Anthro 3

What changes in the brain took place in humans?

.Enlargement of: Brain folding Fine motor control Speech areas Visual association area (smaller olfactory bulbs) Prefrontal cortex (higher cognitive functions)

Primate experimentation and captivity

The Three R's: 1. Replace the use of animals whenever possible 2. Reduce the numbers used to the minimum required for good science 3. Refine study method to minimize costs to animals that are used

Forensic anthropology

The scientific application of physical anthropology in a medico-legal context Identify modern individuals/circumstances of their death Same general techniques but different populations and questions

Acheulian Complex

"Ah-shoo-lee-an" ~1.8 mya Likely coincided with early hunting Much more complex than Oldowan Bifaced* = flaked on both sides Sharper cutting surface Wider variety of stone Introduction of the hand ax

Homo Habilis

"Handy Man" 2.5-1.8 mya Found at similar locations as australopithecines Mainly East Africa Middle Awash, Ethiopia Lake Turkana, Kenya Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Some South Africa Caves in Sterkfontein and Swartkrans Primitive Post-Cranium Australopithecine body plan Short stature Short leg length relative to arm length Shorter stride Inefficient bipedalism Derived Cranium Reduced prognathism Larger forehead More gracile skull Dietary shift and/or use of tools for food processing Brain size increases to 650 cc Finally out of chimp brain size range!!

Zhoukoudian, China

"Joe-COE-dien" 780,000-400,000 years ago Near Beijing; contained the fragmentary remains of 40-50 individuals "Peaking Man" Remains lost during WWII Sunk with ship? We have the casts! "Peking Man" Cranial capacity = 1000 cc Others at site up to 1300 cc Sagittal keel Thick cranial bones Large supraorbital torus Cave served as a habitable shelter Evidence of the controlled use of fire

Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain

"Pit of Bones" = about 28 individuals Atapuerca 5 (adult male) 500,000 y BP Large brow ridges Prognathic is less but still more than modern humans Wide nasal aperture(kind of a cold weather adaptation) Rounded, gracile skull Brain size = 1125 cc

How does fossilization occur?

**Taphonomy: what/anything that happens to an organism's remains after it dies Ideal burial environment necessary Remains covered soon after death Protection from scavengers Oxygen - free (anoxic) environment limits decomposition Avoid acidic groundwater/ soils have dissolve bone/teeth Favors widespread, long lived species Greater chance of members meeting ideal conditions at some point **all these things need to be in play in order for a fossil to form

Angiosperm Radiation Hypothesis

*best accepted one right now Late Mesozoic = Massive diversification of Angiosperms (flowering/fruiting plants) Visual acuity for finding fruit among the trees Grasping toes = can cling to branches while they pick and eat fruit Squirrels must return to larger branches Robert Sussman

Nariokotome/Turkana Boy

.KNM- WT 15000 West side of Lake Turkana, Kenya 1.6 mya ~80% of skeleton Adolescent male ~8-11 years old 5'3" tall, 106 lbs., adult stature would have been ~6'5" Cranial capacity = 880 cc Would have been 909 cc in adulthood

Au. Robustus: Robust Derived Features

.Sagittal crest Massive flat face Forward-projecting zygomatics Large molars, small incisors Thick enamel with more pits Harder foods than Au. Africanus Isotopic Analysis of Diet C4 and C3 plants fi carbon differently during photosynthesis C4 Plants = leave high ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in bone Grassland plants C3 Plants = leave low ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in bone Wet woodland plants Leaves, fruits, herbs High C4 ratio in Au. Africanus and Au. Robustus Grasses, grass seeds, Tubers

"Java Man"

1 mya - 700,000 ya Massive supraorbital torus Sagittal keel Brain size = 1,000 cc Pathological femur found upstream Modern looking Belongs to Java man?

Process of Fossilization

1. Death and Soft-tissue decay 2. Skeleton is covered by lake sediments 3. Rock-forming minerals from water begin to replace calcium-phosphate of bone 4. Skeleton fossilizes as lake sediments continue to be deposited as layers 5. Erosion exposes the deep strata in which the fossil is located 6. Excavation and analysis by physical anthropologists

Hypothesis: Bigger Brain = Better Food

1. Increased access to food sources a. Requires more complex identification and extraction 2. Familiarity with the "home range" a. Knowing when and where certain foods are available 3. "Social Brain": living in social groups requires complexity for social interactions and alliances a. Brain grew larger because we were managing more social relationships 4. Meat-eating: proteins and fats nourished growing brains a. Brain is a very energy costly organ 5. Some combination? a. Use "social brain" to negotiate food sharing Why are humans special in this sense? There are tons of other primates out there that are social and trying to get food- why were we unique?

Aus. Sediba

1.977 - 1.98 mya Malapa Cave, South Africa Discovered in 2008 Brain size: 420-450 cc Key fossils: MH1 (Male) 12-13 years old, 4 feet tall, 72 lbs. MH2 (Female) 4 feet tall, 59 lbs. Similar slight sexual dimorphism to modern humans Primitive Features: Gracile features = probably descended from Au. Africanus Non-flared zygomatics Tooth microwear = ate hard food Derived Homo features? Pelvis and small premolars/molars more similar to Homo erectus Lee Berger (discoverer) argues Au Sediba, not Au. Garhi and Homo Habilis, leads to Homo! Problems with Au. Sediba Homo Australopithecine Proportions Small brain (450 cc) Long arms Homo Habilis (2.5 - 1.8 mya) pre-dated Au. Sediba, but had a larger brain (650 cc) Derived Unique Features Different diet: mostly C3 plants Plant fossils (photoliths) left in dental plaque C3 grasses and sedges, fruit, leaves, and TREE BARK Similar to modern chimps Hyperpronated gait Ankle bends inwards Flexible lower back to compensate Helps climb trees

Moula-Guercy-Cave, Southern France

100,000 y BP 6 individuals Two adults, two 16-17 year olds, two children aged 6-7 Skulls smashed open Limbs broken open Only hand and foot bones remain intact (no marrow) Tendons severed, at least one tongue removed

Neanderthals in Europe

130,000 - 30,000 y BP Germany, France, Croatia, Spain, Belgium Colder climate than Asia = More robust Occipital bun Larger teeth

Australopithecus Robustus

2-1.5 mya Lived at same time as: Au. Boisei; Homo Habilis; Early Homo erectus Found at South African sites only Second australopithecine discovered Brian size: 530 cc High level of sexual dimorphism SK 46 (Males) 3'9" an 119 lbs. SK 48 (Females) 3'3", 88 lbs., and smaller sagittal crest Descended from Au. Africanus? Only hominins that share anterior/nasal pillars Pillars are hollow in Au. Africanus, trabecular in Au. Robustus Argue that Au Robustus belongs in another robust lineage

Homo Rudolfensis

2.4- 1.6 mya Same as Homo Habilis Eastern side of Lake Turkana, Kenya Larger than Homo habilis Same general body plan

HIV infections on the Rise

2013 UN Report: New infections increased 13% from 2006 to 2013 in Central Africa and Asia 35.3 million people globally were living with HIV in 2012 But AIDs related deaths dropped by 30% since 2005 peak due to antiretrovirals

Australopithecus Africanus

3 -2 mya Same time as: Au. Gahri; Au. Aethiopicus; Au. Boisei South Africa Earliest evidence of Hominins in S. Africa Shift in habitat from forest to grassland ~2.5 mya Key Fossils: Taung Child Taung, South Africa (2.8 mya) First evidence of bipedalism discovered Endocast and cranial fragments Anteriorly-placed foramen magnum 3.3 years old (dental development) Key Fossils: Mrs. Ples (STS 5) Sterkfontein, South Africa Robert Broom (1947) Originally called Plesianthropus transvaalensis Actually a male! Excavated using dynamite Blew off top of skull Important because opponents argued Taung child was a baby chimp

The first toolmakers?

