Anth 1000 final 2

Universality, Generality, and Particularity

- "Psychic unity of man": All human populations have equivalent capacities for culture - Cultural universals and generalities: Long period of infant dependency; Year-round sexuality; Nuclear family

Applied anthropology

- "practical anthropology" - solve practical problems - identify, asses, and solve practical problems

Teotihuacan

- 1900-1300 BP (100 and 700 CE) - northern part of the valley of mexico

Gracile and Robust Australopithecines

Gracile: possessing a more lightly built chewing apparatus Robust: 2.5-1.1 mya in eastern and southern africa; known for the rugged nature of their chewing apparatus; boney ridge on skull top (sagittal crest)

Law of Segregation

The Mendelian principle that variants of genes for a particular trait retain their separate identities through the generations.

genocide

the deliberate elimination of a group

paralanguage

the extralinguistic noises that accompany language (crying or laughing)

Fertile Crescent

where domestication began

Sex chromosomes

male = XY female = XX

action theory

focuses on the actions of leaders who play a role in social change

Archaeology

studies past human behavior

hypothesis

a tentative explanation

Circumscription

civilization develops where populations are circumscribed by environmental barriers or other socities

Lower Paleolithic

- 1st part of the stone age - marked by the appearance 2.6 mya of oldowan tools - consist of implements made using a system of manufacture called the percussion method - sharp-edged flakes were obtained from a stone either by using another stone as a hammer or by striking the pebble against a large rock to remove the flakes - these flakes were used for cutting meat, reeds, sedges, and grasses and for cutting and scraping wood - leftover cores were transformed into choppers for breaking open bones

convergent evolution

- 2 distant forms develop greater similarities - occurs when an environment exerts similar pressures on distantly related organisms causing these species to resemble each other

Rise of Mammals

- 225 mya = dinosaurs dominate earth - Meozoic Era - 200 mya = first mammals = small - 65 mya = most dinosaurs disappear = small reptiles and birds remain

Primates appear

- 35-40 mya - first: small, lived in trees - Prosimii = tarsiers, lemurs = nocturnal; ate insects and fruits - Prosimian-like fossils abound in strata dating from the Eocene - By the end of the Eocene, many prosimian species had become extinct, reflecting competition from the first anthropoids

Animism

- A belief in spirit beings, other than ancestors, who are believed to animate all of nature. - These spirit beings are closer to humans than gods and goddesses and are concerned with human activities - Animism is typical of peoples who see themselves as a part of nature rather than superior to it. - Animatism is a belief that the world is animated by impersonal supernatural powers

Key Consultant

- A member of the society being studied, who provides information that helps researchers understand the meaning of what they observe. - Early anthropologists referred to such individuals as informants.

Species and Genus

- A species is the smallest working unit in the system of classification. - Species are capable of interbreeding and are reproductively isolated from other species - genus = a group of like species - Humans, for example, are classified in the genus Homo and species sapiens.

Lucy

- A. Afarensis - 3-3.3 mya - walked upright

Timeline of Australopithecus

- A. anamensis = kenya; 3.9-4.2 mya - A. Afarensis = ethiopia, tanzania; 2.9-3.9 mya - A.africanus = south africa; 2.3-3 mya - A. aethiopicua = kenya; 2.5 mya - A. bahrelghazali = chad; 3-3.5 mya - A. boisei = kenya; 1.2-2.3 mya - A. garhi = ethiopia; 2.5 mya - A. robustus = south africa; 1-2 mya

Hominid

- African hominoid family that includes two subfamilies: the Paninae (chimps, bonobos, and gorillas) and the Homininae (humans and their ancestors). - Some scientists use hominid to mean only humans and their ancestors.

witchcraft

- An explanation of events based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm, including sickness and death - divination: A magical procedure for determining the cause of a particular event, such as illness, or foretelling the future - Effective way for people to explain away personal misfortune without having to shoulder any of the blame themselves - Provides an outlet for feelings of hostility and frustration without disturbing the norms of the larger group

Polytheism

- Belief in several gods and/or goddesses (as contrasted with monotheism-belief in one god or goddess). - Pantheon: The several gods and goddesses of a people - animism: A belief in spirit beings thought to animate nature

Codons

- Codons are transcribed into the complementary codons of RNA - In the ribosomes, these codons specify particular amino acids that are strung together to form chains that create the primary structures of proteins

Urban anthropology

- Cross-cultural and ethnographic study of global urbanization and life in cities - Redfield: cities are centers through which cultural innovations spread to rural and tribal areas - urban vs. rural = different social systems

strategies for innovation

- Culturally compatible economic projects twice as successful financially - Respond to locally perceived needs - Involve men and women in planning and carrying out the changes that affect them - Harness traditional organizations - Are flexible - overinnovation: too much change - Development projects must avoid overinnovation to be successful - underdifferentiation = tendency to overlook cultural diversity and view less-developed countries as more alike than they truly are - indigenous models = When government officials are of "the people" with strong ties to common folk, more likely to promote democratic economic development

Culture is Learned

- Culture is not biologically inherited - Enculturation: transmit culture across generations; learn the socially appropriate way to satisfy biologically determined needs

Law of Dominance and Recessiveness

- Dominant alleles are able to mask the presence of recessive alleles. - The allele for type A blood in humans, is dominant to the allele for type O blood - Alleles that are both expressed when present are co-dominant - An individual with the alleles for type A and type B blood has the AB blood type

