ANTH midterm
Law of superposition
- A fundamental principle of archaeology that states that the deeper strata are generally older
Seriation
- A technique of arranging artifact assemblages in a succession or serial order. This change in artifact style through time facilitates their ordering - Ex: coke bottles - Some categories are better than others for seriation because they change faster through time - New artifact styles rarely replace old ones entirely, a graph of the frequency of seriated styles often forms a battleship curve
LIDAR
- Aircraft use a laser to scan the ground. The bounced laser signals can be interpreted (by a computer) in a way that "sees through" tree canopy. - LIDAR is especially useful in heavily forested areas and has seen extensive archaeological use.
Dendrochronology
- Also known as tree ring dating uses differences in annual tree ring growth to construct long-term sequences. These sequences allow good samples to be dated within one year - Only works in temperate regions with distinct seasonal ring growth - It works best with certain long-lived and frequently used trees that have a master sequence established - Must be careful. Tells us when the tree was felled not when the piece of wood was used
Assemblage
- An archaeological assemblage is a group of different types of artifacts and ecofacts used by people from a particular context. Certain assemblages may be equated to archaeological cultures.
Stratigraphy
- An example of relative dating , the study of layers
Charles Lyell
- Ancient geological processes occur just like modern ones. They are uniform through time - Many geological formations like canyons cut by water or stratigraphic layers point to the age of the earth - Called uniformitarianism
Publishing
- Archaeologists are ethically bound to publish their data and results. Primary data and major results appear in archaeological site reports. - This critical step often never happens because of the enormous amount of data recovered from excavations and the time and cost required to analyze it.
Potassium-argon dating
- Based on decay of potassium-40 into argon-40 - Half-life 1.3 billion years -> good for dating volcanic rock older than 80,000 years - Precision: +/- 10% - Particularly useful for dating hominin remains. Extensively used at Olduvai Gorge
Genetic dating
- By analyzing DNA and mtDNA from modern human populations, geneticists can sometimes estimate an absolute date for certain phenomenon - For example, geneticists have estimated dates for the emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens in Africa, the dispersal of H. sapiens sapiens out of Africa, and more recent events like the emergence of lactase persistence (milk tolerance) - DNA dating works by hypothesizing DNA sequences for the last common ancestor (LCA) from modern populations and then determining the amount of non-functional mutational change since. Since mutations are random, they accumulate with an average measurable frequency. By counting the number of mutations a date is established - Since all living organisms have DNA, genetic dating can also be used to estimate the origins of the domestication of plants, animals, and even microbes. - Genetic dating requires many assumptions that may introduce error. Genetic dating events are often revised and must be checked against other data.
Animal bone and shell
- Can be used to make tools, jewelry, or may represent food that past people consumed
General effects of local and micro climates (caves and tombs)
- Caves and tombs have their own microclimates - Are significantly better for preservation due to shelter from weather conditions, temperature fluctuations, and significant animal and plant activity
Uniformitarianism
- Charles Lyell's theory
Clothing
- Clothing was made out of organic materials which almost always fully decay - Only tend to survive in extreme dry conditions, continuously saturated anaerobic conditions, salty conditions, and when in contact with bronze - Ex: Hallstatt salt mine
Culture (definition)
- Consists of beliefs, traditions, customs, and ideas that humans learn as members of society
Elman Service
- Credit for the most famous analogy goes to the American anthropologist, Elman Service - Four-fold classification of societies
Natural selection
- Cultural change may be analyzed in terms of natural selection, where culture is passed on by teaching and learning rather than genetics
Cultural formation processes vs natural formation processes
- Cultural formation process: involve the deliberate of accidental activity of human beings o Ex: people may bury things with the dead and a farmer might move it later o Cerro Baul, site was burned down and then abandoned - Natural formation process: o The natural events and forces that affect the burial and preservation of finds o Ex: natural disasters, Pompeii
C.J. Thomsen
- Danish - developed the three age system
Terminus post quem
- Date after which - Ex: if a coin is found in a stratum, then that stratum must date to sometime after the coin was minted
Terminus ante quem
- Date before which - Ex: if foreign pottery is found in Egyptian stratum date 1300 BC, then we know that the pottery must have been produced sometime before 1300 BC
Importance of season in aerial photography
- Draughts can be especially revealing for aerial photography, since vegetation above archaeological remains often grows differently than in surrounding areas.