3.2-3.4 mya: Cut marks on animal bones Dikka region of Ethiopia Evidence of butchering antelopes Bones broken to get bone marrow 3.3 mya: Oldest stone tools (Lomekwi) Lake Turkana, Kenya New discovery: April 2015 Knapping: hitting stones together to strike off sharp flakes Chimps lack the flexor pollicis longus muscles in the thumb that provides a precision grip Insertion for this muscle on the pollex's distal phalange appears as early as Orrorin Probably initially for grasping tree branches

Australopithecus Afarensis

3.6-3.0 mya East Africa (Ethiopia, Laetoli, Tanzania) Small body size ~4 feet tall Brain size ~430 cc Key Fossils AL 822 -I "Lucy" Juvenile DIK -1-1 "Lucy's Baby" ~3 at time death ape-like hyoid suggests inability to speak Note the ape-like prognathic (projecting face) Review: Primitive features: Small femoral head Small acetabulum Equal length arms and legs Intermediate phalange curvature Glenoid fossa in shoulder oriented upwards Derived features: Anterior foramen magnum S-shaped vertebral column Valgus knee Long femoral neck Wider, shorter pelvis Adducted hallux Longitudinal arch Laetoli Footprints 3.6 mya 2-4 individuals 75 feet of footprints Preserved in volcanic ash Bipedal characteristics Rounded heel Well-developed arches Non-divergent hallux

Wooden Spear Use

400,000 y BP Germany Three wooden throwing spears Quickly covered by lake sediment Butchered remains of more than 10 horses

Early archaic Homo Sapiens in Europe

500,000 - 130,000 years BP Average cranial capacity = 1200 cc Spain, France, Germany, etc

Amud, Israel

55,000 - 40,000 BP (late in the Neandertal lineage) Amud I = complete skeleton of an adult male (25 years old) Estimated 5'10" (tall Neandertal!) Enormous brain size ~1740 cc; largest of any fossil hominin******** Amud 7 = 8-10 month old infant Maxilla of red deer placed on pelvis Burial rite?

Western Africa

60,000-40,000 years ago Only found in Israel, Iraq Less robust than Europe No occipital bun Small teeth

Out of Africa Model

AMH evolve from archaic Homo Sapiens in Africa Migrate to Asia and Europe, and replace the archaic Homo sapiens living there Limited admixture with Asian and European archaics We should Expect to Find: 1. The oldest AMH only in Africa 2. Intermediates between archaics and AMH only in Africa 3. Chronological overlap between AMH (from Africa) and indigenous archaics in Europe and Asia 4. Sudden arrival in Europe and Asia od: a. Anatomical differences b. Genetic differences c. African artifacts

REVIEW 2

Absolute (will give an actual approximate date) vs Relative (have to have something to compare to something else) Dating Methods Relative: Stratigraphic correlation (look at layers of a site's ground from different sites and compare levels of stratigraphy and from that you can get a relative date for certain things; can use the knowledge of the levels to see compare which fossils are older/younger than others; correlating the stratigraphy across sites and comparing) Biostratigraphy (can see differences in hominins and look at stratigraphy around them and if you have a fossil that you know about and when it lived and have it show up at one site, can use that to start building a chronology)[not a comparing site thing, only focusing on that organism] Cultural dating (oldowan and then achueian and then etc.; can see dates by seeing when cultural materials show up, so if a fossil shows up with certain tools then can say oh we know when those tools were in use so this fossil must have been from that time) Radiocarbon dating Can only go back to about 50,000 years ago reliably The UV rays bombarded nitrogen in the atmosphere and get converted to C14 (unstable) which gets into CO2 into trees, plants get eaten by animals then C14 in animals now; organism dies and that's when the half-life decay starts because not taking C14 in anymore (HL is 5,730 years) and look at fraction of C14 left to determine age (if ¼ left then it's about 11,000 years old) Dendrochronology Look at rings in trees (preferably in colder temperatures) Important; can get down to actual year Potassium-Argon dating Decay of potassium unto argon (in volcanic layers) K40 Ar40 Can go pretty darn far back Argon-Argon dating Taking K39 and converting that into Ar39 (unnaturally) and comparing that to the Ar40 Uranium series decay Decays through a series of steps (radiometric) that doesn't require volcanic material Helped a lot in South Africa

Dating etc

Absolute dating = produce approximate absolute dates Don't need relationship to other fossils; not all radiometric but when say it, include R.A. Radiometric techniques = use radioactive decay Non-radiometric techniques = do not use radioactive decay

First appearances of AMH

Africa ~200,000 y BP (300,000 maybe?) Asia ~90,000 y BP Europe ~32,000 y BP By 25,000 y BP only AMH exist

Infectious Disease Increases

Agriculture --> Sedentary --> Population Crowding--> Infection spreads Bone trauma--> staph bacteria enters: Periosteal reaction (bone buildup) General increase in Holocene Tuberculosis: Moves outside lungs --> can affect spine Treponemal diseases--> Syphilis, Yaws

Risks of Defining Paleospecies: Allometry

Allometry: study of the change in proportions of various parts of an organism as a consequence of growth Fossils may appear to be different species due to different morphological proportions When they are really the same species at different stages of growth Could be a child when you think it's an adult for example

Ardipithecus Kadabba

Also discovered in Awash River Valley (Ethiopia) 5.8 - 5.6 mya (older than Ardi) Fragments of mandible, teeth, postcranium Primitive Traits: Intermediate Honing Complex Peri-honing = some polishing on lower premolar Also have wear on tips (Human like) and thin enamel (chimp like) Derived Traits Proximal ends of distal phalanges are dorsally canted Associated with "toeing off" during bipedalism

Crushing rather than slicing

Apes use their upper canine and lower premolars to cut and shred food Honing = sharp, slicing edge Humans use molars to crush food Diet not as plant-heavy

Multi-regional Continuity Model

Archaics in Africa, Europe, and Asia all evolved into AMH in those areas Emphasizes gene flow (admixture) between African, European, Asian populations We Should Expect to Find: 1. Early AMH in all regions 2. Intermediates between archaics and AMH in all regions 3. No chronological overlap between archiacs and their descendant AMH in a given region 4. Gradual transitions in all regions of: a. Anatomy b. Genetics c. Artifacts

Why bipedalism/What did early bipeds look like?

Ardi's Discoverer, Owen Lovejoy, claims Male Provisioning Reduction of canine = less sexual dimorphism = Monogamy? Not much competing/fighting for mates because of this reduction of canines Potential Bias: Owen Lovejoy invented this hypothesis in 1981! What did early Bipedalism look like? Obligate biped; fully extended limbs VS Stern, Susman, and Jungers: "Bent hip, bent knee" bipedalism Bent hip, bent knee increases mechanical cost by 80% and recovery time from heat load by 150%

Sex estimation

(Not gender) Males up to 20% more robust than females Most extreme differences in skull* and pelvis* Skull: brow ridge, chin, mastoid process, nuchal crest more protruding Pelvis: bigger pelvis in males; female pelvis is wider (childbirth), their cavity is 90 degrees and men's cavity is less than 90 degrees

What is domestication?

Control of the reproduction and/or growth cycles of animals/plants Artificial selection for desired traits Productivity and predictability

Population growth

Current world population = about 7.3 billion people Global risk of negative health outcomes will double by 2030 Population = greatest contributing factor More than 50% of people live in cities Lack of vegetation + heat from roads and roofs = more warming Lack of sanitation Spread of infectious disease

Higher Primates (Oligocene)

Features of a higher primate Shortened snout Postorbital plate is closed Small eye orbits relative to skull First "monkeys" Parapithecus - like platyrrhine? dental formula of 2.1.3.3 Proliopithecus - like catarrhine? dental formula 2.1.2.3; Y-5 molars; sexual dimorphism

Prefrontal Cortex: higher cognitive functions

Larger and more branches than predicted for humans based on body size Intellect Complex learning Recall Working memory Personality All ^^ these associated with human culture

Au. Africanus: Derived Robust Features

Larger molars and premolars, smaller incisors and canines Compared to ancestor Au. Afarensis More scratches than pits compared to descendent Au. Robustus Mixed diet of tough/soft (leaves, fruit) and hard (nut, seeds) Elevation of tooth surface

La Chappelle-aux-Saints Cave, France

Late date: 60,000 y BP Old man of La Chapelle Brian size = 1625 cc Ear canal inflammation Severe osteoarthrosis Damaged hip Healed rib fracture Lost most cheek teeth Needed food chewed Caregiving?

