the foramina canals, fissures, and orbits act as pathways for? 3) What is the orbit? 4) What is the formamen? 5) What is a fissure?*

1) 85 2) blood vessels, spinal cord, nerves 3) the bony socket that protects the eye (orbit means circle) 4) a hole in the bone 5) a groove

1) Which chemical can be both excitatory or inhibitory? 2) Describe the action of this chemical*

1) Acetylcholine 2) -excitatory at junction between somatic motor neurons and muscles (stimulates muscle contraction) -inhibitory at junction between neurons and heart -parasympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine which slows sinoatrial node depolarization (decreases heart rate)

1) What are the two major divisions of the skull? 2) What are the functions of the skull?*

1) Cranial part/cranium/brain case (protects the brain) facial (site of most differences between species) 2) -houses the brain -houses the sense organs -forms passages for respiratory and digestive tracts, as well as nervous system

1) Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster or slower than those with no myelin? 2) What is the myelin sheath made up of?*

1) Faster 2) -cell membrane of glial cells tightly wrapped around axon -oligodendrocytes -schwann cells

1) What happens with milk fever? 2) What are the symptoms of milk fever? 3) What is the calcium deficiency in this animal caused by? 4) How could a calcium deficiency cause paralysis?*

1) a calcium deficiency prevents the vesicles with neurotransmitter to fuse with the cell membrane; no neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft, and thus the neurotransmitter is not able to stimulate the postsynaptic receptor 2) muscle spasms, paralysis, unconsciousness 3) when the cow calves and starts lactation, there is tremendous excretion of calcium first into the colostrum, and then the milk 4) you need the nervous system to stimulate muscle contraction, and calcium is required for proper functioning of the nervous system

1) What are axons covered by? 2) What is the colour of myelin? 3) Nervous tissue with many myelinated axons is called..? 4) Nervous tissue without myelin stains? What is this called? What is it? 5) What does the myelin sheath function as? 6) Where are oligodendrocytes found? 7) Where are Schwann cells found?*

1) a fatty substance called myelin 2) white 3) white matter 4) dark; grey matter (these are primarily neuron cell bodies) 5) the cell membrane for specialized, functional glial cells called oligodendrocytes 6) inside the brain and spinal cord 7) outside the brain and spinal cord

1) What kind of sinus does the cranium have? What does sinus refer to? 2) In horned cattle, where does the horn develop? 3) If you were to saw off the corneal process, what can you see into?

1) a large paranasal sinus/frontal sinus; an air cavity 2) corneal process of the frontal bone (site of the horn core) 3) the frontal sinus

1) What are axons? 2) What is the amount of branching like for axons? 3) What is the length of axons like? Example? 4) What do axons do? 5) How many axons are there for each neutron?*

1) another extension from the soma 2) single branched, but can have collateral branching 3) can be very long or short (>1m or <1mm); axon in horse is up to several feet long from spinal cord to lower leg 4) conduct nerve impulses from soma to another neuron or another cell 5) one

1) What is located between temporal bones? 2) What does articular mean? 3) What do these act to form? 4) What is the lower joint used for? 5) What is the upper joint used for? Why is this function important for herbivores?

1) articular disk/meniscus 2) relating to a joint 3) essentially two joints 4) rotational movement (opening and closing) (flexion and extension) 5) translational movements (sliding lower jaw forward or side to side); to grind up plant material for rumination for true and pseudo-ruminants

1) What is the effect of the brief K+ channel opening on resting membrane potential? What is this called? 2) Between the end of repolarization and establishment of resting membrane potential, what is wrong with the ions? What is this corrected by? 3) Describe a threshold stimulus 4) Describe a sub-threshold stimulus

1) becomes more negative due to loss of positively charged ions; repolarization 2) they are in the wrong place (high K outside, and high Na inside); Na/K pump: pumps against concentration gradient 3) -threshold stimulus of a certain strength or intensity allows cell to depolarize/fire -depolarizes to maximum strength 4) -inadequate strength or intensity to open up adequate numbers of the sodium channels -nerve won't fire; no depolarization at all -if the dendrites were to bring a sub-threshold stimulus to the soma, this would not result in depolarization of the neuron

1) What do the layers of the meninges contain? 2) What is between the layers of the meninges?