Australopithecines

- During the early Pliocene, 5 mya, the genus Australopithecus appeared in Africa - include a diverse group of bipedal species with small brains in proportion to body size. - Later australopithecines, known as "robust", had large teeth, jaws, and chewing muscles and disappeared from the fossil record 1 million years ago. - One of the other australopithecine species appears to be a direct ancestor of the genus Homo - The first well-known hominine - Lived between 4.2 - 1 m.y.a - Characterized by bipedal locomotion when on the ground, but with an apelike brain - Includes at least five species: afarensis, africanus, anamensis, boisei, and robustus - fossils have been found in south Africa, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Chad, Southern Africa, Eastern Africa

state

- most formal of political organizations - most centralized - use force to uphold laws - stratified societies - different from nations - first state: 5000 BP

anatomy of bipedalism

- Forward position of the large opening in the base of the skull - Series of curves in the spinal column - Basin-shaped structure of the pelvis - Angle of the lower limbs from the hip joint to knees - Shape of the foot bones - foramen magnum = the large opening at the base of the skull - bipdeal gait = locomotion one foot at a time through a series of controlled falls

Genus Homo

- Homo Habilis - handy man - tool-making ability - smaller brained bipedal australopithecines in Africa 2.5 mya - increase in brain size - brain reorganization - less ape-like - rounder head - less protruding face - smaller jaw - teeth

Chromosomes

- In the cell nucleus, the structure visible during cellular division containing long strands of DNA combined with a protein - Each organism has a characteristic number of chromosomes, usually found in pairs - Genes located on paired chromosomes and coded for different versions of the same trait are called alleles.

Levels of Culture

- National = embodies those beliefs, learned behavior patterns, values, and institutions that are shared by citizens of the same nation - International = extends beyond and across national boundaries - Subculture: a culture within a culture (amish)

ethnocentrism

- Natural human reaction - Our culture is the best - avoid ethnocentrism and understand each culture in its own right

Cultural relativism

- One must suspend judgment on other cultures - Consider a culture in its context

Peasant Studies

- Peasants represent an important category between modern industrial society and traditional subsistence foragers, herders, farmers, and fishers. - Peasantry represents the largest social category of our species so far - Because peasant unrest over economic and social problems fuels political instability anthropological studies of rural populations are considered significant and practical.

Why did cities develop into states?

- Population growth led to competition for space and scarce resources - Some civilizations developed as a result of unifying beliefs and values. - In some cases, the actions of powerful individuals may have played a role.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

- Quantitative: Statistical or measurable information, such as demographic composition, the types and quantities of crops grown, or the ratio of spouses born and raised within or outside the community. - Qualitative: Nonstatistical information such as personal life stories and customary beliefs and practices

Identifying features of religion and spirituality

- Religion consists of beliefs and rituals that people use to interpret, appeal to, and manipulate supernatural beings and powers to their advantage - A body of myths rationalizes or explains the system in a manner consistent with people's experience in the world in which they live. - beliefs and rituals: use to interpret, appeal to, and manipulate supernatural beings/powers - body of myths: explains the world in which ppl live

Anthropological approach to religion

- Religion is an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere, along with ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control. - Spirituality is also concerned with the sacred, as distinguished from material matters, but it is often individual rather than collective and does not require a distinctive format or traditional organization.

RNA

- Ribonucleic acid; similar to DNA but with uracil substituted for the base thymine - Carries instructions from DNA to produce amino acids for protein building.

Culture is Symbolic

- Signs, emblems, and other things that represent something else in a meaningful way - Culture is transmitted through symbolism - Language is used to transmit culture

Natufians

- Southwest Asia - earliest Mesolithic ppl known to have stored plant foods - basin-shaped depressions are preserved in the rocks outside of their homes - lived at a time of dramatically changing climates in the region - shallow lakes dried up, leaving just 3 in the Jordan River Valley - plants best adapted to instability and seasonal aridity were annuals including wild cereal grains and legumes - regularly fired the landscape to promote browsing by red deer and grazing by gazelles - placed greater emphasis on the collection of wild seeds from annual plants that could be stored through the dry season

Magic

- The belief that supernatural powers can be compelled to act in certain ways for good or evil purposes by recourse to certain specified formulas - Many societies have magical rituals to ensure good crops, the replenishment of game, the fertility of domestic animals, and the avoidance or healing of illness in humans. - imitative: Magic based on the principle that like produces like. Sometimes called sympathetic magic. - contagious: Magic based on the principle that things once in contact can influence one another after separation

Natural Selection

- The evolutionary process through which factors in the environment exert pressure that favors some individuals over others to produce the next generation - Adaptation is a process by which organisms achieve a beneficial adjustment to an available environment - variation w/in a population - competition for strategic resources - "fitter" to survive and reproduce will do so in greater numbers than the "less fit"

accurately describing a culture

- The people's own understanding of their culture and the general rules they share. - The extent to which people believe they are observing those rules. - The behavior that can be directly observed.

What functions do religion and spirituality serve?

- They reduce anxiety by explaining the unknown and offer comfort in times of crisis - They provide notions of right and wrong, setting precedents for acceptable behavior - Through ritual, religion may be used to enhance the learning of oral traditions

Homeobox Gene

- a gene containing a 180-base-pair segment that encodes a protein that regulates DNA expression - frequently responsible for major reorganization of body plans in organisms

What role did bipedalism play in human evolutionary history?