Low income = most vulnerable

Less access to protein and fiber Saturated fat and sugar is cheaper Food deserts = lack access to meat, vegetables, fruit

Really:

Likely that a number of these ^^^ factors contributed to bipedalism We don't have one good hypothesis yet

Stone Tools in Africa

Material diversification Heat-treatment at 72,000 y BP Transformed poor quality silcrete into easily shaped material

Mousterian Tool Complex

Middle Paleolithic ~300,000 - 30,000 y BP Invented by early archaics Replaced Acheulain Complex Levallois technique Chip edges off core Strike tool from one Plain tool shape = advanced cognitive ability; manual dexterity

Early Archaic: Homo Sapiens

Mixture of earlier Homo erectus and later anatomically modern human (AMH) traits Appeared in Africa, Asia, and Europe around 350,000 y BP Homo erectus and sapiens and even Neanderthal all alive at same time Or 600,000 y BP if you reclassify some Homo erectus

Neanderthals culture

Modern Myth: Neandertals were primitive; not really true Hunting and complex tools Symbolic behavior Intentional burial of the dead Ornamentation Housing shelters Clothing Language Admixture with AMH Will cover in AMH lecture

Genetic Dating

Molecular Clock- rate of mutation in DNA for a species # base pairs mutated per 1 million years Number of differences between a species Years since those species diverged

Risks of Defining Paleospecies: sexual dimorphism

Morphologically different fossils may be male and female examples of the same species

Steno's Law of Superposition

Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686) The lower the layer of rock, the earlier in time it was deposited The top layer is younger where the lowest layer is oldest Limestone mudstone sandstone Lower layers are older and contain other fossils Higher layers are younger and contain younger fossils Which skull is the oldest? Y looks older than

Carbon-14 dating

Organic material (e.g. wood, shell, bone, teeth) Absorb C14 by breathing small amounts of atmospheric CO2 Every 5,730 years (half-life of C14; starts decaying) Half of C14 N14 C12 does not decay We know original C14 to C12 ratio at death Same as ratio in atmosphere and living things Atmospheric ratio fairly constant over time Lower ratio = older thing Specimen C14 to C12 ratio Compare to original C14 to C12 ratio See how much C14 has decayed How many half lives it took to decay Useful for dating materials 50,000 y BP to 1950 AD

Male Provisioning Hypothesis

Owen Lovejoy Male provides food and resources to female and offspring Bipedal = male can carry food back to family while female has more offspring Problem: assumes monogamous pairs evolved prior to bipedalism

Timeline review

Paleocene (Primate characteristic) True Primates (Eocene) Oligocene (Monkeys) Miocene (Apes)

Facial Recognition

Pegs set to represent muscle thickness at twenty-one landmark areas markers supposed to indicate where muscles would be etc., then start building onto those markers Based on average values for a person of that age, sex, ancestry Abnormalities, muscle attachment roughness Clay models of facial muscles added Lips= about as wide as distance between pupils Nose Length= marker #5 Depth x 3(Length of Nasal Spine) Nose Bridge= based on Markers #2 and #3

Patchy Forest Hypothesis

Peter Rodman and Henry McHenry Savannah-like environment at the end of the Miocene Grasslands; food more dispersed Bipedalism = hands free Gather food more efficiently Travel longer distances because more energy efficient

Rapid Migration

Probably a single founding population of ~800 individuals Rapid migration shown by uniform distribution of haplotypes across the Americas

Homo Heidlebergensis: Evolved from Homo Erectus

Reduction in skeletal robusticity + tooth size Increase in brain size + cultural complexity Homo erectus ~1000 cc Archaic homo sapiens ~1200 cc Modern homo sapiens ~1350 cc

Trade of Cultural Objects

Shell "beds" in Morocco (North Africa) = 82,000 y BP Found more than 25 miles from their origin in the Mediterranean Sea Wear patterns = suspended, some covered in red ochre By 40,000 y BP transport/trade of shells over 310 miles

Brain evolution Occurred alongside other morphological changes

Skull enlargement To hold a bigger brain Developmental/ Pelvic changes To birth infants with larger brains Finer motor control of hands For writing and toolmaking Lower larynx and finger tongue control For speech production

Why was it worth the pain?

Slipped disks; lower back pain; weak and exposed abdomen; obstetric difficulties; weak knees; varicose veins; fallen arches

Environmental Degradation

Soil erosion Overgrazing Destruction of native vegetation Reduction in biodiversity (variation in life forms) needed to maintain the ecosystem Many eastern Mediterranean towns abandoned at 6000 BC Climate drying Goat overgrazing

Back to 600,000 y BP in Africa?

Some paleoanthropologists consider the* Bodo cranium (Homo erectus) to be an Archaic Homo sapiens First representative fossil of archaic homo sapiens/ homo heidlebergensis Middle Awash, Ethiopia Where we found Ardi and afarensis and erectus Brain = 1250 cc

Mitochondrial "Eve" (~200,000 y BP)

The woman whose mt*DNA has descendant mt*DNA in every living human Other people from that time have living descendants, but are not the origin of mt*DNA of all people

Enamel thickness

Thick enamel allows humans to eat harder foods (seeds/nuts) Also seen in orangutans, who eat tougher foods

Cerebellum - automatic functions

Think muscle memory Receives brain info about what muscles are supposed to do Receives sensory info about what muscles actually do Corrects muscles if necessary Maintains balance and posture Cerebellum is enlarged in humans Smooth overhand throwing when hunting Finer motor control for tool-making

Why did primates emerge?

Three hypotheses Arboreal hypothesis Visual predation hypothesis Angiosperm radiation hypothesis

Forces Shaping Our World

What will affect us in the future? 1. Climate 2. Population Growth 3. Diet

Practice Question

Ardi's intermediate form of bipedalism included the use of: moving along tree branches using her palms and feet Each of the following traits is found in a bipedal hominin: a bowl shaped pelvis, a non-divergent hallux, a femur that angles inwards at the knee Fossils: can be formed through the mineralization of organic material Lucy and the Laetoli footprints are associated from which australopithecine species? Hint: this species lived from 3.6 -3 mya in East Africa: Aus. Afarensis Orrorin Tugenensis and Sahelanthropus tchandensis: Had apelike brains but were bipedal (small brains) both from Africa Which of the following statements is true about the sagittal crest: The sagittal crest is not found in modern humans What is the difference between radiocarbon dating and potassium-argon dating? radiocarbon dating is used for organic materials while potassium-argon dating is used for rocks Only bun was a Neanderthal- for occipital torus

Who owns the remains?

Army Corps of Engineers tried to repatriate the remains to an alliance of five Northwest tribes (Umatilla, Yakima, Nez Perce, Wanapum, Colville) "Our oral history goes back 10,000 years. We know how time began and how Indian people were created" - Umatilla leader Armad Minthorn Religious beliefs about the dead Eight scientists sued the US government for the remains 9th circuit courts of appeals rejected repatriation because tribes could not show any evidence of kinship Remains stored (not displayed) in Burke Museum at University of Washington by court order

Proconsulids (Miocene - associated with apes)

Arose in East Africa Much more diverse than modern apes 10 genera with 15 species Ancestor Propliopithecids already had: 2.1.2.3 dental formula; flat incisors; Y-5 molars; large brains; some sexual dimorphism New in Proconsul Well-developed canine honing complex Tooth wear some ate nuts and leaves as well as fruit "dental apes" because bodies still very monkey-like, despite all other ape traits Proconsul has a monkey-like post cranium (arboreal quadruped) Forelimbs not longer than hindlimbs; about equal size Shoulder and wrist not very mobile Elbows cannot be fully extended Small hands No suspensory locomotion or knuckle-walking like modern apes

Stable Isotope Analysis

Atom determined by number of protons ***Isotopes= atoms with different numbers of neutrons Stable isotopes used in archeology include oxygen, nitrogen, strontium, hydrogen, sulfur, lead, and many other elements that are processed by plants and animals (stable can help tell us what people were eating) Isotopes are everywhere in the environment Incorporated into the tissues animals through their eating, drinking, and breathing Death stops replacement of tissues Bones - can show the last 10-15 years of life Teeth- environment and conditions of early life, when teeth formed Hair and fingernails - will show the last few months Blood and skin - decay quickly and prone to contamination