1) blood vessels to provide nutrients and oxygen to the superficial layers of the brain and spinal cord 2) fat, connective tissue, and fluid to cushion the brain

1) What are the four different sections of the brain? 2) What are considered the primitive sections of the brain? 3) What is the cerebrum and what is is responsible for?

1) cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon between brains (interbrain), and brain stem 2) diencephalon and brain stem 3) -largest part in mammalian food animals -responsible for highest centers of function for the brain and high order behaviours

1) What does the nervous system sense? 2) What does it send information to? Example? 3) What does the brain and spinal cord do?

1) changes both within and outside the body (information gathering) 2) the brain and spinal cord; sensory receptors that detect pain, or changes in temperature, or an irritating smell will send this info to brain and spinal cord 3) receives, analyzes, stores, and integrates information -it takes info and sends a signal or response for some action in the body

1) What is the nervous system? 2) What are its functions?

1) complex communication and regulatory system 2) -sensory functions (detect hot, cold, touch, pain, pressure, etc) -integration functions (information gathering (external and internal), processing info, providing a response which alters or controls body functions or actions) -motor functions (initiates and regulates movement of body parts; controls contraction of 3 muscle classes: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal) -regulates secretions from glands -maintains appropriate state of consciousness

1) What are the meninges? 2) What do they supply? 3) What are the three layers of the meninges? Briefly describe each.*

1) connective tissue layers that directly surround the brain and spinal cord; act to cover and protect the CNS against the external environment 2) nutrients and oxygen, and provide some cushioning 3) -dura mater (outside layer): tough and fibrous (leathery) in nature; attached to periosteum (fibrous membrane covering bone surface) of cranium in skull -arachnoid: delicate and spider-web like -pia mater (inner layer): very thin and lies directly on brain and spinal cord

1) What are the two different classes of neurotransmitters? 2) Describe excitatory neurotransmitters*

1) excitatory and inhibitory 2) -cause sodium influx through postsynaptic membrane -achieves threshold and postsynaptic membrane is depolarized

1) What is there the presence of on the cerebrum structure? 2) What is the function of gyri and sulci? 3) What are the axons from the central nervous system bringing info (to these nerve cell bodies) in the cerebrum for? 4) What kind of appearance do gyri and sulci give the brain?*

1) gyri (folds) which are separated by fissures (deep grooves) on the brain surface 2) -to increase surface area to allow large bundles of nerve cell bodies to connect with bundles of axons to carry info from CNS 3) for processing; and then the cerebrum often initiates a response 4) wrinkled

1) After depolarization, what is the charge like in the cell membrane? 2) What is the switching of electrical charge from negative to positive known as?*

1) it is now positive 2) an action potential

1) If neurotransmitter remains in synapse or attached to postsynaptic receptor, what will happen? Is this beneficial to the animal? 2) What prevents the neurotransmitter from constantly stimulating the postsynaptic membrane if this is the situation? 3) What happens to norepinephrine?*

1) it will continue to affect the postsynaptic receptor (depolarize or hyperpolarize the membrane); No 2) postsynaptic membrane has an enzyme, acetylcholinesterase -breaks down Ach (acetyl choline) -component parts reabsorbed by the synaptic knob, resynthesized into acetyl choline, and then repackaged into vesicles again for recycling 3) it will be released from the postsynaptic receptor, picked up by the synaptic knob, and broken down

1) What would happen if neurons had to send their wave of depolarization throughout the whole length of the axon? 2) How fast does the wave of depolarization travel down the whole length of a myelinated axon? 3) What makes conduction more efficient? 4) What does the presence of a myelin sheath prevent? 5) If Na can't flow across the membrane how do we get a depolarization?*

1) it would take a long time, especially in long axons 2) 1m/s 3) skipping parts of the neuron to speed up the process (no need to travel across whole neuron or axon) 4) flow of Na+ across the membrane of the neuron from outside to inside of cell 5) -limited to gaps present between glial cells (nodes of Ranvier) -depolarization wave skips from one node to another -speeds up conduction of action potential along the neuron -this process is called saltatory conduction (saltatory=to leap)

1) What is the brain stem named for? 2) Most ____________ part of the brain 3) What is the brain stem the origin of? 4) How does the brain stem maintain basic support functions of the body?