- adaptation have been proposed to account for the appearance of bipedalism in human evolutionary history - the advantage of having hands free to carry young or wield weapons to adaptation to damaging buildup of heat in the brain from direct exposure to the sun in a hot, treeless environment - Bipedalism appeared in human evolutionary history several million years before brain size expanded

Primate Vision

- anthropoid primates possess binocular stereoscopic vision - refers to the overlapping visual fields associated w/ forward facing eyes - 3D vision comes from binocular vision and the transmission of info from each eye to both sides of the brain - fovea centralis = shallow pit in the retina of the eye that enables an animal to focus on an object while maintaining visual contact w/ its surroundings

Apes and humans

- apes are humans' closest relatives - apes include: gibbons, siamangs, orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees - genetic structure and biochem reveal that bonobos, chimps, and gorillas are closer to humans than to organutans, gibbons, and siamangs - humans, bonobos, and chimps are b/w 98-99% identical - bonobos and chimps have an extra pair of chromosomes ; of the other pairs = identical

Mesolithic Roots of Farming and Pastoralism

- began about 12,000 years ago - By 12,000 years ago, recession of the glaciers caused climates to warm - As sea levels rose, many areas flooded causing the herd animals which northern Paleolithic peoples depended upon for food, clothing, and shelter, to disappear - Animals were more solitary, so large cooperative hunts were less productive - In Europe, Asia, and Africa this transitional period between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic is called the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age

Our Mammalian (Primate heritage)

- biologists classify humans w/in the primate order, a subgroup of the class Mammalia - other primates: lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes - humans -- 2gether 1/ chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons, and siamands -- form the hominoids, known as apes, a superfamily w/in the primate order

Bipedalism and how it is preserved in the fossil record

- bipedalism = the shared derived characteristic used to establish whether a fossilized hominoid is a part of the evolutionary line that produced humans - is preserved literally from head to toe

Primate characteristics

- brain = large, heavy in proportion to body weight, and very complex - depth perception - intensified sense of touch - binocular stereoscopic vision - generalized set of teeth, suited to insect eating but also fruits and leaves - skeleton has adaptations for upright posture and flexibility of limb movement - fewer offspring born to each female and a longer period of infant dependency

development anthropology

- branch of applied anthropology focused on social issues in, and the cultural dimension of, economic development - Development anthropologists help plan and guide policy - equity = Commonly stated goal of recent development policy is to promote equity - increased equity = reduced poverty and a more even distribution of wealth

First Monkeys and Apes

- by the late Eocene epoch, about 40 mya, diurnal anthropoid primates appeared - by the miocene epoch beginning 23.5 mya, apes were widespread in Asia, Africa, and Europe - b/w 5-8 mya, a branch of the African hominoid line became bipedal, beginning the evolutionary line that later produced humans

Heterochrony

- change in the timing of developmental events that is often responsible for changes in the shape or size of a body part - neotony = juvenile traits are retained in the adult state, may be responsible for some of the visible differences b/w humans and chimps

chiefdoms

- chief = the head of a ranked hierarchy of ppl - the office of the chief is usually for life and often hereditary - chief's authority serves to unite his ppl in all affairs and at all times - highly unstable as lesser chiefs try to take power from higher ranking chiefs - larger than tribes

when and where did the world's first cities first develop?

- cities = characteristic of civilizations that developed independently in Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas - b/w 4500-6000 years ago, cities began to develop in China, the Indus and Nile Valleys, Mesopotamia, Mesoamerica, and the central Andes - oldest cities were those of Mesopotamia, but the largest was located in Mesoamerica

cladogenesis vs. anagensis

- cladogenesis: occurs as different populations of an ancestral species become reproductively isolated - anagenesis = occur through variational change that takes place as small differences in traits that are advantageous accumulate in a species' gene pool

Cenozoic Era

- climate change - dinosaur disappear - mammals = ate eggs, insects; expanded and diversified; occupied various habitats - includes 2 periods = tertiary and quaternary - each divided into epochs - tertiary = 5 epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene (apes; hominins), and Pliocene - Quaternary = 2 epochs: Pleistocene and Holocene

forms of family

- conjugal family = married parents and offspring - nuclear family = a group consisting of one or more parents and dependent offspring, which may include a stepparent, stepsiblings, and adopted children - extended family = a collection of nuclear families, related by ties of blood, that live in one household - conjugal = a family consisting of one (or more) man (who may be a female) married to one (or more) woman, and their offspring - consanguineal family = related women, their brothers, and the women's offspring

kin relations

- consanguincal kin = relatives by birth; so-called "blood" relatives - affinal kin = relatives by marriage

tribes

- consist of small, autonomous local communities, which form alliances for various purposes - economy based on crop cultivation on herding - population densities generally exceed 1 person per square mile - leadership among tribes is informal - groups brought together - form alliances - farming or herding - larger than bands - leadership through informal authority (big man)

challenges of anthropology

- culture shock - loneliness - feeling like an ignorant outsider - being socially awkward in a new cultural setting - adjusting to unfamiliar food, climate, and hygiene conditions - needing to be constantly alert bc anything is happening or being said my be significant to one's research - spend considerable time interviewing, making copious notes, and analyzing data

historical linguistics

- deals w/ the fact that languages change - investigate relationships b/w earlier and later forms of the same language, study older languages for developments in modern ones, and examine interrelationships among older languages - language family = a group of languages descended from a single ancestral language - linguistic divergence = the development of different languages from a single ancestral language