Subadult Age: Epiphyseal Fusion

Based on age at which the epiphyses (ends) of long bones fuse to the shift

Subadult Age: Dental Development

Based on root formation, crown formation, and tooth eruption easier to get subadult age from this

Adult Age: Tooth Wear

Best for comparing series of individual from the same population and time period Since tooth wear will vary based on diet and dental care can only get a rough age range with this, not as accurate as with subadults

Argon-Argon dating

Better than K-Ar dating K39 appears in same amount in igneous rock as K40 Also 1.3 billion year half life Nuclear reactor bombards K39 with neutrons Converts it into Ar39 Measure Ar40 to Ar39 ratio Advantages Less rock needed Don't need to measure potassium

Morphological indicator of biped: Femur

Bipedal: valgus** knee; Bicondylar angle of femur and knee less than 90* Keeps our weight over two legs Quadruped ape: varus* knee; angle of femur and knee is ~90* Allows weight distribution over four legs Valgus is like bowed in and varus is like bowed out Keeps knee and foot in line with center of gravity = balance Caused by longer femoral neck Longer femoral neck = pushes proximal femur out = valgus knee* Causes increased stress on hip joint Larger femoral head used to absorb stress Femur Anterior (characteristics of Lucy) Knee type? Valgus (like humans) Femoral neck length? Long (like humans) Femoral head size? Small (like chimps); mosaic evolution

Persistence Hunting

Bipedalism is more efficient than quadrupedalism A quadruped has speed but a biped has endurance Chase until the quadruped prey collapses Long legs and dully extended hips and knees Potentially loss of body hair = more sweating

Trauma Types (3)

Blunt Force Trauma Depression Lesion Transverse (One Piece) Comminuted (more than one piece) Sharp Force Trauma Contact with sharp instruments causes straight edged lesions Incised Wounds- wider than deep Chop wounds - heavy sharp weapons Trench-like Stab/Puncture Wounds - deeper than wide Ballistic Trauma Entry: Round, smooth shape Exit: larger than entry, beveled surface

Krapina 3 (Croatia)

Brain size = 1,225 cc Cut marks not same cannibalism? Ineffective at removing meat Scored forehead 35 times Symbolic?

Brain stem - automatic function

Brain stem = Midbrain; Pons; Medulla Oblongata Startle response: turns the head, blinks eyes, moves body in response to sudden noise or movement Breathing rhythm Regulation of heart rate and blood pressure Vomiting, swallowing, coughing, hiccupping, sneezing

The first Primate in the New World

Branisella (~26 mya - Late Oligocene) Found in Bolivia Platyrrhine characteristics: Three premolars (2.1.3.3) Low, rounded molar cusps Frugivore?

Temporal Lobe

Broca's Area: controls muscles that produce speech Broca's Aphasia: comprehend speech but problems producing Wernicke's Area: comprehends and plans speech Wernicke's Aphasia: produce speech but incomprehensible - "word salad"

Controlled use of fire 460,000-230,000 y BP

Burned items: Animal bones, stone tools, plants, charcoal, ash, ostrich egg shells, seeds Why fire? Expansion into cool regions Releases more nutrients through heating/ easier chewing Cooking = reduction in tooth/ jaw size

Carbon: Diet

C4- plants that originated in subtropical areas (C4 is how many times it went through the carbon cycle to get fixed) Maize, sorghum, *sugarcane, and millet Higher ratios of C13 to C12 than in C3 plants C3- broader range of environments Rice, wheat, rye, barely, cassava, potatoes, algae, spinach, yams Lower ratios of C13 and C12 Measure ratio of C13 to C12 to look at diet of individuals Problem: can't tell if people are eating the plants (e.g. corn) or the animals that eat the plants (e.g. corn-eating deer)

Dental Caries (Cavities)

Carbohydrates] build up on teeth fermented by bacteria Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus acidophilus Produces lactic acid Demineralizes dental tissues Can cause secondary infections death Common after agricultural cereals (carbs)

Dental Pathology

Caries = Cavities Calculus: Mineralized Plaque

Sahelanthropus Tchadensis

Chad, Central Africa (discovered 2001) 7-6 mya Named after Sahel region of Sahara Lived in forest near lake No post cranial remains found! Primitive Traits: Small brain (~350 cc) Chimps (~350 cc) VS Humans (1,450 cc) Massive brow ridge BUT- less prognathic (prognathic - the expansion and enlargement of mouth area; apes have this because the mouth "pops out") than an ape Humans- the brain has grown and moved backwards so our mouth has moved backwards Derived Traits: Foramen Magnum more anteriorly placed Non-honing chewing complex Implied by small canines with wear on top Enamel thicker than chimps but less than Australopithecines - intermediate

Upper Paleolithic Cultures of Europe

Chauvet Cave art; Figurines; Mammoth Bone Pit House; Lithic Blades; Bone Harpoons

Faster Prenatal Growth = smaller less complex brains

Chimpanzees are born with brains that are 40% of their adult size Growth slows after birth 80% of adult size at age 1 Humans are born with brains that are 25% of their adult size Rapid growth after birth 50% of adult size at age 1 95% of adult size at age 10

Morphological indicator of biped: Limb Length

Chimps have longer arms than legs Humans have longer legs than arms (only by a little though) Lucy more like a quadruped in her limb length, but still biped

Au. Africanus: Derived Features

Clearly bipedal Anterior foramen magnum; wide and short pelvis; valgus knee; adducted, long hallux

Osteoarthritis

Common in populations doing a lot of manual labor Breakdown of cartilage covering the joints with use and age Marginal Osteophyte: new bone around margins of joint Eburnation: joint surfaces polished from rubbing together without cartilage covering

Darwin's Hunting Hypothesis

Darwin observed that humans have Bipedality Tiny canines Tool use Large brains Bipedalism was naturally selected so that hominin hands would be free to carry tools and weapons for hunting Problem? Tool use (2.6 mya) Increased brain size (2.0 mya) Hunting (1.0 mya) Appeared much later than bipedalism (6.0 mya)!

Stature Estimation

Depends on sex and ancestry! use long bones in a formula (Titter or Tiller??) environment and genetics affect it and stature can show health (affected during growth and development)

Traits of Ardi

Derived Traits: Teeth Non-honing chewing complex Small, blunt canines Thicker enamel than apes But not as thick as later hominins Derived Traits: Anterior foramen magnum Lumbar curve = S-shaped spine Derived Traits: Femur Legs and arms about same length (similar to Lucy) Lost longer ape arms Muscle attachments on proximal femur Intermediate between apes and Australopithecis afarensis Derived Traits: Shorter, Broader Pelvis Ardi's pelvis is still taller and narrower than Lucy's pelvis Primitive Traits: Feet Medial cuneiform (a tarsal) has a rounded articular surface with the metatarsal of the hallux = Opposable Hallux Diverged - sticks out not like ours Shows that they probably spent a good amount of time in trees Is straight like ours in Lucy only a million years later Also lacks longitudinal arch foot Derived: foot too rigid to grasp tree branches, unlike apes Bipedal propulsion forward (not the same bipedalism as humans) Primitive Traits: Hands Curved phalanges Lacks metacarpal grooves for knuckle walking Could support nearly all body weight on palms = moved on palms of hands and feet while in tree branches Ardi's Arborealism Ardipithecines: Palmigrade tree climber + Terrestrial Biped

No definite Phylogeny

Difficult to define boundaries of species by morphology: Australopithecines did not very much compared to other mammals Splitters = new species when there is anatomical variation Lumpers = combine morphologically similar variants into single species One "splitter" taxonomy (American Museum of Natural History) One "lumper" taxonomy (Larsen Textbook) Anthropologists also disagree on which Australopithecines are in the human lineage, and which are just dead ends!

Primate extension is limited

Distally oriented ischia (tailbone) prevent further extension of the hamstring Ability to extend knee and hip in humans Reduces stress on joints Less muscle needed to keep bipedal posture 75% less energetically costly than terrestrial quadrupedalism in chimps

Plesiadapiforms (Paleocene)

Diverse mammals emerged at start of Paleocene (~65 mya) May have been the first primates More likely ancestors to true primates Most extinct by Eocene (56 mya) No post orbital bar Arboreal Some species do have the petrosal auditory bulla (specialized hearing apparatus) Abundant in the Paleocene, right before Primates No other fossils that are potential candidates!