1) its appearance 2) primitive 3) cerebrum, cerebellum, and cranial nerves 4) -works on subconscious levels with the autonomic nervous system in regards to heart (rate, blood vessel diameter (blood flow), swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and sneezing) -concerned with many processes essential for life

1) What does the end of the presynaptic neuron have? 2) What does it contain? 3) Can the electrical impulse/action potential cross the gap?*

1) knobs 2) -mitochondria for synthesizing energy in the form of ATP -many vesicles/sacs to store neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) 3) No-so the action potential is replaced by a chemical messenger

1) In the cerebrum, what is each hemisphere divided by sulci into? 2) Different lobes specialize in what?*

1) lobes 2) different functions

1) What is the most prominent fissure in the cerebrum structure? What does it separate the cerebrum into? 2) Impulses from one hemisphere cause muscle movements on? 3) What is each hemisphere further divided into? 4) What are the names of the lobes based on?

1) longitudinal fissure; left and right hemispheres 2) other side of body 3) lobes 4) the skull bone they are housed under

1) What does the autonomic nervous system include? What does it automatically regulate? 2) Does the autonomic nervous system go to skeletal muscles? 3) Describe other elements of the autonomic nervous system*

1) motor and sensory nerves which transmit impulses to smooth and cardiac muscle, and to endocrine glands; body functions on a subconscious level 2) No 3) -includes sensory nerves which receive afferent sensory impulses from sensory receptors (info used to automatically regulate body function) -includes sympathetic nervous system, which originates from thoracic and lumbar (abdominal regions) of spinal cord -includes parasympathetic nervous system which originates from brain and sacral (pelvic) region of spinal cord

1) What is the diencephalon? 2) What does it have a role in? 3) What are the associated structures with the diencephalon?

1) nervous system passageway between primitive brain stem and cerebrum 2) temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, and rage/anger responses 3) thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary

1) What are the two main classes of cells in the nervous system? 2) What does glia mean? 3) How do the neuroglial/glial cells support the nervous system? 4) What are the functions of the neuroglial/glial cells? 5) How does myelin affect information transfer?*

1) neuroglial/glial cells, and neurons 2) glue 3) structurally and functionally 4) -forms myelin (a fatty substance which will form sheath around axon -provides nutrients and oxygen -anchors neurons -destroys pathogens -removes dead neurons -protects nervous system 5) speeds up propagation of electrochemical impulse

1) What is the key neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system? 2) What releases norepinephrine? What is an exception? 3) What does the adrenal medulla release? 4) What does the adrenal medulla act as? 5) What do cells need for neurotransmitters? What does this mean?

1) norepinephrine 2) adrenergic neurons; preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine 3) epi and norepinepherine for use in the sympathetic nervous system (quickly distributed in the body) 4) a cluster of adrenergic neurons, that release the catecholamines 5) Specific receptors; these receptors are needed for the neurotransmitters to bind to or there won't be a response

1) How long will Na channels stay open once depolarized? 2) What happens after they close? Why? 3) Why is there a strong positive charge?

1) only briefly (a fraction of a second) 2) the closing of the Na channels is followed by opening of K+ channels and flux of K+ out of the cell; concentration gradient (high K+ inside, and low K+ outside) 3) -due to Na+ influx -like charges repel, so K+ leaves

1) What are the internal bones of the face? 2) What is the palatine? 3) Describe the turbinates*

1) palatine and turbinate 2) caudal portion of the hard palate 3) -4 thin, scroll-like bones (L and Right) (forces inhaled air to undergo twists and turns) -fills up most of the nasal cavity -warms and humidifies the air -traps small particles -role in sense of smell

1) What is synaptic transmission? 2) What is involved in synaptic transmission? 3) What does the depolarization wave cause?

1) perpetuation of the nerve impulse from one neuron to the next cell 2) axons, teledendrons, terminal bouton (synaptic bulb/synaptic knob), and vesicles 3) vesicles to dump neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

1) What is the neuron that receives a neurotransmitter from the synapse called? 2) How does the neurotransmitter move across the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic neuron?*

1) postsynaptic neuron 2) via diffusion

1) What does the nervous system require? 2) How is this information transmitted? 3) One form of the electrical impulse is the..?*

1) rapid transmission of information from one site in the body to another 2) via an electrical impulse 3) action potential

1) What is the central body of a neuron called? 2) What are dendrites? 3) What do dendrites receive information/impulses from? 4) Where do dendrites transmit this info to? 5) What kinds of sensory receptors can there be?*

1) soma/perikaryon 2) short, multibranched projections extending from the soma (dendro means branch) 3) other neurons 4) the soma 5) receptors that receive or sense hot, cold, touch, pressure, stretch or other physical changes inside or outside the body

1) What is wrapped around the axon? 2) What does the length of the axon require (ie what is an axon covered in) ? 3) What is present between adjacent glial cells? What are these called? 4) Myelin sheaths and nodes of Ranvier work together to do what?