Stratification
- Each layer of matrix is known as a stratum, these layers stack on top of each other to create stratigraphy
Recording and Recovery
- Each layer that is excavated is carefully recorded by archaeologists. All artifacts, ecofacts, and features are recorded with location data. Pictures or drawings are done of vertical stratigraphy and horizontal areas. Close attention is paid to features. - Digital recording: Everything used to be done on paper, but now cameras, phones, and tablets can be used to record data. If enough high resolution pictures are taken during excavation from enough angles, then 3D models can be reconstructed of each phase of the excavation. - After recording location and photographing artifacts, they are removed from the matrix carefully. - Pottery is often washed to facilitate identification and counting. This can be problematic for researchers interested in food remains. - Some artifacts are removed for special conservation. This includes textiles, metal, and wood, which may be treated with special solutions to inhibit further decomposition.
Oldowan stone tools
- Early Homo arose just over 2 million years ago and was associated with Oldowan stone tools
Ritual sites analysis (Monuments and public works)
- Estimates of labor hours to build monuments as well as monument placement may reveal social configuration - Monumental construction requires some social leadership, but this does not always imply ranking - An evolution of monuments through time may imply social change.
Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan
- Ethnographic analogy
Excavation considerations
- Excavation is a way to test a hypothesis. It's often called "ground truthing". • Careful records are imperative since archaeology is destructive. - Excavation is expensive and time consuming. - Excavation involves the careful removal of each layer of soil or matrix and the recording of artifacts, ecofacts, and features discovered in each area. - Excavation methods are heavily influence by research question, archaeological traditions, and research location.
C14 dating
- First published dates in 1949... hence 1950 = "present" in BP dating - Half-life c. 5730 -> good for dating organic stuff between 400-50,000 years ago - Precision: c. 50-100 years (but given as a probability) - It must be calibrated, since C-14 levels have not always been constant • Dendrochronology can help here. - It gives a date range for the death of the organic organism. This requires interpretation - For example, charcoal from a fire might come from wood used on a two hundred year old house. Thus, the C-14 dates the felling of the tree for the house not the context of the fire from which it was found - Contamination for more recent carbon material is a problem.
GIS
- Geographic Information System (GIS) computer program is essential to modern archaeology - It can be used to generate maps with many different overlays and can be linked to data sets
GPS
- Global Positioning System (GPS) helps to record the location of sites, features, and artifacts in space
Metal detectors
- Good for detecting metal
Ground survey vs aerial survey
- Ground survey o typically involves walking a site and collecting or e examining any artifacts on the surface. o Ground survey usually involves identifying pottery sherds or lithics to get an idea about site areas and periods of occupation. In some areas, it may also entail recording feature locations like mounds or foundations. o Sometimes ground survey includes digging small test pits and recording their content. - Aerial survey o Aerial survey can quickly cover large areas. o Images originally taken for non- archaeological purposed are often available for use by archaeologists. o Can reveal patterns hard to view from the ground
Acheulian hand-axe
- Homo erectus emerged 1.6 million years ago - They produced stone Acheulian hand-axes and were the first hominins to migrate out of Africa - Their ability to spread suggests their complex culture
Basic Excavation strategies (horizontal vs vertical, wheeler box-grid, open area excavation, step trenching)
- Horizontal vs vertical o Horizontal excavation looks at a broad area in one time slice • Vertical excavation looks at an area through time - Wheeler box-grid o Balks of matrix are left between excavated units to help correlate vertical stratigraphy across the site - Open-area excavation o Excavates large contemporary areas, records them, and then removes them and excavates the next layer - Step trenching o Used when archaeological stratigraphy is especially deep to ensure the safety of archaeologists. A large area is opened up initially and deeper units become progressively smaller.
