anthropology test #4
The most prominent explanation that the Maya people had so much war.
-Escalating warfare between rulers of city-states.- -Out-of-control population growth leading to environmental degradation, erosion and soil depletion.- -Drought, resulting from the climatological change.- -Inability of rulers to adapt to changing economic conditions and social conflict
who are sociolinguistics
-they study how social context and cultural norms shape languages used in the community. -describe how language is used by people rather than prescribed two languages should be used. -focuses on signs, symbols, and metaphors
how did linguistics began?
18th century as philology
who found that color terms are the same across 100 languages?
Berlin and kay
a relatively large and permanent settlement usually with a population of at least several a thousand inhabitants.
City
societies in which socioeconomic differentiation, large populations, and centralized political control are pervasive and defining features
Complex Societies
identify the underlying rules of a language and determine when and how these rules should be applied.
Descriptive linguistics
the root cause of societalcollapse is environmental
Diamond's argument
focus on how people actually speak in normal conversations
Ethnography of speaking
What is the study of how people classify things in the world called?
Ethnoscience
Is it true that all countries find it relatively easy to decide what language its citizens will speak?
False
Is it true that because of widespread use of mass media today, sociolinguists have found increasing homogeneity in the use of language in the United States?
False
Is it true that women in arctic hunter-gatherer groups do not work as hard as men because there is no option to forget?
False, womens effort is greater than that of men.
Which of the following is NOT a feature of the generalized foraging model?
Five characteristics: Egalitarianism, low population density, lack of territory, a minimum of food storage, and flux in band composition
One of the ways that peoples of highland new guinea stored their crops was by:
Gardens- they grew staple foods (sweet potatoes)
When archaeologists study the use-wear of an artifact, what are they studying?
Horizontal stratigraphy
who believed that similarities between European languages were a result of shared ancestry?
Jakob Grimm
who created the idea that female speechpatterns were expected toexpress hesitation, repetition,and uncertainty more than malespeech
Lakoff
the beliefs people haveabout the superiority of one language/dialect
Language ideology
hypothetical common ancestral languages oftwo or more living languages
Languages evolved from proto-languages
pottery-making and stone tool manufacture,indicating a degree of occupational specialization
Manufacturing
Despite the evidence of escalating warfare, excessive population growth, drought and the failings of the ruling elite, the overwhelming evidence about the mayan empire suggests that ____.
Mayans were fully assimilated into the Spanish empire at the time of the conquest
Is it true that social complexity is always associated with social inequality and hierarchy?
No, social complexity is not always associated with social inequality and hierarchy.
Is it true that some languages are better than others?
No, there is no universally correct way to speak any language
What term refers to the structure of speech sounds?
Phonology
linguists divide language structure into what 3 categories?
Phonology morphology syntax
monuments, plazas, and ball courts, all under directcontrol of administrative and religious authorities
Public Zones
process in which the countryside wasconfigured as a contested no-man's land lyingbetween competing city-states
Ruralization
who believed that languages incline its speaker to think about the world in certain ways because of their specific grammatical categories?
Sapir
who organized the second-largest state in Mexico
The Tarascan
what is descriptive linguistics?
The systematic analysis of a language's sound system and grammar
On the island of Java in indonesia, nearly every sentence marks a person's ____ between speaker and listener.
Their relative social positions in society
One of the plausible reasons for the lack of surpluses in hunter-gatherer groups is that surpluses could deplete local resources.
This argument is called The optimal foraging strategy suggests people capture just enough calories from the environment as they need to survive (Bruce Winterhalder)
complex societies tend to form where there is interaction among groups of different ethnic backgrounds with access to different resources.
Trade Model of state formation
the process by which towns grew asresidential centers, as opposed to being tradingcenters
Urbanization
What is language death?
When a language no longer has any native speakers
who expanded on Sapir's work?
Wholf
what do historical linguists search for in cognate words?
Words in two languages show the Same systematic sound shifts as other words in the two languages.
Is it true that cultigens became an integral part of human life almost simultaneously in different parts of the world?
Yes, ancient societies developed independently in the middle east, china, india, mesoamerica and south america
Is it true that one of the surprising discoveries about hunter-gatherer lives was that they worked only a few hours a week?
Yes, they spent hours each day in leisure, socializing and sleeping. They neither needed nor desired material goods
linguistic relativity
_ is the idea that people speaking different languages perceive the world differently.
sociolinguistics
_ is the study of how sociocultural norms and contexts shape language use in society.
Domestication is the process of ___
adapting wild plants and animals for human use
For robert malthus, societies with small populations were limited by
agriculture/ food supply
A key requirement for the formation of a complex society is
an increased intensity of food production
Which of the following is NOT a reasonable account used to explain why humans started raising their own food by domesticating plants and animals? Independent emergence suggests driver was environmental, changes in cognitive ability
and people and the plants they cultivated began to coevolve, shaping each other
How do animal call systems differ from language
animal calls are set, instinctive responses to particular stimuli are based on only a few sounds
The practice of pastoralism involves
animal husbandry, breeding, caring, use of herd animals efficient in extracting energy
studies human beings through their languages
anthropological linguistics
The tending of the sage palm to increase the amount of starch in a tree is an example of
arboriculture
a group or collection of objects foundtogether at an excavation or site
assemblage
The set of sounds and movements that animals make to communicate is called a ____.
