anthro final 2
Beringia open:
Most of the time between 35 kya and 11 kya? Widest during the Last Glacial Maximum (~18 kya
Main features of a Neaderthal
Neanderthal has big brow ridges Larger nasal area Well worn front teeth
Explanations of sedentism and domestication
Population pressures climate change social factors
Ice-Free Corridor open:
Pre-LGM (25 kya) Post-LGM (< 14 kya)
Neolithic period
refers to that period in which we have the first signs of domestication are present
Clovis-Age Sites in North America
As we can see - Clovis sites are found all over the modern US and Canada. Interestingly, it appears that humans must have spread quickly across the continent as some of the earliest sites are found on the east coast.
Classic Viewpoint: Clovis First
Clovis peoples first occupants of the New World at ~11,200 kya Quickly spread thanks to adaptation for big game hunting? Crossed into New World through "Beringia" (land exposed in Bering Strait during lowered sea level)
Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition (behavior)
Complex behavior Increased artifact diversity Standardization of artifact types Blade technology Worked bone and other organic materials Personal ornaments and 'art' or images Structured living spaces Ritual Economic intensification Enlarged geographic range Expanded exchange networks
Pre-Clovis in South America
Dates of 12,500 ya are now well accepted Dates up to 15,000 ya are accepted by many Site also has older C-14 dates at >30 kya- we don't know what to make of those yet...
On the spread of farming into Europe
Debate has focused on whether this spread was due to the movement and expansion of Near-Eastern farmers (Demic diffusion), or to the transmission of cultural innovation to existing populations (Acculturation), who then themselves expanded.
Settlement of Australia
Did people travel to Lake Mungo by going around the coast? Sites in the interior do not appear until 20-25ka
Peopling Australia
During Ice Ages, sea level was up to 135 m lower than present Australia, New Guinea and Tasmania connected into one body of land called Sahul
The Eve Hypothesis Issues
Everyone has mtDNA from an 'African woman' from 200 kya However, a more accurate interpretation of the data is that we all have mtDNA from a related population of African women living around 200 kya BUT! Other 'modern human' populations living at the same time Their mtDNA simply hasn't been passed on to the present day (these lineages have died out) Or, we simply haven't sampled anyone who is descended from these lineages yet Suggests her descendants left Africa no later than 135 kya Displaced Neanderthals and colonized the rest of the world
Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition
Fully modern Homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon) gracilization relative to Neanderthals fewer serious traumatic injuries tropical limb proportions (long limbs) lower incidence of nutritional stress indicators
Late Transitional Forms In Africa
Florisbad, Jebel Irhoud, Omo 2 - @ 200kya - more rounded cranium, larger foreheads, smaller brow ridges than early archaic forms at Bodo and Broken Hill
When and where were the first domesticates?
Highland Mexico, 4700 BP Maize, beans, squash, chili, tomatoes, turkeys Andes / Amazon, 4500 BP Potatoes, quinoa, squash, beans, gourds, llamas Fertile crescent, 10,000 BP Wheat, barley, sheep, goats, cattle East Asia 7500 BP Rice, millet, pigs, chickens N. America 4500 BP Sunflower, chenopodium, amaranth, gourds Tropical Africa 4000 BP Sorghum, millet, teff Conclusion: Global phenomenon Similar time (Early Holocene)
Connections with Asia??
If the earliest Americans have Asian origins, we should see links to some Old World communities, both genetically and technologically Date for earliest occupation of New World also restricted by earliest occupation of Siberia
Issues with Clovis First Model
) Discovery of well-dated (and some not as well dated) Pre-Clovis sites found in North AND South America 2) Timing/point of entry (when was ice corridor closed?)
Fossil evidence in the Middle-East/SW Asia
AMH at Skhul and Qafzeh caves (Israel) - 100 kya Modern/transitional - rounded cranium, higher foreheads, & chin - BUT - large brow ridges and prognathic face Neanderthals at Amud and Kebara caves - 60 kya Some of the earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans outside of Africa is in the Middle East at Skhul and Qafzeh in modern Israel. These sites date to around 100 thousand years ago and pre-date the disappearance of Neanderthals from the region. However, they have some features which may not be fully modern in form.