Complexity of genus homo
- Hunter Gatherers o Most of human history o Modern hunter gatherers provide ethnographic analogy, but this can be problematic o Probably easier than early farming - Mesolithic o Only developed in a few places o Typically lived in one area, but did not farm - Neolithic o Agricole o Permanent houses o Pottery o Sedentism and domestication were developed independently around the globe
Images vs maps
- Images are raw data in need of interpretation. - Maps are images that have been adjusted and added to for the purpose of interpretation.
James Usher
- In the 17th century - Popularized a biblical interpretation dating creation to around 6pm on October 22 4004 BC - In this view recorded history covers all of human history and not archeology is really needed - Later disproved in the 19th century when geology and biology pointed to a much older earth
Extreme conditions (dry environments, cold environments, waterlogged environments/anaerobic conditions
- In very dry environments the absence of water promotes preservation by limiting microbial activity - In very cold environments taphonomic processes can be slowed to a virtual standstill. - In waterlogged environments, anaerobic conditions may prevail. The lack of available oxygen promotes preservation. Since waterlogged conditions may be found around the globe this is an especially important type of environment. Waterlogged conditions occur at swamps, lakes, under the sea, at the bottom of a well, or where the water table is especially high o Waterlogged preservation example: At the Roman fort of Vindolanda thousands of fragments of wooden writing tablets were preserved in an area below the water table. Tablets included a birthday party invitation and a plea for more
Types of material and general likelihood of archaeological survival Inorganic vs organic
- Inorganic materials generally tend to survive better in the archeological record than organic materials - Survivability is highly influenced by the find's matrix and local climate
Calendars and historic chronologies
- Literate cultures may provide sufficient records for archaeological dating - Coins are an excellent source of absolute dates - Inscriptions may include known historical rulers - Dates may be recorded for important sites like cities, temples, or battles - Calendars and historic chronologies must be converted from their original calendar to ours. This is not always straight forward and may require future revisions. - Artifact assemblages from sites with known dates can be used to estimate the dates of sites without known dates - Before the advent of dendrochronology and radiometric dating, many Mediterranean sites were dated in relation to Egypt. - Records like king lists allowed the construction of detailed chronologies.
Methods to find archaeological sites
- Many are never lost, just ask the locals - Documentary research, including taphonomy, may point to more recent sites - Survey
First stone tools
- May have been used by Australopithecus or Kenyanthropus species about 4.5 million years ago (this is still a bit controversial though)
Uranium series dating
- Method: its complicated...(there are multiple levels of decay) - Good for dating travertine (calcium carbonate) deposited in caves and teeth, since it measures decay from water soluble uranium - Can date 10,000-500,000 years ago - Precision: +/- 1-10% - Can be checked by electron spin resonance
Features
- Non-portable artifacts o Ex: houses, post holes, ditches, fields, and roads
Oblique vs vertical view
- Oblique is a slanted side view of the landscape - Vertical is the view straight down.
Old evidence types (museums and collectors) vs new evidence (survey, excavation, experimental archaeology)
- Old evidence: Museums and sometimes even collectors can be sources of data. Museums hold lots of material ready for "re-excavation" o Museums: Usually non-destructive, less expensive, preliminary work already done, sometimes safer, Sometimes records are not that great o Collectors: Usually an untapped source of data Often have poor data or can be fake. Also, major ethical issues - New evidence: survey, excavation, and experimental archaeology - The type of evidence sought is determined by the research design
Site survey
- Once a site of interest for the research question has been identified, a more intensive survey is typically carried out. It may include the use of ground walking survey, careful mapping of visible features, remote sensing, and subsurface testing.
Wooden artifacts
- Only survive in rare conditions, extreme environments or if charred
Human body
- Organic - Soft tissues decay quickly - Bone can preserve well based on the matrix (chalk preserves but acidic soil destroys it) - Bone decays in sandy soils but may leave a dark silhouette of the skeleton
Deep-sea cores and ices cores
- Provide relative stratigraphic sequences of ecofact the reflect climatic change - By linking these relative sequences to absolute dates, global climate can be compared to cultural change
Burial analysis
- Provides evidence for social differentiation or lack of it by asking questions like: does everyone get buried? - Patterns give important clues about wider social ideas - Ex: Neolithic v bronze age in Europe: o Neolithic tombs were for the whole family (segmentary society?) o Bronze age- single person with stuff under mound (chiefdom society?)