Primate Diet and Teeth

- diet available to arboreal primates -- shoots, leaves, insects, and fruits -- didn't require specialization of the teeth - most primates = each side of the jaw, in the front, 2 straight-edged, chisel-like broad teeth called incisors - behind the incisors is a canine tooth = large, flaring, and fang-like - canine = defense as well as for tearing and shredding food - number of each tooth type on one half of each jaw - primates possess equal numbers on upper and lower jaw

Primate Order: Linnaean System

- divides primates into 2 suborders - prosimii = lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers - anthropoidea = monkeys, apes, and humans - division was based on similarity of the body plans w/in each group = grade - alternate: - strepsirhini = lemurs, lorises - haplorhini = tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

Racism

- doctrine of racial superiority by which one group asserts its superiority over another. - Racist individuals react on the basis of social stereotypes instead of scientific facts - Behavioral characteristics attributed to race can be explained with culture rather than biology

Oasis Theory

- domestication began bc the oasis attracted hungry animals - the animals were too thin to eat, so ppl began to fatten them up - fell out of favor

first primates

- earliest primates began to develop around 65 mya when mass extinction of the dinosaurs opened new ecological opportunities for mammals - by 55 mya, primates inhabited North America and Eurasia, which were joined 2gether as Laurasia and separated from Africa - earliest primates were small nocturnal insect eaters adapted to life in the trees

Ethnography vs. Ethnology

- ethnography: A detailed description of a particular culture primarily based on fieldwork. - ethnology: The study and analysis of different cultures from a comparative point of view.

What are Ethnographic Research Methods?

- extended fieldwork in a particular cultural group. - Fieldwork features participant observation in which the researcher observes and participates in the daily life of the community being studied - relative dating: provides time frame in relation to other strata or materials rather than absolute dates in numbers - Taphonomy: affect the remains of dead animals - Absolute Dating: dating fossils precisely - Longitudinal research: the long-term study of an area or a population, usually based on repeated visits - Excavation: scientists dig through the layers of deposits that make up a site, are used to establish the time order of material

ethnography

- extended period - one particular cultural group - participant observation: a. researcher observes and participates in the daily life of the community being studied b. Gather in-depth information on a society's customary ideas, values, and practices

Modes of Subsistence

- food foraging societies = move about a great deal; small size of local groups; populations stabilize at numbers well below the carrying capacity of their land; egalitarian, populations have few possessions and share what they have; division of labor by gender; food sharing; the camp as the center of daily activity and the place where food is shared - food producing societies - industrialized societies

Foraging vs. Production

- foraging: based on hunting wild animals and collecting wild plants and other resources - Food production: based on human control over domesticated plants and animals - food production began independently at more or less the same time around 10,000 years ago - food production came about as a consequence of chance convergence of separate natural events and cultural developments

genotype vs. phenotype

- genotype = The actual genetic makeup of an organism - phenotype = The physical appearance of an organism that may or may not reflect a particular genotype because the latter may or may not include recessive alleles.

Isolating mechanisms

- geographical - biological = early miscarriage of the hybrid off spring or sterility of the hybrid off spring - social and cultural concepts

Primate tendencies

- grasping (precision grip) - vision: binocular stereoscopic vision - smell and touch (fingers) - bring complexity - parenting: longer period, bonding - social animals: life in groups

Acheulean Tool Tradition

- hand-axes from east africa about 1.6 mya - imposed standardized arbitrary form on the naturally occurring raw material

Physical anthropology

- humans as biological organisms, evolution, and human variation - study fossils and living primates to reconstruct the ancestry of humans - 5 special interests 1. human evolution as revealed by the fossil record 2. human genetics 3. human growth and development 4. human biological plasticity 5. the biological, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkey, apes, and other non-human primates - paleoanthropology = human evolution as revealed by the fossil record - examine skulls, teeth, and bones to identify human ancestors and to chart changes in anatomy over time

Idealist perspective vs. Materialist

- idealist: A theoretical approach stressing the primacy of superstructure in cultural research and analysis - materialist: A theoretical approach stressing the primacy of infrastructure (material conditions) in cultural research and analysis.

sexual behavior

- in gorilla fams, the dominant silverback has exclusive breeding rights, although he may allow young silverbacks access to a low-ranking female - a young silverback must leave home and lure partners away from other groups to have reproductive success - smaller species of new world monkeys and the smaller apes appear to mate for life

Upper Paleolithic

- includes a greater diversity of tools as well as a greater frequency of blade tools - pressure flaking techniques and the use of burins to fashion implements of bone and antler became widespread - in europe, success of large game hunting increased w/ the invention of the spear-thrower and nets aided in hunting of small game - in africa, the earliest small points appropriate for arrowheads appear during this time period - humans expanded into Australia and the Americas = required crossing a deep, wide ocean channel and dependent on watercraft

Religious Specialists

- individuals who guide and supplement the religious practices of others - seen to be highly skilled at contacting and influencing supernatural beings and manipulating supernatural forces - may have undergone special training and may display certain distinctive personality traits that make them particularly well suited to perform these tasks

gesture call system

- inherited from our primate ancestors - gesture component consists of body motion used ton convey messages - call components consists of extralinguistic noises involving various voice qualities and vocalizations

spirituality

- involves less formalized spiritual beliefs and practices - often individual

Neandertals

- large-brained - robust, muscular - SW Asia and Europe - not transitional form - bipedal - large noses - projected front teeth - large molars - brow ridges - occipital bun - adapted to cold - no chin - smaller brain size - Mousterian Tradition = hand axes, flakes, scrapers, borers, wood shavers, and spears - buried dead - ceremonial activities - cared for old and disabled - made symbolic objects

lineage vs clan

- lineage a unilineal kinship group descended from a common ancestor or founder who lived 4-6 generations ago, and in which relationships among members can be stated genealogically - clan = extended unilineal kinship group, often consisting of several lineages, whose members claim common descent from a remote ancestor, usually legendary or mythological