The Neolithic Revolution (12kya)
After 10-12 kya shift towards plant and animal domestication
Demic diffusion
the movement and expansion of Near-Eastern farmers
Impact of Agriculture
Increase in the manner of preparation Reliance on super food Increase in trade Increase in infectious disease Increase in nutritional disease Nutritional Bottleneck: Reduction in dietary niche - 103 plant species contribute 90% of world's food supply
Post-cranial synapomorphies of Neanderthals
Long collar bones Finger tips very broad elbow and knee joints broadly delineated Unusual pelvis -long pubic bone
Mousterian tools
Made by Neanderthals
________ bones to construct shelters
Mammoth bones to construct shelters Mammoth bones and teeth litter this Upper Paleolithic site of Moldova. The presence of several hearths suggests this site may have been occupied by several families Early evidence for the construction of shelter appears during this period.
Cold Adapted
Many robust features in cranium and body can be interpreted as adaptations to cold environment Enlarged nasal cavity to warm air Post-cranial robusticity = strong and powerful Short and Heavy - Bergmann's rule Short limbs - Allen's rule The large head helps conserve heat (Bergmann's rule)—campers will know that a significant amount of body heat is lost through the head Modern arctic populations have 100-150cc larger cranial capacity that equatorial pops
Pre-Clovis in North America
Meadowcroft best candidate, most accepted Other early sites also in Eastern US: Cactus Hill (VA): artifacts below Clovis, dating to 15kya?? Topper (SC): artifacts in horizons below Clovis, date to 20-11 kya; 'hearth' feature with dates around 50 kya
How did Neanderthals cope with Ice Age Environments?
Mobility of resources -Meat based diet -Animals are highly mobile—Caribou -Cope by being mobile, strong Seasonal fluctuations -Food storage? -Alliance Withstand cold -Clothing -Hearths -Shelters—mammoth bone huts (later)
Homo sapiens in Europe
Moderns by 36,000 ya in Germany & 27,000 ya in France (Cro-Magnon) Neanderthals as late as 35,000 - unlikely ancestral to moderns and overlap with moderns No evidence of transitional forms First AMHs - taller, linear, slender build (tropical) Europe does not appear to site of modern evolution (supports replacement and contradicts multi-regional model)
Who do scientists beleive is the last common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans?
Most researchers believe that Homo heidelbergensis, broadly defined, is the last common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans.
Rodeo Rider Theory
Some researchers have suggested that the types of injuries seen in Neanderthals are similar to those seen in modern day rodeo riders. This is not say that Neanderthals were actually trying to ride large game. More likely, the Moustarian tools they had were used as spears and so they had to get very close to the large game to take them down. We do not have any evidence that Neanderthals had projectile hunting technology, like arrows.
Who displays the greatest range of variation in mtDNA?
The fact that Africans display the greatest range of variation in mtDNA is supportive of an Out of Africa model, although multiregionalists argue that this simply means that the ancestral population in Africa was larger (allowing for greater variation).
Cro-Magnon I
The quintessential early modern human from Europe is Cro-Magnon man.
Consequences of sedentism
social complexity intergroup complexity long distance trade material and ritual culture domestication day range diversity in resources population
Magdalenian
Beatifully worked spear point of flint in shape of a laurel leaf Stemmed points Bone harpoons Microliths
What was Neaderthal ideology?
Burial of the Dead - Shanidar ("flower child"); La Ferraisse ("family burial"); Teshik Tash ("goat boy") Caring for sick and infirmed (Shanidar; La Chapelle) Art - grooved perforated bones, teeth pendants, polished ivory, ochre, whistle Cannibalism?; Bear Cults?
Qafzeh
Earliest H. sapiens outside Africa The remains from Qafzeh are generally considered the earliest anatomically modern humans found outside of Africa. They have: high forehead and lack of occipital bunning; lacks supraorbital torus; anterior teeth quite large, and a small nose.
Lake Mungo (Australia)
Lake Mungo 3 burial (40 ka?) Suggests human communities in southern continent soon after initial colonization?
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from Neanderthals
We can use mitochondrial DNA, which is passed on through the female line only (but preserves very well) - to determine the divergence dates between Neanderthals and modern humans.