Cenozoic Era (65 mya - present) **

Divided into Epochs: (know which epoch is associated with what) Paleocene (66mya) - Mammals Eocene (55mya) - Primates Oligocene (34mya) - Monkeys Miocene (23 mya) - Apes Pliocene (5.3 mya) - Hominins Pleistocene (1.8 mya) - Genus Homo Holocene (11,000 ya) - Modern Human

Drawing Conclusions from the Skull

Draws conclusions based on one individual, despite scope human variation Ancient DNA; could not be analyzed for many years Dental analysis, craniofacial evidence, body size said to be most closely related to Polynesians and to indigenous Ainu of Japan

Why are so many fossils in caves?

Dropped or dragged into cave by predator Floods, landslides fill cave with sediments

Interbreeding with Neanderthals?

Earliest AMH = 35,000 y BP 43,000 y BP maxilla fragment from Kent's Cavern, UK? Neandertals survived until at least 32,000 y BP in Vindija, Croatia Eurasians and Neandertals share 1-4% of nuclear DNA Neandertals disappeared due to assimilation into AMH population?

Paleoindians

Earliest habitation/artifacts at 11,500 y BP Clovis and Folsom projectile points Large, fluted, bifacial stone used as spear points for big game hunting Mammoth, steppe bison, reindeer, caribou (megafauna)

AMH Cranial Features

Early archaic Homo sapien Average ~1200 cc Long, low skull More sloping forward Occipital = bony ridge Thicker bone Anatomically Modern Human Average ~1350 cc Brain sits higher Rounded, vertical forehead Loss of boney ridge Thinner bone Supraorbital torus becomes smaller Flatter, smaller zygomatics Finally have a chin! Less prognathic; smaller teeth We are much more gracile now because we eat softer foods (due to cooking)

Evidence for bent-knee bent-hip in Pre-Homo Hominins?

Early hominins have thicker femurs than both humans and chimps Early hominin locomotion more stressful on bone than upright bipedalism or terrestrial quadrupedalism Maybe it was the stress of Bent-Hip, Bent-Knee Bipedalism?

Earths temperature is increasing

Earth's Temperature is Increasing Increase of 1.3 degrees F in Earth's temperature in the last century Melting Ice and Snow Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania; ice shrunk by 85% over last century Causes Rise in Sea Levels 12cm (5in) within last century Wildly Fluctuating Weather Patterns Heat waves (potentially lethal) Shifting precipitation patterns = Drying in the American Southwest and Midwest, northern Mexico, Caribbean, Mediterranean Sea region Loss of biodiversity and food sources Return to Dust Bowl in American Southwest by mid-21st century?

Orrorin Tugenesis

East Africa: Tugen Hills, Kenya 6 mya Mandible fragments, teeth, postcranial ~20 fossils from at least 5 individuals Derived characteristics Long femoral neck with groove for obturator externus muscle Bipedal BUT- proximal phalange is curved, suggesting time spent in trees Non-honing canines Small teeth with thick enamel Thicker than Ardipithecus ramidus and living apes Similar to Australopithecines

Australopithecines ("Southern Apes")

Eastern and Southern Africa; 4.1 -1.0 mya bipeds; small canines; large premolars/molars Small brained ~350-500 cc Small bodied ~64-100 lbs.

What is a "Robust" Australopithecine?

Emphasized chewing muscles Emphasized Nuchal Crest Where the sagittal crest meets the nuchal crest at the back of skull Emphasized in gracile too, but larger in some robust australopithecines More Vertical Face Intermediate prognathism; some have larger supraorbital torus Gracile have more prognathism Large Chewing Surfaces Gracile have larger anterior teeth but Robust - larger premolars and molars Dietary Hypothesis Based on dental microwear Gracile Lager anterior teeth relative to cheek teeth Omnivorous Robust Deep jaws; large check teeth; hard seeds and nuts Robusts had heavy reliance on grasses (up to 80% of diet) Low quality and requires lots of grinding

How can we measure brain evolution?

Encephalization Quotient (EQ) Encephalization - the growing of the brain The ratio of a species' actual brain size to predicted brain size Predictions are based on comparisons of brain size and body mass for large numbers of mammals Species with an EQ above 1.00 have a larger brain size than predicted for their body mass Apes tend to have an EQ larger than 1.00 EQ increases through human evolution Australopithecus afarensis (4.0 mya) was EQ 2.5 Homo sapiens today are EQ 5.8 Three or more times the size of a chimp's brain

The Holocene

End of Pleistocene: Cold, dry climate Intensive exploitation of fish and shellfish Holocene Begins at 11,700 y BP: warm, wet climate; becomes very stable Plant and animal domestication***** * huuuuge change from everything before before this time it' only been hunter/gather societies

Malocclusion

Environment (food)--> reduction in face/jaw robusticity and size Genetics --> tooth growth Jaw shrinks faster than teeth--> tooth crowding (malocclusion) not growing properly in the jaw and displace teeth from correct alignment

Geologic Timescale (context only)

Eons Eras Periods Epochs Major life forms emerged during the Phanerozoic Eon, which has three Eras Paleozoic Mesozoic - era of reptiles and dinosaurs Cenozoic - get to mammals Cover last 545 million years (earth formed 4.6 billion years ago*) Tectonic drift dived Pangea (~200 mya/ Mesozoic) Atlantic Ocean forms (~150 mya/ Mesozoic) Most Continents Separate, but still out of modern position (~70mya/ Mesozoic) Aka: Africa and South America separated before NWM and OWM were a thing End of Mesozoic: Asteroid hit Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico Crater more than 180km (110 miles) across Megatsunamis, Earthquakes; triggered Volcanic Eruptions Dust blocks sun = cooling, plants suffer Cenozoic (65 mya) "Age of Mammals" Extinction of non-avian dinosaurs and many Mesozoic animals Mammals spread and adapt to open ecological niches

Neanderthals

Europe and West Asia 130,000 - 30,000 y BP Species or Subspecies Anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens Neanderthals Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Cranial capacity larger than AMH N = 1200-1750 cc and AMH = 12200 - 1500 cc Some Neandertals with very large brains

Euprimates (Eocene)

First true primates *** Rapid temperature increase ~55mya Increase in tropical habitats Adaptive radiation of Euprimates Postorbital bar and convergent eye orbits (stereoscopic vision) Long, opposable digits grasping ability Nails rather than claws Large brain relative to body size Look very similar to lemurs!

What are Fossils?

Fossil = the remains of organisms that have been transformed into rock through chemical replacement Calcium/phosphate in bone rock forming minerals (iron/silica) Bones and teeth = 99% of fossil record **Bone = 65% mineral **Teeth = 95% mineral (will make up more fossils than bone) Any mineral - means they're really easy to fossilize

Earliest hominins

Found in Central and East Africa starting at ~7 mya (Late Miocene) Goes against idea that we come from south Africa Genetic dating shows that chimps and humans split about 8-10 mya

Summarizing changes over time

Geographic morphological variability Sagittal keel missing in Dmansi, rare in Africa Brain size increase 650 cc (Dmansi) 1200 cc (Zhoukoudian average) Decrease in skull thickness/ supraorbital torus size Increase in early Homo erectus Decrease in later Homo erectus Decrease in tooth size Cooking, tools for processing food

Asia: the Sivapithecids (14-8 mya /Miocene)

Gigantopithecus (~8mya - 500,000 ya) The Largest Primate** 10 ft tall, 660 lbs (330kg) Limited to terrestrial activities Seed and nut eater - thick enamel, robust jaw Khoratpithecus (~9-6 mya) More likely orangutan ancestor Broad front teeth, canines with flat surface on tongue side Body size and functions to move around in trees like orangutans

Australopithecus Africanus: Primitive Features

Gives rise to robust Australopithecines, but cranium is gracile No sagittal crest, rounded cranial vault Small body ~4 feet tall Small brain = 450 cc Due to slightly larger brain and gracile traits, originally was considered Homo ancestor

Climate

Global warming: the increase in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and sea in response to the greenhouse effect Spike of 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit in the last century

The Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases = coal particles, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide Deforestation and farming also contribute

Linear Enamel Hypoplasia

Grooves in tooth enamel Tooth growth stops due to nutritional or disease stress- get linear lines on the teeth (linear enamel hypoplasia) Spacing of grooves may correspond to the length of the stress Surface grooves: Record ages (1-7 or 1-13 [3rd molar])

Could both ^^ theories be right?