Cro-Magnons

- looked more like contemporary Europeans than Neandertals - high forehead

macroevolution

- macroevolutionary forces produce new species from old ones - focuses upon the formation of new species and on the evolutionary relationships b/w groups of species - isolating mechanisms can separate breeding populations and lead to the appearance of new species

Cons of Bipedalism

- makes an animal more visible to predators - exposes the soft underbelly - interferes w/ the ability to change direction instantly while running - frequent lower back probs, hernias, hemorrhoids, and other circulatory probs - serious leg or foot injury seriously hinders a biped and they are an easy meal for some carnivore

divorce

- many marriages are based on ideals of romantic love or the idealization of youth - establishing an intimate bond in a society in which ppl are taught to seek individual gratification is difficult

mitosis vs. meiosis

- mitosis = Cell division that produces new cells with the same number of chromosome pairs, and hence genes, as the parent cell - meiosis = Cell division that produces the sex cells, each of which has half the number of chromosomes, and hence genes, as the parent cell

Origin of Species

- more young produced than survive - "struggle for existence" - variation b/w individuals - some characteristics give advantages - if advantages inherited = genetic change - "survival of the fittest"

Evolutionary Forces

- mutation = happens when copying mistakes are made during cell division. - genetic drift = the effect of chance events on the gene pool of small populations. - gene flow = the introduction of new alleles from nearby populations - interspecies gene transfer = the transfer of genes between unrelated organisms. - natural selection = the environment exerts pressure that selects individuals to reproduce the next generation.

slash-and-burn cultivation

- no irrigation, fertilizer, animals, plows - soil exhausts quickly

Nocturnal vs. Diurnal

- nocturnal = active at night and rest during day - diurnal = active during day and rest at night

Evolution

- occurs as genetic variant in the gene pool of a population change in frequency - genes, the units of heredity, are segments of molecules of DNA

religion

- organized system of ideas about the supernatural - associated beliefs - ceremonial practices

post-martial residence patterns

- patrilocal = husband's father's family - matrilocal = wife's relatives - ambilocal = choice - neolocal = away from relatives - avunculocal = residence of a married couple w/ the husband's mother's brother

Bronze Age

- period marked by the production of tools and ornament of bronze - began about 3000 BC in China and Southwest Asia and about 500 years earlier in Southeast Asia

4 subfields of anthrpology

- physical - archaeology - Linguistic - Cultural

Primates: 2 suborders

- prosimii: lorises, lemurs, tarsiers - anthropoidea (40 mya, large, diurnal): monkeys, apes, humans

Human DNA

- provides the info for the thousands of proteins that keep us healthy and alive - molecules are able to produce exact copies of themselves - DNA molecules are located on chromosomes, structures found in the nucleus of each cell

Adaptive radiation

- rapid increase in number of related species following a change in their environment - did not begin until after mammals had been present for over 100 million years - w/ the mass extinction of many reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous, a number of existing ecological niches became available to mammals

religion vs. spirituality

- religion = an organized system of ideas about spiritual reality, or the supernatural, along with associated beliefs and ceremonial practices - spirituality = involves less formalized spiritual beliefs and practices and is often individual rather than collective

Jaws of Reptiles and Mammals

- reptiles = contain series of identical teeth; if a tooth breaks or falls out, a new tooth will emerge - mammals posses a precise numbers of specialized teeth, each w/ a particular shape characteristic of the group

Rites of passage

- rites of separation = In rites of passage, the ritual removal of the individual from society - rites of transition = In rites of passage, isolation of the individual following separation and prior to incorporation into society - rites of incorporation = In rites of passage, reincorporation of the individual into society in his or her new status - rites of intensification = Religious rituals enacted during a group's real or potential crisis

probs in civilization

- sanitation probs and a large number of ppl in close proximity made infectious disease rampant - dense population, class systems, and a strong centralized government created internal stress - warfare = common; cities were fortified, and armies served to protect the state

Taxonomy

- science of classification - analogies are structures that are superficially similar; the result of convergent evolution

Neolithic Tech, Housing, Pottery, clothing

- scythes, forks, hoes, and plows - pottery vessels could be used for storing small grains, seeds, and other material - pottery used for cooking, pipes, ladles, lamps - constructed houses of wood, while others built elaborate shelters made of stone, sun-dried brick, or poles plastered 2gether w/ mud or clay - clothing made of woven textiles

Characteristics of Culture

- shared - learned - based on symbols - integrated - dynamic

bands

- small group of politically independent, though related, households - the least complicated form of political organization - found among nomadic societies - small, numbering at most a few hundred people - no need for formal political systems - decisions are made w/ the participation of adult members, w/ an emphasis on achieving consensus - those unable to get along w/ others of their group move to another group where kinship ties give them rights of entry - foragers, nomads - small group of related households - common territory - least complicated form - democratic - social control through public opinion - informal - decisions made by adults - consensus - "trouble makers" move on

ecological niche

- species' way of life considered in the full context of its environment - include factors: diet, activity, terrain, vegetation, predators, prey, and climate

phonology

- study of language sounds - phonetics = the study of the production transmission, and reception of speech sounds - phonemes = the smallest classes of sound that make a difference in meaning