Mitochondrial Eve and _______
Y-adam
Australia and MHA
- Australia at no point in human evolutionary history connected to south-east Asia. While Australia and other islands, including Papua New Guinea, were connected as part of the Sahul during Ice Ages with low sea-level, it remained east of the deep trench defining the Wallace Line. Obviously, some early hominins made it across the Wallace Line and to Flores, but it isn't until much later that we have any evidence of hominins in the Sahul proper.
Paleolithic Diet
- diet until 10-12,000 years ago - diet to which our physiology and morphology is adapted - optimal diet? - semi-nomadic foraging groups Decrease in ability to process secondary compounds • Decrease in ability to digest large amounts of fibrous foods • Need for nutritionally dense nutrients • Need variety
Derived features of Neanderthals may have been adaptations to cold climate
130 kya world was relatively warm Hippos in London Tropical plankton species in North Sea 75 kya, world started getting much colder Glaciers grew, grasslands expanded Extremely cold periods alternated with warmer periods
Reveals modern human behavior characterized by:
Abstract thinking, the ability to act with reference to abstract concepts not limited in time or space Planning depth, the ability to formulate strategies based on past experience and to act upon them in a group context Behavioral, economic and technological innovativeness Symbolic behavior, the ability to represent objects, people, and abstract concepts with arbitrary symbols, vocal, or visual, and to reify such symbols in cultural practice
What does the occupation of Sahul indicate about human behavior?
An unprecedented level of technology (sea-faring vessels) Knowledge of extreme conditions in the natural world (occupation of interior deserts) Complex social organization (to flexibly adapt to highly variable conditions and to the scarce resources of the interior) Curiosity and willingness to risk life for an uncertain payoff All of this indicates a fully modern cultural system
Neanderthals look like modern creatures in very cold places
Animals in cold places are large and stocky, with short limbs Animals in hot places are smaller, thinner, longer limbed
Mostly out-of-Africa Model
As with most studies in human origins - the simplistic Out of Africa or Multiregional models are no longer supported. A hybrid model - with Homo sapiens evolving first in Africa, but then quickly moving in Western Asia and interbreeding with archaic populations, including Neanderthals and Denisovans is the most likely picture based on current data.
Amud Neanderthal
At the same time anatomically modern humans were living at Skhul - Neanderthals continued to thrive nearby at Amud and Kebara caves. These individuals continue to display classic Neanderthal features
Mitochondrial Eve Hypothesis
By the late 1980s, geneticists and anthropologists were already discussing the possibility of using ancient DNA to identify when the 'first humans' lived. Again, mitochondrial DNA is more useful than nuclear DNA. With a fast mutation rate we have better 'molecular clocks' to work from - essentially this means that we can count more differences and get a more constrained date. Since it is only passed on through the female line it does not recombine or exchange with other DNA - making it relatively simple to follow through time.
The Revolution that wasn't
Eurocentic Bias In terms of developments in world prehistory, Western Europe is a remote cul de sac with a somewhat anomalous prehistoric record MSA encompasses many feature of the Upper Paleolithic at a much earlier time in Africa (blade and microlithic technology, bone tools, increased geographic range, specialized hunting, aquatic resources, long distance trade, use of pigment, art, and decoration) Gradual assembling of the package of modern human behaviors in Africa at sites widely separated in space and time and its later export to other regions of the Old World This Upper Paleolithic 'explosion' is likely the result of a major Eurocentric bias.
Did modern humans interbreed with Neanderthals?
Evidence for human-Neanderthal interbreeding - or the survival of Neanderthal traits after they disappear. Gravettian is a culture/behavior associated with modern humans. "Hybrid Boy" Just a reminder - we carry 1-3% of Neanderthal genes.
Why *did* Clovis spread so quickly?
Fluting points aids in hafting, creates a better hunting weapon Remember, North American game animals did not co-evolve with human predators- it was a very rich environment for big-game hunters The sudden appearance of Clovis biface technology suggests: Widespread social networks High residential mobility A hunting-based foraging economy?