1) specialized glial cells 2) numerous glial cells (ie numerous oligodendrocytes or schwann cells) 3) gaps; nodes of Ranvier 4) speed up the transfer of the nerve impulse

1) For the parasympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic neuron extends from what? Where does it travel to? What does it do once it's there? 2) Briefly compare sympathetic and parasympathetic neutron systems*

1) spinal cord; the target organ; synapses with a short postganglionic neuron that is located within the target organ 2) sym: longer post vs pre ganglionic neurons para: longer pre vs post ganglionic neurons

For each element of the autonomic nervous system, state the effect of the sympathetic and parasympathetic: 1) heart rate 2) force of heart contraction 3) diameter of bronchioles 4) diameter of pupil 5) gastrointestinal motility, secretions, and blood flow 6) diameter of skin blood vessels 7) diameter of muscle blood vessels 8) diameter of blood vessels to kidney

1) sym: increases, para: decreases 2) sym: increases, para: no significant effect 3) sym: increases (dilates), para decreases (constricts) 4) sym: increases (dilates), para decreases (constricts) 5) sym: decreases, para: increases 6) sym: decreases, para: NSE 7) sym: increases, para: NSE 8) sym: decreases, para: NSE

1) What is the diencephalon also known as? 2) Describe the 3 major structures of the diencephalon

1) the 'between brain' or 'inter brain' 2) -thalamus: relay system for regulating sensory inputs from cerebellum, spinal cord, and brain stem to cerebrum (transfers sensory info from all over the body to the cerebrum) -hypothalamus: acts as interface between nervous system and endocrine system; complex sensing and neurosecretory functions (will stimulate release of hormones); involved in temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, rage, and anger; integrates functions carried out by autonomic nervous system including stress response; has parasympathetic and sympathetic components; considered essential for homeostasis and reproduction -pituitary gland: master gland of the endocrine system; regulates hormone production and release

1) What are catecholamines produced by? Excitatory or inhibitory? 2) Name and/or briefly describe each catecholamine 3) What happens in regards to Parkinson's disease?*

1) the adrenal medulla;excitatory 2) -epinephrine -norepinephrine (flight or fright) with sympathetic nervous system -dopamine: found in brain 3) -there is a decreased number of functioning dopamine neurons which results in muscle tremors and shaky gait -inadequate dopamine action

1) What does the central nervous system include? What does it deal with? 2) What are organs and tissues innervated by?

1) the brain and spinal cord; central/cranial-caudal axis of the body 2) the autonomic nervous system, which includes sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

1) What is the outer layer of the cerebrum structure called? What is it made up of? Dominated by? 2) What is below the cerebral cortex? What does it include? 3) What are basal nuclei? 4) How does grey matter differ from white matter and what is the significance?

1) the cerebral cortex; grey matter; nerve cell bodies which will receive information from across the body 2) white matter dominated by axons; nerve fibers which: -link different parts of the cerebral cortex (lobes and hemispheres) -and connect cerebral cortex to other parts of the brain and spinal cord 3) pools of neurons which control complex semivoluntary movements such as walking and running (involved with initiation and maintenance of motor activity) 4) Grey matter contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are. White matter is made of axons connecting different parts of grey matter to each other.

1) What is the brain stem? 2) What originates here? 3) What are the components of the brain stem? 4) What is the brain stem responsible for?