Primatology

- study of nonhuman primates - fossil and living apes, monkeys, prosimians - behavior - social life - inferences about early humans and human ancestors - Taxonomy = the assignment of organisms to categories according to their relatedness and resemblance; many similarities b/w organisms reflect their common phylogeny - analogies = similarities b/w two species that experiences similar selective forces and adapt to them in similar ways - homologies = similarities that are assigned to organisms to the same taxon - study the biology and behavior of living primates in their natural habitats and in captivity in zoos, research colonies, or learning labs - developed noninvasive methods that allow them to link primate biology and behavior in the field, while minimizing physical disruption

Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution

- the new stone age; began about 11,000 years ago in Southwest asia - some ppl can produce enough food to support those who undertake other tasks so a technological developments, such as weaving and pottery making, often accompany food production. - A sedentary lifestyle in villages allows for the construction of more substantial housing - New modes of work and resource allocation require new ways of organizing people, generally into lineages, clans, and common-interest associations

Primate skeleton

- vertebrates: animals w/ a backbone (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) - cranium = brain case of the skull - foramen magnum = a large opening in the skull through which the spinal cord passes and connects to the brain - clavicle = collarbone - suspensory hanging apparatus = broad powerful shoulder joints and muscles found in all the hominoids allowing them to hang suspended below tree branches - scapula = shoulder blade - brachiate = to use the arms to move from branch to branch w/ the body hanging suspended beneath the arms - prehensile = ability to grasp - opposable = able to bring the thumb or big toe in contact w/ the tips of the other digits on the same hand or foot in order to grasp objects - all primates possess a single upper long bone, 2 lower long bones, and 5 digits - most other mammals have modified this pattern in some way

Pros of Bipedalism

- way to cope w/ heat stress - allowed them to gather food and transport it to a place for consumption - mothers were able to carry their infants safely - could reach food on trees too flimsy to climb - allowed them to travel far w/o tiring - food and water were easier to spot - more likely to spot predators before they get too close for safety - hands freed from locomotion provided protection by allow them to brandish and throw objects at attackers

Linguistic anthropology

-Description of a language - History of languages - Language in its social setting.

Linnaeus Criteria

1. body structure = Different breeds of animals are the same species because they still have identical body structure 2. body function = cows and horses give birth to live young 3. sequence of bodily growth = At birth—or hatching from an egg—cows and chickens resemble their parents whereas tadpoles go through many changes before resembling the adult form of a frog

studying a language

1. isolate the phonemes, or the smallest classes of sound that make a difference in meaning 2. determine all groups or combos of sounds that seem to have meaning 3. see how morphemes are put 2gether to form phrases or sentences

5 natural groupings of living primates

1. lemurs and lorises 2. tarsiers 3. new world monkeys (grasping hands and 3D vision; arboreal, prehensile tails, 36 teeth, brachiation) 4. old world monkeys (baboons; pointed noses, arboreal and land dwelling, cheek pouches, Ischial callosities, jump through branches, sexual dimorphism) 5. apes (no tails, large, complex brain, parental care, raise arms; 3 fams: great apes (bonobos, gorillas, chimps, and orangutans), lesser apes (gibbons, siamang), humans)

ethnocide

A dominant group may try to destroy the cultures of certain ethnic groups

Informant or "expert" (Key consultant)

A member of the society being studied who provides information

Gene

A portion of the DNA molecule containing a sequence of base pairs that is the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.

Participant observation

A research method in which one learns about a group's beliefs and behaviors through social participation and personal observation within the community, as well as interviews and discussion with individual members of the group over an extended stay in the community.

Ethnohistory

A study of cultures of the recent past through oral histories, accounts of explorers, missionaries, and traders, and through analysis of records such as land titles, birth and death records, and other archival materials.

What changes occurred in culture for cities?

Agricultural innovation Labor Diversification Central Government Social Stratification Monumental Architecture Long distance trade Art Organized religion Formal burial practices Writing

Culture is Integrated

All aspects function as a whole Change will affect other parts E.g., system

Doctrine

An assertion of opinion or belief formally handed down by an authority as true and indisputable. - dogma

Functions of Culture

Continuity through reproduction Enculturate new members Maintain order Motivate survival Must be flexible

Culture is Dynamic

Culture changes Change affects entire system Internet, wheel, writing, etc. A culture must be flexible to survive

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

Demonstrates that the percentage of individuals that are homozygous for the dominant allele, homozygous for the recessive allele, and heterozygous should remain constant from one generation to the next, provided that certain specified conditions are met.

ethnic group

People who collectively and publicly identify themselves as a distinct group based on various cultural features such as shared ancestry and common origin, language, customs, and traditional beliefs.

Translation

Process of conversion of RNA instructions into proteins

Transcription

Process of conversion of instructions from DNA into RNA

Enzyme

Proteins that initiate and direct chemical reactions in an organism

hetereozygous

Refers to a chromosome pair that bears different alleles for a single gene.

homozygous

Refers to a chromosome pair that bears identical alleles for a single gene

Stabilizing selection

Selective forces can work to maintain variety through stabilizing selection, by favoring a balance polymorphism, in which the frequencies of 2 or more alleles of a gene remain constant from generation to generation => may be bc the phenotypes they produce are natural, or equally favored, or equally opposed, by selective forces

Culture is Shared

Society: A group of interdependent people who share a common culture - all societies have culture (shared)

Ribosomes

Structures in the cell where translation occurs

Homologies

Structures possessed by two different organisms that arise in similar fashion and pass through similar stages during embryonic development though they may possess different functions.