Pre-Clovis Sites: Current Views
General support for Pre-Clovis occupation Issues with some controversial Pre-Clovis sites: Are the stone artifacts actually human manufactured tools? How well controlled is the context for these sites? Are 'hearth' features actually man-made or natural fires? Have the sites been artificially mixed somehow? Most believe populations entered via the land bridge and/or Pacific coastal sea route But can the European/Solutrean Invasion idea be fully discounted...
Entry via Beringia
Grassland Steppe and Tundra Environment We assume that the environment on the land bridge would have been similar to that we see in parts of Siberia and Alaska today. It is likely humans followed seasonal patterns of large mammals across the bridge.
Genetic Evidence - Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Results
Modern Humans show little genetic variation - much less than apes (= recent origin of anatomically modern humans) Nuclear DNA - 2 clusters of variation: sub-Saharan Africans and everyone else suggests origin of anatomically modern humans in Africa (longer time for variations to accumulate) Mitochondrial DNA - similar results to nuclear DNA All groups (i.e., of our species) are very similar African women are the most diverse - expected in the oldest population = longest time for mutations to occur Samples from the rest of the world appear to have branched later - have less variation Molecular Clock suggests origin of anatomically modern humans @ 200 kya
Implications (Genetic evidence) of the Out of Africa Model
Modern genetic diversity should be low, as all moderns are recent descendants of the first anatomically modern H. sapiens. The highest amount of genetic diversity should be present within the region of origin (Africa) because that is the oldest population, and would have had the longest time to accumulate variation If the hybrid (Mostly Out of Africa) model is correct - we would not expect to see any evidence of interbreeding with Neanderthals or Denisovans in modern African populations
Major Neanderthal Issues
Neanderthal Morphology - genetic adaptations? - genetic drift + isolation? - mechanical responses to environment? Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis? - Biological Species Concept vs Morphological Species Concept Neanderthals ancestors of modern humans? - cladogram geometry - punctuationist view
When did Neandertals come "onto the scene"?
Neanderthals come on the scene during the period of oscillating ice ages. Living at northern latitudes they would have been even more susceptible to shifting climatic regimes.
Did Neanderthals become extinct?
Neanderthals seem to be an offshoot that don't appear to have survived or evolved into modern forms Became extinct But, were a great success for nearly 200,000 years Well represented in the fossil record
Possible routes to Sahul
Northern route (to New Guinea): 8 ocean gaps total, longest is 70 km of open ocean, avg. is 28 km Southern route (to Australia): 8 ocean gaps total, longest is 87 km of open ocean, avg. is 19 km Took place over several generations?
Coming to America
Proposed routes: Land Bridge Pacific Coast Atlantic Coast There are three potential routes which modern humans could have taken to the Americas. The Bering Strait land bridge model remains the most likely and most widely accepted, but some do believe there is evidence for a Pacific coastal route using sea-faring technology. Those who support this idea point to the age of some of the early sites in the Americas which appear to have been inhabited at times where the Bering Strait would have been frozen over. Another, even more controversial hypothesis, is that modern humans came to the Americas from Europe using sea-faring technology along a north Atlantic coastal route. Some of the potentially earliest sites in the Americas are on the eastern coast of the moder US.
Eating the hand that feeds you....
Rapid diversification in hunting; food processing; food storage equipment; intensified use of habitats; fuller exploitation of foodstuffs; grinding, drying, processing nuts; increased signal of small animal exploitation
Did Neanderthals talk?
Seems they must have, given the complexity of their behavior Morphologically - hyoid bone similar to modern humans Genetically - FOXP2 gene form (also shared with Denisovans) But if they grew up fast, less time to learn language before the brain becomes "fixed"?
!Kung Cuisine
Select 260 species of animals and 105 species of plants (500 species are edible) Mongongo nut as a primary food 13 plants species are major food sources 19 minor foods 14 foods make up 75% of the diet
East Asia Modern Human
Some argue that evidence from East Asia supports the multi-regional model. Certain traits we find in fossils from East Asian can be found in living populations - including shovel-shaped incisors and extra cranial sutures.
Some Neanderthals survived serious injuries and illnesses
Some argue that this implies that Neandertals cared for the ill and injured. Claim to provide evidence for origins of caretaking and compassion. But seriously impaired primates often survive, so this is very poor evidence of caretaking.