Association
- Refers to objects that are found in the same context. The proximity of these objects may indicate a relationship between them. Ex: the objects found in a grave are associated with the buried individual and tell a story about that person's life, death, and funeral
Relative vs absolute dating
- Relative dating methods establish which artifacts or features are older than others o Orders into sequences - Absolute dating methods establish a chronological date o Before present = before 1950
Plant remains
- Seeds, leaves, and pollen - Tend to reflect food - Often decay but are preserved when charred or mineralized - Also, can sometimes leave impressions
Methods of archaeological analysis for determining social types and social phenomena
- Settlement analysis - Burial analysis - Ritual sites analysis: Monuments and public works - Written records - Ethnoarchaeology
Curation
- Some excavated material is simply discarded in heaps, but other material will be kept for future analysis. - This requires lots of space, which can be expensive. - Many of the materials will decay quickly once removed from their matrix and must be conserved.
Problems with seriation and typology
- Sometimes people curate very old objects - An older or younger artifact might have intruded into a supposedly "sealed" context due to taphonomic processes. - Different artifact typologies might provide different date ranges for the same site. This is frustratingly common.
Refitting
- Sometimes refitting sherds of pottery or lithic fragments can link different contexts.
Three age system
- Stone age to Bronze age to Iron age - Eurocentric - Americas and Africa did not use bronze - C.J. Thomsen
Surface finds vs probes vs remote sensing
- Surface finds o As a result of taphonomic processes, including natural erosion and plowing, surface finds found by walking survey often reveal pottery and lithics, which can be used to determine the archaeological cultures present at a site and the number of components through time - Probes o Small cameras or remote-control vehicles can be used in exceptional circumstances, including tombs or buildings with cavities o Very rarely used in practice. - Remote sensing o Includes GPR, magnetic survey instruments, and metal detectors
Analogy
- The comparison of partial similarities in two different things for the purpose of explanation - Are never really totally true, but that are really useful - Use analogy to generate a picture of the past - Analogies are hypothesis
Context
- The context of an artifact, ecofact, feature, or site consists of its: o Matrix o Provenience o Associations
Provenience
- The horizontal and vertical location of an artifact, ecofact, or feature within a site
Matrix
- The material surrounding an artifact when it is excavated. Usually dirt, rubble, clay, or sand. Can influence preservation. Samples from matric are important when conducting residue analysis.
Ecofacts
- The non-artifact organic and environmental remains. o Ex: plant material, bones, and soil
Artifacts
- The objects used, modified, or made by people
Sites
- The places where significant human activity is identified o Ex: work camp, village, sanctuary, city, farm
Survey
- The preliminary investigation of an area for archaeological traces - Value o Usually non-destructive o Allows for a large coverage area to situate in a larger context o Facilitates the identification of specific areas of interest pertaining to a research question
Charles Darwin
- The principle of evolution by natural selection supported the antiquity of the earth and provided a useful model for archaeologists to think about change
Taphonomy
- The study of how finds were buried and what happened to them after burial. It can be divided into cultural formation processes and natural formation processes
Archaeology (definition)
- The study of past human culture primary through material remains
Ethnographic analogy
- The use of observations about modern people to generate hypotheses about the past - Ex: archaeological evidence for hunter-gatherers should be interpreted by looking at modern hunter-gatherers - Suggest that modern complex societies evolved from similar forms through time - Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan
Transects vs grids
- Transects o are straight (as possible) lines that are walked during survey. This method is used when it is easier and more efficient to walk a line than investigate a square. - Grids o divide an area into sections which can be investigated by sampling strategies.