Law of Independent Assortment

The Mendelian principle that genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another

Mammals

The class of vertebrate animals distinguished by bodies covered with fur, self-regulating temperature, and in females milk-producing mammary glands.

DNA

The genetic material consisting of a complex molecule whose base structure directs the synthesis of proteins.

Primates

The group of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

hemoglobin

The protein that carries oxygen in the red blood cells.

Genetic Code

The sequence of three bases (a codon) that specifies the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis.

cultural anthropology

The study of human society and culture, the subfield that describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences - Engaged in two kinds of activity ethnography (Description of a particular culture based on firsthand observation) and ethnology (Different cultures from a comparative perspective)

Hominoid

The taxonomic division super family within the old world primates that includes gibbons, siamangs, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans

Hominin

The taxonomic subfamily or tribe within the primates that includes humans and our ancestors

Linnaeus Classification System

This binomial nomenclature (two-part naming system) mirrors the naming patterns in many European societies where individuals possess two names—one personal and the other reflecting membership in a larger group of related individuals.

Codon

Three-base sequence of a gene that specifies production of an amino acid

polygenetic inheritance

When two or more genes work together to effect a single phenotypic character.

Anthropology

a distinctive comparative, cross-cultural perspective; examines all societies, ancient and modern, simple and complex - differences and similarities b/w people - Growth in globalization = more contact with other cultures - understand why there is so much cultural diversity

visual predation

a hypothesis for primate evolution that proposes that hunting behavior in tree-dwelling primates was responsible for their enhanced visual acuity and manual dexterity

descent groups

a kind of kinship group in which being in the direct line of descent from a real or mythical ancestor is a criterion of membership - unilineal = either the mother's or father's line - matrilineal = through the female line to establish group membership - patrilineal = through the male line to establish group

tonal language

a language in which the sound pitch of a spoken word is an essential part of its pronunciation and meaning

Glottochronology

a method for identifying the approximate time that languages branched off from a common ancestor - based on analyzing core vocabularies = in language, pronouns, lower numerals, and names for body parts and natural objects

race

a population of a species that differs in the frequency of the variants of some gene or genes from other populations of the same species. - no agreement on how many differences it takes to make a race - one race doesn't have exclusive possession of any particular variant of any gene or genes - differences among individuals and w/in a population are generally greater than the differences among populations

marriage

a relationship b/w one or more men (male or female) and one or more women (female or male) who are recognized by society as having a continuing claim to the right of sexual access to one another

peasant

a rural cultivator whose surpluses are transferred to a dominant group of rulers that uses the surpluses both to underwrite its own standard of living and to distribute the remainder to groups in society that do not farm but must be fed for their specific goods and services in turn

kindred

a small circle of paternal and maternal relatives

kinship

a social network of relatives w/in which individuals have rights and obligations

Language

a system for the communication, in symbols, of any kind of information - ppl share their experiences, concerns, and beliefs and communicate these to the next generation - constantly transforming, new words are adopted or coined, others are dropped, and some shift in meaning - languages change: selective borrowing by one language from another; the need for new vocabulary to deal w/ technological innovations or altered social realities - signal = a sound or gesture that has a natural or self-evident meaning

Trade Networks

a system was needed to distribute food products throughout the population

ecosystem

a system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the physical environment and the organisms living within it

Arboreal Hypothesis

a theory for primate evolution that proposes that life in the trees was responsible for enhanced visual acuity and manual dexterity in primates

alleles

alternate forms of a single gene

punctuated equilibria

alternation b/w periods of rapid speciation and times of stability

theory

an explanation supported by reliable data

Natural Selection

based on 2 observations: 1. all organization display a range of variation 2. all organisms have the ability to expand beyond their means of subsistence

Religious theories

beliefs and values regulate interaction b/w ppl and their environment

adaptation

beneficial adjustments of organisms to their environment - process leads to changes in the organisms and impacts their environment - human species adapts biologically and culturally - through cultural adaptation = humans develop ways of doing things that are compatible w/ the resources they have available to them and w/in the limitations of the various habitats in which they live

monogamy

both have one spouse most common serial monogamy = series of marriage partners

descriptive linguistics

branch of linguistics that involves unraveling a language by recording, describing, and analyzing all of its feature

Marriage exchanges

bride-price = payment of money from the groom's to the bride's kin bride service = the groom is expected to work for a period for the bride's family dowry = payment of a woman's inheritance at the time of marriage to her or her husband

Homo Erectus

by 1.8 mya, brain size along w/ cultural capabilities increased = homo erectus - earliest (Africa) - descended from homo habilis - increased reproductive success - spread to eurasia - well-made tools - greter variety of tools - controlled use of fire - earliest members of the genus homo = tertiary scavengers (third in line to get something from ta carcass)

Comparative method

compare: - ppls and cultures past and present - related species - fossil groups

intersex

conditions involving a discrepancy b/w external genitals and internal genitals Klinefelters syndrome = extra X chromosome in males but lacks the symptoms or small testicles and reduced fertility

convergent evolution vs. parallel evolution

convergent = the development of similar adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were quite different parallel = the development of similar adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were similar

Horticulture

cultivation of crops carried out w/ hand tools as digging sticks or hoes

Hydraulic Theory

effort to build and control an irrigation system required a degree of social organization that eventually led to civilization

endogamy vs exogamy

endogamy = marriage w/in a paritcular group or category of individuals exogamy = marriage outside the group