Evidence for the European Route?
Some researchers have pointed out that Clovis points look suspiciously similar to the Solutrean Points we talked about last time in Europe. If true, this may explain why some of the oldest sites in the Americas are on the east coast.
Early Australian Sites
Stone technology remained relatively simple knapped stone technologies resemble non-Levallois Middle Paleolithic simple flake cores
Occupation of Siberia/Early Beringian Sites
Technology generally *does not* look like Clovis or pre-Clovis at Meadowcroft or Monte Verde microblade technology part of the "Denali Complex"
Genetic Data for mha in americas
Tested modern native/first nation groups in the Americas Majority of evidence from mtDNA *and* nuclear DNA indicates Asian source Some European input (Haplogroup X)- but recently ID'd in Mongolian populations Skeletal data: Teeth show two traits that are generally associated with east Asian populations: shovel-shaped incisors and molars with extra roots
How does domestication happen?
The main difference between wild wheat and domesticated wheat are that domesticated forms have larger seeds and a non-shattering rachis. When wild wheat is ripe, the rachis--the stem that keeps the wheat shafts together--shatters so that the seeds can disperse themselves. But that naturally useful brittleness doesn't suit humans, who prefer to wait until the wheat is ripe to harvest it. Of course, if farmers harvest wheat when they believe it is ready, they only get the wheat that remains on the rachis: that wheat is what the farmers plant and in the process selected wheats with rachis that didn't become brittle at harvest time.
Theories of Modern Human Origins
Three Main Models Multi-Regional Evolution (Regional Continuity) Population Replacement Hypothesis or Recent African Origin (Out of Africa) Mostly Out of Africa Model (a hybrid)
What happened to the Neanderthals?
Too specialized for their own good? By 40-50 kya, modern H. sapiens in Europe: more sophisticated tool kit Improved hearths Better clothes Moderns adapted more quickly with culture than biology A slight advantage could lead to extinction of Neanderthals in 30-40 generations
Where do we find Neanderthals during the end of their time
Towards the end for the Neanderthals we find them primarily in the southern reaches of the Iberian peninsula - why? Were they being pursued by groups of modern humans? Is it because this is close to the height of the last glacial maximum, and even for Neanderthals, northern Europe was too cold/barren?
Evidence of Art
Valley of the Vezere River Highest concentration of Paleolithic art in the world Lascaux, France Most cave paintings are found in southwestern France and northern Spain. Various magical or ritual functions have been proposed as the reason for the cave paintings: ceremonies of increase, improved hunting, rites of passage. Portable Art Need to communicate abstract information by means of symbols Bone flute Venus Figurine ca 25 kya Similar forms from Russia to France (fertility goddess?)
Did Neanderthals engage in cannibalism?
While certainly not unique to Neanderthals, it does appear as if they may have participated in cannibalism. At Guattari Cave the base/foramen magnum of multiple skulls is bashed in, perhaps suggesting consumption of the brain (high in calories, etc.). At the site of Krapina multiple skulls are fragmented and burned. Another possible explanation is that these activities may have represented some sort of ritual, but they pattern of damage to the skulls and evidence for cut marks is consistent with known examples of cannibalism among modern humans.
The Neolithic Transition
Zoonoses Nutrition-Infection synergism Weanling Mortality Decreased interbirth intervals Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter-gatherer societies existed. Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population.
The key technological advance for modern humans was the use of _______ technology.
blade
Mitochondrial Eve and Y-Adam likely reflect the fact that modern Homo sapiens went through a______________, probably in Africa, around 200-150 years ago, leading the a loss of genetic diversity that existed prior to that period.
bottleneck
Evolution of features from Neaderthals to Homo sapiens?
gracile skull and postcranials limited development of browridges or other cranial superstructures - rounded cranium with a high max cranial breadth and parallel sides - priminent mastoid process - retracted face with a canine fossae, small teeth and jaws -development of a chin
Acculturation
the transmission of cultural innovation to existing populations
Humans lived in: (neolithic period)
• small kin-based social groups • low population densities • relatively low rate of reproduction and population growth • subsisting on natural resources in their environment • technology and material culture simple • impact of infectious and communicable disease low