General effects of different regional climates (Tropical vs temperate vs arctic)
- Tropical climate is the word for all types of preservation - Temperate climate is generally not great for organic preservation, but inorganic materials fare well - Artic climate is best for preservation when materials are buried in an area that doesn't thaw out
Thomas Jefferson
- Typically given credit for the first archaeological excavation - The Moundbuilders, concluded that the ancestors of modern Americans built them - Used careful excavation and recording, including stratigraphy
Unsystematic vs systematic survey
- Use systematic survey if the area is too big to fully survey. Other times, there are too many artifacts and features in an area to fully document
Homo sapiens
- We evolved in Africa around 200,000-100,000 years ago and then spread from Africa around 100,000 years ago. - Homo sapiens sapiens from our lineage in Africa then interbred with other Homo lineages like Neandertals and Denisovans.
Typologies
- Well-date seriation sequences - Most archaeological sites rely heavily on relative dates provided by artifact typologies, especially pottery sequences. - By comparing artifact types to sequences of dates determined by absolute methods, archaeologist often have a date range for various artifact types.
Special local matrix
- When some materials decay, they produce special local conditions that preserve other materials. For example, the oxidative decay of bronze creates a local environment that is toxic to microorganisms responsible for organic decay. In other words, textiles buried touching bronze will often preserve as will some of the contents of bronze vessels.
Floatation
- a method where removed soil is agitated in water. Soil sinks, while botanical evidence floats and can be recovered. Time constraints typically prohibit floatation for all removed matrix so representative samples are usually used.
Magnetic survey instruments
- are good for detecting fired clay (kilns and hearths), iron objects, and pit/ditch features - Measures distortions in the earth's magnetic field, usually caused by iron o Clay has randomly oriented iron oxide that becomes aligned and fixed upon firing
Stereoscopic images
- can be created from multiple images and create a 3D image.
Settlement analysis
- can provide strong evidence for social dynamics - site size is often used to establish if settlement hierarchies existed - ex: small temporary sites may point to hunter gatherers - two types: o Mobile hunter gatherers Seasonal sites Small o Segmentary societies A pattern of homesteads (dispersed settlement) or small villages (nucleated settlement) Can estimate pop size
Aerial survey
- can quickly cover large areas - images that were originally not taken for archeological purposes can be used by archeologist - can reveal hard to see patterns from the ground
Drawbacks of social typologies
- categorizing for categories' sake is not very helpful. Categorization is for the purpose of comparison. - Not everyone can agree on a list for each category (For example: the difference between "chiefdom" and "state" is particularly ambiguous as noted in your book. Additionally, your book says that the differentiation of the temple and the palace is often a hallmark of the early state...I find this assertion to be ludicrous.) - Groups are listed in order of complexity, which encourages evolutionary consideration and ranking by perceived value.
Dry vs wet screening
- dry screening usually has bigger screens - usually even smaller artifacts/ecofacts in wet screening
Radioactive clocks
- everything is made up of atoms. The same type of atom, like a carbon atom, may come in different isotopes with different numbers of neutrons. For example: Carbon comes in C-12, C-13, C-14 - Certain isotopes may be unstable (C-14 has "too many" neutrons) and decay back to earlier forms at a known rate. This decay is not affected by environmental conditions. For example, C-14 decays into N-14. Half the C- 14 atoms in a sample of carbon will have decayed in 5730 years - The half-life or an isotope is the time it takes for 1⁄2 of the atoms in a sample to have decayed. The half-life of an isotope is crucial for determining what it can be used to date. Isotopes with shorter half-lives date more recent things. Isotopes with longer half-lives date older things
Total station
- is an instrument used to precisely measure distances and angles. It is often used to record the location of sites, features, and artifacts in space.
Regional archaeology (What are some research questions that would be answered by a regional approach)
- is not always aimed at finding sites to excavate. It is often conducted to get a better overview of an area. - Since regional survey is non-destructive or minimally destructive, it can be a repeatable experiment. Future surveys can support or contradict earlier findings. - questions include: o What is the geographical extent of an archaeological culture across the landscape? o Do settlement hierarchies exist in this region? o Do the sites reveal seasonal movement across the land? o What is the catchment area of a site? o What was the wider environment around a site like? o Does viewshed analysis indicate any special considerations prompting site locations?