1) the connection between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain 2) many cranial nerves 3) medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain 4) maintenance of basic support functions of the body (operates at a subconscious level)

1) What is the sympathetic nervous system? 2) What is the body dealing with when using this system? Example? 3) Describe the numerous ways in which the body deals with this.*

1) the fight flight or fright system 2) emergency situations: ie rabbit escaping from a predator 3) -requires muscles to work hard and rapidly -bronchodilation in the respiratory system for increased gas exchange -increased heart rate and force of contraction for increased oxygen delivery -dilation of arterioles to increase oxygen delivery -pupil dilation to increase amount of light in, plus increase peripheral vision -reduced blood flow to skin, GIT, and kidney, for survival -decreased activity of GIT for digestion and absorption, filtering through kidney (not important for systems to work; what's important is survival)

1) What does the lacrimal bone form? 2) What do the zygomatic/ malar bones form? 3) What do the zygomatic bones join with and what do they form? 4) What is the masseter muscle?*

1) the medial portion of the orbit of the eye 2) portion of the orbit (lateral wall) 3) join with temporal bone to form zygomatic arch 4) a major chewing muscle that arises from the zygomatic arch in some species (very powerful muscle in herbivores, need this for grinding up forages (hay, silage, etc))

1) What happens if an adjoining neuron sends an impulse or there is external stimuli to stimulate a neuron? 2) What happens as a result of this? Why?

1) the nerve will fire/depolarize (though there is a certain intensity/strength of stimulation needed) 2) the Na channels will open, and only Na+ will be passed through to the inside of the cell (moving via passive diffusion); Na+ following concentration gradient, and Na+ attracted to negative charges

1) What is the cranium? 2) How many bones are there in the cranial part of the skull? 3) What makes up the external part of the cranium? 4) What makes up the internal part of the cranium?*

1) the part of the skull which protects the brain 2) 11 3) occipital, interparietal, parietal, temporal, frontal (these are at least partially visible on the skull) 4) sphenoid and ethmoid (have at least partially open or disasemble the skull to see them)

1) Once the action potential has travelled down the axon, what does it reach? What happens next as a result? 2) What happens if there is a calcium deficiency? What can this be due to? 3) What does the presynaptic knob secrete? What does this chemical do?

1) the presynaptic knob -calcium channels open in the knob membrane -calcium influx which causes sacs (vesicles) with neurotransmitter to fuse with cell membrane -neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft 2) -no calcium influx and thus no release of neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft -no stimulation of postynaptic membrane across the synaptic cleft; inadequate intake of calcium by the animal or multiple demands for calcium in the animal 3) chemical called neurotransmitter; replaces action potential to stimulate depolarization of the membrane across the synaptic cleft -acts on postsynaptic receptors

1) What is the cerebellum? 2) Where is it located? 3) What is its function? 4) Damage or disease results in?*

1) the second largest component of the brain 2) posterior/caudal to the cerebrum 3) area of the brain responsible for coordinated movement, balance, posture, and complex reflexes 4) hypermetria

1) What is the most complex part of the skeleton? 2) How many different bones is it made up of? 3) What are bones united/connected by? What is the exception? 4) What are sutures? 5) What are joints for? What are they made up of? 6) What are sutures important in? 7) How would you accomodate growth of the animal if the skull was only made up of one bone?*

1) the skull 2) 37 to 38 separate bones 3) sutures (only found in the skull); mandible/lower jaw 4) jagged, immovable fibrous joints which interlock -strips of fibrous tissue that outline and unite the margins of bone 5) for attaching two bones; connective tissue/cartilage 6) young animals; allows growth of skull through extension of individual bones 7) there would be no way to do this

1) During synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters diffuse across what? Towards? 2) Receptors on the postsynaptic membrane bind what?

1) the synaptic cleft, toward the postsynaptic membrane 2) the neurotransmitter (though this may not necessarily stimulate the postsynaptic membrane)

What are the divisions of the nervous system? Describe each.

Central Nervous Sytem (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) CNS: -includes brain and spinal cord -deals with central or cranial-caudal axis of the body PNS: -includes nerves that radiate from CNS to all other parts of the body -extends from central axis to periphery (cranial nerves: PNS nerves that originate from the brain; spinal nerves: PNS nerves that originate from the spinal cord)

Degeneration of basal nuclei occurs in patients afflicted with what? Describe each.

Parkinson's Disease: muscle tremors and shaky gait Huntington's chorea: degeneration of brain cells -movement, cognitive, and psychiatric disorders

Once a depolarization wave/action potential has crossed the entire axon, where does it need to go? How will it do this, and what is this called?*

to the next neuron or to cells of target organ or tissue; since there is no physical contact between 2 axons or axon and target tissue, neuron must release a chemical that will cause subsequent stimulation -this is called synaptic transmission

There is a gap between the end of the synaptic knob and target receptor. How does the electrical impulse cross that gap?*

via a neurotransmitter