Hard to tell in fossils Most organisms that die are not fossilized Gradual transitions may not be preserved Theories may be combined Advantageous mutation spreads rapidly (punctuated equilibrium) Gradually modified to fit environment even better (gradualism)

Shan Idea I (Iraq)

Healed fracture on the left eye orbit = blindness? Damaged left side of brain Withered right arm Amputated or severed arm above elbow = humerus atrophies Severe arthritis in feet Healed fracture on right metatarsal (foot) Lived to age 35-45 Caretaking by group? Used front teeth as a tool

Biombos Cave, South Africa

Heat treatment; engraved bone blades; ochre processing; shell beads; engraved ochre all older than 50,000 years ago

Cerebrum: motor/sensory functions

High functions (cerebrum midbrain pons medulla oblongata) Cerebral cortex folding is increased in humans More surface area = more room for neuron connections More connected: underlying white matter is 41% greater in prefrontal cortex than predicted from human body mass Different senses are located in different "lobes" of the cerebrum Frontal Motor movement and smell Temporal Hearing and speech planning Parietal Touch and taste Occipital Vision

Mosaic Evolution

Hominin features appeared at different times, not all at once Early hominins have: Shared primitive (ancestral) traits Shared derived (newly-evolved) traits

Dental features of Hominins

Hominin: Non-Honing Chewing Complex Canines wear on tips, not backs More parabolic shape of teeth Ape: Canine-Premolar Honing Complex Diastema, honing facets Chimps have a more "U" shape of teeth

Early Gregorian Homo Erectus: Primitive Features

Homo Habilis resemblance Smaller face and jaws Less-developed supraorbital torus Earliest brain size = 650 cc Resembles early African Homo Erectus Nariokotome/Illeret Skulls Mandible/face shape Long legs compared to arms Likely descended from these early African Homo erectus

Half-life

How long it takes for ½ of the radioisotopes in a substance to decay Exponential decay 100% 50% 25% 12.5% etc. Upper limit we can date is about 50,000 years Measure ratio of C14 to C12

Ethics in Human Biology

Human growth and development Human adaption to environment Human genetics

Morphological indicator of biped: Pelvis

Human pelvis is short and wide/broad; more bowl shaped Chimp pelvis is long and narrow Lucy's pelvis looks a lot like human pelvis

Morphological indicator of biped: Vertebrae

Human vertebrae Larger from cervical to lumbar More weight the lower you go Non-human apes 1 less vertebra Vertebrae all similar sizes Do not support increasing weight

Morphological indicator of biped: Spine

Humans have S-shaped spinal cords; non-human apes have C-shaped

Humans extend limbs more when bipedal

Humans have a larger maximum knee extension (end of stance) And a large maximum hip extension (end of stance)

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Strontium: Migration

Hydrogen and Oxygen isotope ratios in water vary with temperature and climate Determine if an individual moved to different geographic areas during their lifetime Determine if two or more people are from the same area, drinking the same water Strontium - found primarily in volcanic rocks and soils Erodes and filters into food and water Isotopes ratios vary between geographic locations

How do we know past climate?

Ice cores in Antarctica, Arctic Ocean, glaciers Snow forming at warmed temperatures has higher levels of oxygen isotope O18 compared to O16 Elevated O18 levels in last 50 years relative to O16 Last 50 years = warmest period in last 2,000 years Warmest part of the entire Holocene in some places

Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) Dating

Igneous rock** = argon gas driven off by volcanic heat All K40 solid all Ar40 gas Proton neutron Half life of 1.3 billion years Ratio of K40 to Ar40 Rocks older than 200,000 years* Potassium decays into Argon

Living longer

In US, about 30 years longer than people in 1900 After age 40 = osteoporosis begins Exacerbated by lack of physical activity Beijing, China (2002-2007) Hip fractures in people over age 50 tripled

What sets Homo apart?

Increased brain size Larger brain proportional to body size Brain sits higher in cranium Rounded, high forehead (still sloping) Reduced prognathism Clear tool use Smaller teeth Complete loss of diastema Thicker enamel

Plant domestication

Increased seed size Hard rachis does not shatter (wind won't blow the seeds away)

What changes to brain took place in primates?

Increased visual discrimination Stereoscopic vision Reduced olfactory bulb Reduced reliance on smell Enlarged primary motor complex Tactile discrimination Enlarged neocortex Higher cognitive functions

Risks of Defining Paleospecies: interspecies variation

Interbreeding-capable individuals may look very different Environmental adaptations Random Neutral Variation (Drift, Migration, Mutation) Pathology or Trauma

Iron Deficiency Anemia

Iron necessary for hemoglobin to transport oxygen in red blood cells (RBC) Low Iron -> produce more RBC to compensate to carry oxygen Marrow cavity expands Rare before agriculture Skeletal evidence: Pores on skull and eye sockets Eye orbits

Who owns ancient remains?

Kennewick, Washington (1996) - erosion uncovers a skull on Columbia River Coroner shows skull to anthropologist James Chatters Long, narrow cheekbones and protruding jaw European descent? Collects rest of bones CAT scan of pelvis shows a stone "Cascade" point used 9,000 to 4,500 y BP Radiocarbon Date = 9,500 to 9,200 y BP

So why farm?

Key components of evolution: Survival of the reproductive years Production of offspring Agricultural revolution: Settled lifestyle--> more frequent births Low quality of life, but very high fertility rate Also great productivity and labor specialization

Feet

Lucy doesn't have feet, but her species left behind some footprints in volcanic ash at Laetoli, Tanzania (3.6 mya) Does is have an adducted hallux and longitudinal arch? (like humans) YES- so Lucy was a biped at 3.2 million years ago; but how did bipedalism originate?

Oldowan Tool Complex

Main type = chopper Cutting, chopping, scraping Increased tool use Technologically similar in various locations

Population Density Promotes Disease

More than 25% of urban population in slums lacking sanitation Population density disrupts biodiversity Eliminates predators for disease vectors Loss of birds that eat mosquitos carrying West Nile Virus

Institutional Review Board

National Research Act (1974, USA) produced Belmont Report Autonomy (respect for persons) Beneficence Justice The Common Rule (1991, USA) Federal funding not approved without IRB oversight

NAGPRA

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) Must consult with tribes about what to do with remains found on federal land Some request return or reburial or remains Others request museum curation Federally recognized tribes may request the return of cultural items and remains from federally funded museums Tribes must be culturally affiliated with those items

DNA evidence: Native American Ancestor

New DNA Evidence (Rasmussen 2015) Kennekwick Man more closely related to Pacific Northwest Native Americans than any other living group

Europe: The Drypithecids (14-9 mya / Miocene)

New: Suspensory Locomotion Long arms; grasping feet and hands Dryopithecus France and Spain Chimp sized body and brain Similar dental traits of gorillas Ouranopithecus - resemblance to modern gorillas Large bodied (~240lbs), massive browridge

Nitrogen: Diet

Nitrogen in the atmosphere incorporated into the tissues of plants through nitrogen fixation, a process that converts nitrogen into ammonia Higher up the food chain and/or more marine animals accumulate more nitrogen-15 (seafood and mammals living in the sea have very high nitrogen ratio because of ocean water)

North and South America

Northeast Asia --> North America Over Bering land bridge connecting Siberia and Alaska Or by sea along deglaciated Pacific coastline

Animal Domestication

Not aggressive --> select for more juvenile traits Increased size (meat) Increased wool production we control for things we want to see in the future (selecting for things like less aggressive animals; increase size [more meat], also things like wool and milk)******** one of the first domesticated animals was dogs

Diet

Nutrition Transition = shift to a higher carb, higher fat diet Also in developing countries

How are Hominins different from apes?