Domestication

evolutionary process whereby humans modify, intentionally or unintentionally, the genetic makeup of plants or animals, sometimes to the extent that members of the population are unable to survive and/or reproduce w/o human assistance - larger seeds - higher yield - lose seed dispersal - tougher axes - more brittle husks - maise: teosinte - animals: smaller and easier to control - cons: crops become more productive and more vulnerable; periodically population outstrips food supplies and ppl are apt to ove into new region

gestures

facial expressions and bodily postures and motions that convey intended and subconscious messages kinesics = a system of notating and analyzing postures, facial expressions, and body motions that convey messages proxemics = the cross-cultural study of humankind's perception and use of space

Why do Cultures exist?

help ppl survive the challenged of existence; must satisfy the basic needs and provides order for society

Anthropology is

holistic - various parts of culture viewed in the context; study all aspects cross-cultural

Trunk Skeletons

in its pelvis, the australopithecine resembles the modern human, but its rib cage shows the pyramidal configuration of the ape

Agriculture

intensive farming of large plots of land, employing fertilizers, plows, and/or extensive irrigation - pros: surplus, specialization - cons: more work, work = difficult, less healthy diet, more carbs and fat, gender inequality, social inequality

Cultural colonialism

internal domination - by one group and its culture or ideology over others

internalized vs. externalized controls

internalized = self-imposed by individuals; rely on such deterrents as shame, fear of divine punishment, and magical retaliation externalized = mix cultural and social control; positive sanctions reward appropriate behavior; negative sanctions punish behavior

polygamy

less common illegal in US polygyny = multiple wives polyandry = multiple husbands group marriage = multiple wives and husbands

Pastoralists

people who rely on herds of domestic animals for their subsistence

phratry vs moiety

phratry = a unilineal descent group composed of 2 or more clans that claim to be of common ancestry moiety = each group that results from a division of a society into 2 halves on the basis of descent

power and political organization

power = impose will upon others; make ppl do things even against their wishes political organization = how power is distributed and embedded; how society creates/maintains order

gender roles vs gender stereotypes

roles = tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes stereotypes = oversimplified strongly held ideas about characteristics of males and females

sex vs gender

sex = biological gender = socially constructed

microliths

small blade of flint or similar stone, several of which were hafted together in wooden handles to make tools - attached to arrow or other tool shafts by using melted resin as binder

mating

some mates for life, other not

medical anthropology

study of disease, health problems, health care systems, and theories about illness in different cultures and ethnic groups - disease = scientifically identified health threat - illness = condition of poor health perceived or felt by an individual - personalistic disease theories = illness caused by agents - naturalistic disease = illness explained in impersonal terms (biomedicine) - emotionalistic = illness caused by emotions - curer = shaman = emerge through process of selection, training, and certification

syntax vs. grammar

syntax = the rules of principles of phrase and sentence making grammar = the entire formal structure of a language consisting of all observations about the morphemes and syntax

linguistic determinism

the idea that language to some extent shapes the way in which we view and think about the world around us - Sapir-Whorf hypothesis = a language is not simply an encoding process but is rather a shaping force; language guides thinking and behavior by predisposing ppl to see the world in a certain way

continental drift

the movement of continents embedded in underlying plates on the earth's surface in relation to one another over the history of life on earth - at the end of the cretaceous period 65 mya, the time of the dinosaurs' extinction, the seas, opened up by continental drift, created barriers b/w major land masses - during the miocene epoch, african and Eurasian land masses reconnected

carrying capacity

the number of ppl that the available resources can support at a given level of food-getting techniques

Adaptation

the processes by which organisms cope w/ environmental forces and stresses

incest

the prohibition of sexual relations b/w specified individuals, usually parent-child and sibling relations at a minimum

ethnolinguistics

the study of relation b/w language and culture - linguistic relativity = the proposition that diverse interpretations of reality embodied in languages yield demonstrate influences on though

sociolinguistics

the study of relationship b/w language and society, examines how social categories (such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, occupation, and class) influence the use and significance of distinctive styles of speech - gendered speech = distinct male and female syntax exhibited in various languages around the world

morphology

the study of the patterns or rules of word formation in a language (including such things as rules concerning verb tense, pluralization, and compound words - morphemes = the smallest units of sound that carrying a meaning

Culture

traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide by growing up in a particular society, through a process called enculturation - Abstract ideas, values, and perceptions of the world that inform and are reflected in people's behavior - The values, beliefs, and perceptions of the world shared by members of a society, that they use to interpret experience and generate behavior, and that are reflected in their behavior. - cultures are learned (not inherited) - ideal: practices and norms a culture is supposed to follow - real: refers to the practice and norms a culture actually follows

uncentralized systems vs centralized

uncentralized = bands, tribes centralized = chiefdoms, states

gender stratification

unequal distribution of rewards b/w men and women, reflecting their different positions in a social hierarchy

applied anthropology

use of anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and methods to identify, assess, and solve contemporary problems

dialects

varying forms of language that reflect particular regions of social classes and that are similar enough to be mutually intelligible code switching = the process of changing from one language or dialect to another

Sexual Dimorphism

w/in a single species, differences in the shape or size of a feature for males and females in body features not directly related to reproduction such as body size or canine tooth shape and size

Law of Competitive Exclusion

when 2 closely related species compete for the same niche, one will out-compete the other, bringing about the latter's extinction