Analysis (artifact attributes and typologies)
- preliminary analysis involves sorting objects by type according to their attributes. - Important attributes include: surface decoration, object size and shape, and object material. - Ecofacts are identified by faunal or botanical genus or species. - Artifacts are grouped into typologies.
Shovel test pit
- small hole dug into the ground in order to determine if there are subsurface archaeological remains. The removed matrix is investigated for artifacts. Any partially exposed features are recorded - The size and depth of a test pit is determined by the research question - Bread and butter of CRM
Metals (gold, silver and lead vs. copper, bronze, and iron)
- survive to varying degrees - Gold, silver, and lead survive well - Copper, bronze, and iron often degrade and only leave a stain in the soil
Clay
- survives well when it is fired for pottery - pores in pottery may contain traces of what they were used for
Stone/lithic
- tend to survive very well and even retain traces of their manufacture or use - microwear on stone tools can tell us what they were used for
Ground penetrating radar
- uses radio waves to detect subsurface differences in material. It can be used to generate slice maps at different depths. - Earth resistance survey uses electrical resistivity and works better in damp soils.
4 subdisciplines of Anthropology
1) Archaeology 2) Cultural Anthropology a. The study of present human cultures primarily through ethnography 3) Physical Anthropology (Biological Anthropology) a. The study of biological human characteristics through time 4) Linguistic Anthropology a. The study of how language varies with social factors and through time
Research design (what are the 4 major steps)
1) Formulate a research strategy concerning one or more central research questions 2) Collect and record evidence 3) Process and analyze the evidence 4) Publish
Social Typologies
1) Mobile Hunter-Gatherer Groups (formerly "bands") - General characteristics: o small-scale societies of generally fewer than 100 people o generally move seasonally to exploit wild food resources o generally kinfolk related by descent and marriage o generally no formal leader o generally lacks economic or major status difference between members - Material culture: o seasonally occupied camps o smaller specialized sites like kill sites or work sites 2) Segmentary Societies (formerly "tribes") - General characteristics: o Generally larger than mobile hunter-gatherers, but with populations rarely more than a few thousand o Generally diet is based on cultivated plants and domestic animals o Typically settled farmers but may be nomad pastoralists o Generally consists of many smaller communities integrated into a larger group through kinship ties. o May have some leaders, but with only minimal power - Material culture: o A pattern of homesteads (dispersed settlement) or small villages (nucleated settlement) o No one settlement clearly dominates the others. 3) Chiefdoms - General characteristics: o Vary in size, but are often between 5,000-20,000 people o Characterized by ranking of individuals into different social statuses o Often includes multiple competing lineages (groups claiming descent from a common ancestor) o The senior lineage and the chiefdom as a whole are governed by a chief. o Prestige and rank generally come from closeness to the chief o Generally no elaborate class stratification (but may have slaves and free persons) o Generally some craft specialization o Often tributes are paid to the chief, who may use them for redistribution to close followers or subjects in general - Material Culture: o One settlement or ceremonial center typically dominates the others. o More elaborate settlement hierarchy might be present. o Specialized activity zones within a village or village specialization may indicate the coordination of people with different professions, including significant craft specialization o High ranking individuals are often buried in highly visible monuments and/or with rich grave goods. 4) Early States - General characteristics: o Generally larger populations than chiefdoms o Generally led by ruler(s), often a king or queen, with explicit authority to establish law o Generally the ruler's will can be enforced by a standing army o The society is significantly stratified with more than two clearly defined classes. o The territory may be owned by the ruling lineage o Taxes are generally collected. - Archaeological remains: o Generally includes urban centers with over 5,000 people and has a pronounced settlement hierarchy o Generally includes numerous public buildings including temples, palaces, and work places for bureaucrats.
Sampling strategies (simple random, stratified random, regular intervals, stratified unaligned)
1) Simple random: numerically determined random areas around the site are surveyed 2) Stratified random: natural zones are identified, and random samples are allocated proportionally to the zones 3) Regular intervals ("Systematic" in textbook): the area is divided into sections that are sampled at regular intervals. This might entirely miss a regular structure 4) Stratified unaligned: the area is divided into square sections and each squared is sampled in a random area