Obligate (pre-Homo) ~7-6mya Bipedal locomotion Non-honing chewing complex Appeared Later (Homo species) Significant brain size increase ~2 mya Complex material culture ~2.6 mya Speech ~2 mya for proto-speech Ex: Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 mya)

Distribution of Primates

On every continent aside from Australia and Antarctica

Law of Superposition: Exceptions

Original Horizontality Tilting Folding Faulting Intrusion Erosion Older layer space now filled with younger rock A layer is younger than any layer it cuts across 1. Stratigraphic Correlation a. Identify a layer based on its physical and chemical composition b. Order of layers determined by looking at many sites c. Paraconformity i. A layer representing time was eroded away or not deposited at a site 2. Biostratigraphy a. Index Fossils - you know their dates i. First and last appearance ii. And/or morphological change iii. Ex: East Africa has tons of volcanoes and South Africa really doesn't 1. Blue Antelope, existed both places lets say 1 mya 2. Can use volcanic info KAr to get idex fossil date 3. Know that fossils included in this East African found with that species in their fossil site- can conclude they're from the same time frame so can say those two layers are the same layer 4. Say you find a hominin included in that same layer in South Africa so now can date that thing too b. Rock containing an index fossil must fall within that date range c. Irish Elk died out 10,600 y BP in northern Europe 3. Cultural Dating a. Material culture produced by humans also has known date ranges b. Rock contains artifact = falls within date range of that artifact

Trauma and Pathology: Fractures (when did they happen?)

Pre-mortem: Smooth edges (distal femur) Callus (precedes remodeling) Peri-mortem would be the death blow most likely or happened at same time Sharp edges (skull) No callus (rib) Post-mortem? sharp edges

Arboreal hypothesis

Primate traits - arboreal adaptations Grasping hands and feet Stereoscopic vision Greater intelligence for 3D space Movement from life on the ground to life in the trees Problem: other arboreal mammals (squirrels, etc.) lack these traits First one proposed: Sir Grafton Elliot Smith and Frederic Wood Jones

Visual predation hypothesis

Primate traits were adaptations to hunting insects and other small prey Hunted in trees and forest undergrowth Needed specialized visual apparatus and grasping digits Problem: many primates eat non-moving foods such a fruit and leaves Matt Cartmill

Risk of Habituation

Primatologists often study behavior by observing primates in the field Habituation: Primates become used to the presence of people Less likely to avoid poachers Must decide what is best for the long term interests of the primate

Review Qs

Processes that happen to an organism after its death - Taphonomy (allllll processes) Largest primate to ever live- gigantopithecus Not a relative dating method - dendrochronology (not relative; gives absolute range using trees) "dental" apes - dentition is similar to modern apes, but postcranial anatomy (everything below the skull) was most similar to that of a monkey Strata are: layers of rock and sediment Rafting hypothesis: is one explanation of how platyrrhines arrived in the Americas Changes to radioactive carbon atoms during decay Carbon 14 decays into a nitrogen 14????

Why do fossils matter?

Provide direct physical evidence of past life forms and their evolution Time Chronological order allows for an understanding of biological change over time Environment Understand factors that have shaped evolution in the past Study of fossils = Paleontology

Paleomagnetic Dating

Random reversals of Earth's magnetic field Normal vs Reserved North-South polarity Can see this reversal through the metals in the earth (like a compass) Metal grains align with magnetic field as they settle into sedimentary rock Find sections of the cores and see which way they were turned and for how long Banding pattern matched to fossil collection (cores) Date sedimentary rocks younger than 5 mya

Potential Causes

Rapid shift to suitable environment Late Pleistocene -- cool, dry, and highly variable Early Holocene -- warm, wet, and stable Sustain growing population: Higher food yield per unit of land Store food for long periods Flexibility

Craniofacial Changes

Reduction in size of the face and jaws Skull--> shorter and taller Masticatory-functional hypothesis: -David Carlson and Dennis Van Gerven -Shift from hard foods to soft (cooked) foods -Ceramics for boiling/cooking -Decreased demands on the chewing muscles

Two forms of dating

Relative Dating What is the order of fossils? Based on relationship with fossils or other artifacts Absolute Dating What is the approximate age of a fossil? Does not require other fossils

Review: Earliest Hominins

Sahelanthropus tchanensis 7-6 mya Central Africa Derived: Less prognathic; Anterior foramen magnum = bipedal; non-honing chewing; thicker enamel Orrorin tugenensis 6 mya East Africa Derived: Long femoral neck + groove = Bipedal; non-honing chewing; thick enamel Ardipithecus species 5.8 - 4.4 mya East Africa Derived: Bipedal femur, pelvis, foramen magnum; intermediate hands/feet = also arboreal; non/peri-honing; thin/thick enamel

Hunters or Scavengers?

Scavenging =taking animal already killed by carnivores Olduvai Gorge - cutmarks on top of animal bite marks Hunting = first to kill animal (by ~1.5 mya) Middle Awash, Ethiopia: Hippopotamus Kenya: Hippo, baboon, elephant, and more Capacity for hunting Larger brain = organize hunting group Long legs = persistence hunting New stone tools

Trends in AMH Dispersal

Significant increase in population size Movement into more extreme environments (deserts, northern Europe and Siberia) Increased cultural means of adaptation

Review process of fossilization

Something dies, animal starts decaying process and gets covered over by sediment; over time you get lots of layers and more compression and either replacement process or permineralization process happens and those bones become rock; to find them we need to happen upon them, or erosion to surface them Taphonomy: anything that happens to the remains of a dead organism (decay, external process, fossilization, weathering etc) Morphological species concept: start with similar traits between fossils, then work backwards to find connection 4 big problems looking at species in the fossil records: Sexual dimorphism; allometry; pathology; intra-species variation Permineralization - material seeps down into bones in the ground and actually turns those bones into rock (still have hydroxyapatite part); a supplement to the bones Remains covered by sediment and pressure pushing down but leaves spaces for the bones to implement and then the bones go away- replacement process

What can Bioarcheology tell us?

Sometimes can identify specific people: Historical descriptions/images Ex: Richard III of England 1485 Demographic Age Structure Birth and death rates Relationship to subsistence, mobility, cultural practices Nutritional/Health Differences Infer through height, pathology Changes in subsistence Socioeconomic divisions Classes, sex, social groups

Effective Hunting

Stable isotope analysis = meat products in diet match carnivores Starch grains in molar plaque = some plants Right arm has more muscle attachments Spear thrusting, not throwing = ambush hunters

Thermoregulation Hypothesis

Stand upright = reduced exposure to solar radiation Wind blows heat off of head Regulation of body temperature Problem: less useful in woodlands, where humans first evolved

Where is human consciousness?

Stedman's Medical Dictionary: "the state of being aware, or perceiving physical or mental concepts" Memories and ideas about different sensations are located in different lobes (skilled movement; basic movement; sensation; visual recognition; vision; balance and muscle coordination speech; hearing; behavior and emotion)

Voluntary, Informed consent

Studies on nutrition, disease, pregnant, etc. in modern people Nuremberg Code (Post-WWII) Define nature, duration, and purpose of experiment Understand research methods and hazards Avoid unnecessary physical or mental injury Subject may stop at any time

Bioarcheology

Study of historical and ancient human skeletal remains Insights into nutrition, health, activity in past populations

Two competing theories

Sudden event around 50,000 y BP (some cognitive shift?) Explosion of "behaviorally modern" artifacts Behavioral plasticity can shift our behaviors and culture to new things whenever we need it Accumulation of increasingly modern behaviors beginning before 50,000 y BP "Explosion" at 50,000 y BP due to increased population, migration, and cultural exchange

Work to conserve primates

Supporting habitat and ecosystem conservation In some cases, removing the population from harm Iqbal Malik - moved rhesus monkeys from city to safe rural area Shirley Strum - moved 130 baboons out of an agricultural area

Skeletal Collection in the US

Surgeon's General Order (1868)- army directed to obtain American Indian body parts for Army Medical Museum (from Bieder 1990) Over 4,000 heads taken from "battlefields, burial ground, POW camps, hospitals, fresh graves, and burial scaffolds" as well as massacres Antiquities Act (1906) - designed to protect "archeological resources" from looters by defining them as federal property to be preserved in museums Including American Indian graves Many cultural artifacts also brought, stolen, or looted and ended up in museums