call system
An autonomous political entity that consisted of a city and its surrounding countryside. smaller cities that grow their complexity.
city-state
proper states, kingdoms and empires arose from....
city-states
patterned forms of communication that expresses meaning
classified as call systems
David rindos argues that the shift to agriculture happened because both humans and plants began to
coevolve
Words that came from the same ancestral language and originated from the same word are called ______
cognate words
the rapid loss of a social, political, and economicorder or complexity
collapse
An important distinction between hunter-gatherers today and those of the past is
contemporaries are linked to sedentary agriculture and industrial societies through trade and other social ties, which did not exist prior to the development of agriculture
A language of mixed origin that developed from a complex blending of two parent languages is called
creole
One of the many reasons suggested for the abandonment of the Mayan city of Copan one reason we can safely say was not apart of this process what _____
drought
How are complex societies characterized?
dynamics of wealth, power, coercion, and status
One consequence of sedentism is that populations tend to grow and people lose control over their lives as a consequence of
epidemic diseases
Is it true that the ancient Pueblo peoples disappeared due to environmental collapse.
false
Is it true that the shift to horticulture or simple farming typically increased the number of cultigens consumed by members of a community?
false
regional dialect and sound changes between generations are .....
greater than ever
empires built around thecontrol of water resources by despotic, or all-powerful, leaders
hydraulic despotism
The "trade model" of state formation holds the trade and exchange create _____ between neighboring societies.
interaction
One of the reasons that the understanding of many early city-states is challenging due to
lack of written records
a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar
language
whorf and Sapir realized translation altered the meaning which was...
linguistic determinism
Early anthropologists considered the environments of hunter-gatherer societies to be harsh, and their methods of subsistence and technology to be simple, crude, and primitive, reinforcing
long-held cultural stereotypes
what are an expression of people's social relationships and help shape relationships?
material objects
before 1970 linguists assumed that ______ would cause American English to become homogeneous
media
Words that differ by only one single sound contrast, like in the case of "ban", "man", and "pan" are called ______ pairs
minimal pairs
The application of pastoral practices leads to both an increase in population and
more complex patterns of social interaction
The "shift" in the primary mode of subsistence that resulted in agricultural production was called the
neolithic revolution
One of the side effects of increased food production is the generation of a surplus, something that helped give rise to ____
new social roles for food producers, typically specialist roles
what did the hopi language lack?
past, present, and future tense
The approach that compares ancient texts and documents to analyze long term linguistic change is called ______
philology
In analyzing the shift from hunter gatherer to agriculture society, esther boserup examined the relationship between
population growth and food production
The discovery that layers of sediment deposited in a lake were due to erosion from higher altitudes, indicated that archeologists
population growth led to severe degradation of the soil
driven by craft specialization, leading to new social roles
production model
The development of what might be called true agriculture- the use of fertilizers or elaborators of technology- was most likely due to
sedentism
A society having many different parts organized into a single system is said to have
social complexity
One of the ways archaeologists know there was social complexity in the tarascan empire is through ______.
spatial segregation of elite and commoner neighborhoods
societies with forms pf political and economic control over a particular territory and the inhabitants of that territory.
states
Much of our knowledge of the ancient Mayan empire comes from the careful study of ____.
stelae
what are pat and bat
stops which are part of phonology
language is...
systematic
Several hundred years after the Maya abandoned their ancient cities, Spanish observes a social hierarchy and inherited nobility that seemed related to what existed in the large, ancient, urban
the Maya simply transformed
Jared Diamond argues that cities and states don't last because ______
the fundamental cause of collapse is environment
Linguists refer to mixed languages with a simplified grammar that people rarely learn as a mother tongue as
the official language
One of the most popular theories about the relationship between early states and warfare was promoted by Robert Carneiro. Which of the following was part of his model to explain the rise of early states?
the shift in mortuary objects as a reflection of the consolidation of power
One theory about the relationship between global warming and the shift from foraging to food production holds that ____
the warning that took place after the last ice age made the environment more habitable
Anthropologist Sherry Ortner distinguished three kinds of culturally powerful symbols that include all of the following except
these include: summarizing symbol, elaborating symbol, key scenarios
Early europeans archaeologists were interested in studying the ancient societies in mesopotamia, egypt and the rest of the fertile crescent because
they saw European legal codes and philosophies as originating in these ancient Middle Eastern states
the ability of a social systemto absorb changes and still retain certain basic culturalprocesses and structures, albeit in altered form
transformation and resilience
The moving of animal herds to different places in accordance with seasonal changes is called
transhumance
Is it true that Americas' pattern of gender inequality is built into our linguistic practices?
true
Is it true that according to Edward Sapir, language is the symbolic guide to culture?
true
Is it true that although language is one of the most rule-bound aspects of human culture, it is also one of the least conscious?
true
Is it true that most people are unaware of the structure of a language until someone speaking it makes a mistake
true
Is it true that patrilocal bands are small groups where men control the hunting and territorial resources?
true
Archaeologists can evaluate the complexity of a system through the analysis of material things because the material goods are part of an _____.
urbanization
In evolutionary terms, humans are distinct from other primates with respect to their ability to use language because ____
we can speak using our larynx
Cahokia's vast complex of mounds and ceremonial sites initially suggested that it was the center of a vast empire. Is it true that what is surprising is that this socially complex state did not last very long before it was abandoned?
yes