Differences from Earliest Hominins

Teeth Pre-Aus. --> some non-honing, some modified honing Aus.--> non-honing Bones Pre-Aus. -->vestiges of arboreal traits Aus. --> further loss of arboreal traits Brain Pre-Aus. -->small (~350 cc) Aus. --> slight increase in size (~340-500 cc) Upper end of chimp range (285-500 cc) Gracile Australopithecines Humans Robust Australopithecines/ Paranthropines terminal Harder foods = chewing features of skull emphasized Gracile: A.anamensis; A.afarensis, A.platyops, A.garhi Robust A.afaricanus, A.robustus, A.sediba, A.aethipicus, A.boisei

Dendrochronology

Temperate/cold regions Growth stops in winter Leaves a ring One ring = one year Requires excellent preservation of tree sections Date between 12,000 to 8,000 years ago

Darwin's idea: Gradualism

The theory that species are constantly and slowly changing, and that these changes eventually "add-up" to a new species Each gradual change helps the species survive and reproduce a little better Example: Human Evolution

Stephen J. Gould's Idea: Punctuated Equilibrium

The theory that species are usually not changing very much. They rapidly evolve into new species in short periods of time Species suddenly exposed to very different environment Ex: a random volcano explosion (but like big change happening over span of like 5/10,000 years Mutations for very different phenotypes are suddenly spread by natural selection Species are stable and if something big happens it can change the species in a short period of time

Homo Erectus

Time and location 1.8 - 300,000 ya Longest lived hominin First hominin to leave Africa! Africa, Asia, Europe Cranial Traits Reduction in face and jaws relative to size of brain case Increased brain size Increase supraorbital torus size (brow ridge) Sagittal keel (Asia and Europe) Low, long brain case - narrower frontal and temporal lobes Large attachments for strong neck muscles Very pronounced occipital torus Dental Traits Decrease in tooth size More meat Eventually cooked foods How fast was growth? Perikyma: Growth increment on tooth One increment every 8-9 days Nariokotome Boy: died at age 11 First molar formed at age 4 Two years before modern human molars *Homo erectus had faster growth than humans* Post-Cranial Trends Human body plans Short arms, long legs Due to better nutrition (tool use =more meat) Longer, faster strides The first fully human gait?

Stone Tools in Asia

Tools similar to those seen in Africa early on Not a lot of data, few sites

Uranium series dating

U-238 decays through an entire series of elements Can date between 10,000 and 1 million years Advantages No need for volcanic materials

biocultural approach

Understand Climate, Population, and Diet Not just from a physical science perspective Look at the science But also strive to understand the culture

How do we group fossils by species?

Use morphology species concept to infer biological species concept in the fossil record Looking at similarities between fossil, inferring that they're either similar enough to be the same or different enough to be different species, and also infer if there is gene exchange Assume that fossils look similar because they share genes (9.1 pg 12)

Oldowan Tool Complex

Use one stone to knock flakes off of a core stone

Africa?

Very few fossils to prove ape ancestors in Africa Choroapithecus (~10.5 mya) Ethiopia; teeth that look like a modern gorilla Otherwise, African record after 13 mya is very sparse until first hominins appear at 7-8 mya Maybe apes were just mostly outside Africa at the time Europe Africa at 10-6 mya?

Ardipithecus Ramidus

Very popular because it's early and we have a lot of fossils of it; well excavated Awash River Valley, Ethiopia Provide a nearly continuous record of human evolution Pre-australopithecine Australopithecine Early Homo Early modern H. Sapiens Ardi's Skeleton General features Small brain (300-350 cc), 110 lbs., 4 feet tall When did Ardi live? "Ardi" = most complete early hominin Plus fragments from 35 other individuals, all within 10,000 years Dated to 4.4 mya using Argon-Argon dating Where did Ardi live? Traditional Idea: Hominins emerged in savanna (grasslands) Ardipithecus Ramidus: lived in woodland, forest environment

Other forms of fossil evidence

Volcanic Ash Australopithecus afarensis footprints in Laeotoli, Tanzania around 3.5 mya Walked through wet volcanic ash and footprints remain Chemical composition of bone or teeth Shows diet; can also look at form of the teeth/molars DNA preservation if tissue is not fully fossilized Neandertal DNA

Where are fossils found?

Water or wind deposit tiny bits of rock Pressure from layer above compresses these into solid rocks Sediment protects remains Minerals in sediments or overlaying water leach into bone Different strata (layers) represent ecosystem at different time periods Most fossils found in Sedimentary rock

Biological anthropology and ethics

What do we mean by "ethics"? System of values that specifies a code of conduct Value systems are cultural Variation in what behaviors and ideas are right and wrong Experiments on primates and humans Behavior towards human remains Variation in how much is assigned Value of knowing about the past

What is Behavioral "Modernity"?

What is "behaviorally modern"? Coordination and planning Trade; migration; hunting large animals Abstract thinking Make and use symbols Technological innovation New stone technology (blades, microblade) New materials (bone, antler) Increased control of fire Traps, nets, projectile weapons, watercraft

Stress Markers

When bone is forming during childhood: Periods of nutritional deficiency Disease events Other stressful events Throughout life: Manual labor causes additional bone formation More useful in population trends Ex: detect switch from hunting and gathering to farming

Loss of Sagittal Crest

Where masticatory (chewing) muscles attach Present in apes and some hominins Lost in modern humans Apes: Temporalis muscle horizontally oriented -- slicing Humans: Temporalis muscle vertically oriented -- crushing

Cold-adapted body plan for Upper Pleistocene Europe

Wide nasal aperture Big, projecting nose Warms and moistens cold air Large infraorbital foramina Carry blood vessels Greater blood flow to face to prevent freezing Extremely robust Post-Cranium Bones show intense physical trauma (broken bones, bruises, compared to bull riders; interacting in an intense and harsh way) Barrel-shaped ribcage = stocky Bergmann's Rule Reduced surface areas relative to body size Short limbs Short tibia relative to femur Allen's rule Males: 5'5" 143 lbs. Females: 5'1" 119lbs.

Y-chromosome Adam

Y-chromosome in all living men can be traced back to a single Y-chromosome 180,000 - 200,000 y BP (new date as of 2013!) Not mitochondrial Eve's mate! Just LCA of all Y-chromosomes

Effects of climate change?

^End of Miocene - cooling Most apes go extinct ^Mid-Miocene - rapid drop in temperature Lots of ape movement ^Late Oligocene - rapid warming Last proliopithecids, first proconsulids ^Eocene - Oligocene boundary - rapid drop in global temperature Widespread extinction - new habitats New primates spread ^Eocene - mostly hot and wet Euprimates appear and spread ^End of Paleocene - already warm and wet but warming further Mammal radiation throughout Paleocene

11 centers of agriculture

agriculture springs up in a lot of different areas of the world

Radio active dating

c. Type of atom it is, is determined by the number of protons i. Can change the number of neutrons; changes the weight not the atom d. Isotopes = atoms with different numbers of neutrons i. Carbon 12, Carbon 13, Carbon 14 (not stable) e. Unstable radioisotopes such as carbon-14 will lose energy by releasing protons, neutrons, electrons over time f. Beta-minus Decay i. Carbon-14 loses an electron; one of its neutrons decays into a proton 1. # proton changes = atom changes

Is Kennewick Man "American Indian"?

opponents of repatriation say that Kennewick man cannot be linked to living tribes due to dissimilarity of his skull Supposedly "European" features used to support this argument How far back does NAGPRA reach?

How did Playtrrhines Get to South America

~70mya Atlantic Ocean separates South America from Africa ~35mya Higher Primates evolve in Africa Parapithecids (resemble platyrrhines) at 36-32mya ~26mya First Platyrrhine fossils appear in South America Rafted from Africa to South America (The Rafting Hypothesis) Originated in Africa Potentially from Parapithecids or other Higher Primates "rafts" naturally accumulated vegetation carried by currents Ocean was much smaller than it is today