AP Art History 250 images (WIP)

9. The Ambum stone

Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. c. 1500 B.C.E. Greywacke. Form: greywacke, 8 inches tall, Function: unknown. But small and easy to pass around. Perhaps some religious purpose. perhaps a pestle. But small and easy to carry around. Content: possibly a sculpture of an echidna. very prominent eyes and nose. Context: Neolithic. Settled communities. more time for sculpture. Greywacke: REALLY hard to carve, REALLY long lasting and durable - so very valuable and important to whoever made it

33. Niobides Krater

Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter. c. 460-450 B.C.E. Clay, red-figure technique (white highlights). Content: - 2 sides - one side is of war almost - the other is more peaceful - kind of like the Standard of Ur? - Front: - Shows the story of a woman named Niobe - Niobe (a mortal woman) had 14 kids; 7 girls and 7 boys - She bragged that her kids were more numerous and more beautiful then the kids of goddess leto - Leto was the mother of Artemis (huntress) and Apollo (sun and music) - Artemis and Apollo exacted revenge for their mother by killing all of Niobe's kids (this is the scene on the front) - Artemis is reaching into her quiver for another arrow - Apollo is drawing his bow back - can see tension in Apollo's body and drapery - dead children litter the field - god and goddess are in perfect profile - Niobe's kids are more frontal - Back - Herakles (aka hercules) in the center (place of importance) - half mortal half god - holding a club and wearing a lion skin - his feet don't touch the ground - everyone is placed around him - Herakles is surrounded by warriors some standing some reclining - Athena (wisdom) is on his left - maybe it's not a painting of herakles but rather a painting of a statue of herakles - maybe greek soldiers are coming to honor him and ask for protection before they go into battle - 490 bce - greeks battle enormous Persian army and somehow won - maybe this is showing soldiers asking for protection before battle at Marathon - there could have been very faint lines that show Herakles on a podium - which would make sense bc statue of a god with men rather than a god amongst men Form: - figures are stiff - early classical - severe style - made of clay - red figure bc bodies are part of red clay pot and then black background — lots of detail allowed - in the past: greek vases before this had only one "line" - now figures occupy different levels - sense of an illusion of space - foreground and background but all figures are the same size - suggesting depth - might be a copy of a wall painting by Polygnotus - polygnotus painted in Athens and sanctuary of delphi (north of athens) - he was credited with the thought of being the first artist to paint figures in depth - no ancient greek wall paintings have survived Context: - Created during the classic period (look below for classic period pottery characteristics) Greek Pottery: - Made of terracotta (fired clay) - Methods : - Throwing - clay is centered on rotating wheel - While rotating, the potter pulls up the clay and forms it to the desired shape - Turning and Joining - trimming superfluous or uneven clay to refine the shape of a vase/reduce the thickness walls after it has been thrown - put on wheel -- wood, metal or bone tools used - Burnishing - used to create a perfectly smooth surface for painting - when clay is leather-hard - rubbed with a hard, smooth object, most likely made of leather, wood, or smooth stone - Each period of time had its own technique - Geometric Period (c. 900-700 B.C.E.) - geometric patterns - Orientalizing Period (c. 700-600 B.C.E.) - animal processions and Near Eastern motifs - Archaic and Classical Periods (c. 600-323 B.C.E.) - vase-paintings primarily display human and mythological activities - painted scenes should not be thought of as photographs that document reality - aid in reconstructing the lives and beliefs of the ancient Greeks - To produce the characteristic red and black colors - used liquid clay as paint (termed "slip") - 3 step process 1) kiln at 800 degrees centigrade - turns vase red 2) seal vents in kiln change temp to 900-950° centigrade- turns black; places with slip transformed into a glassy substance 3) vents reopened and unpainted zones become red again; slip / the painted areas retained a glossy black hue Red figure technique - invented in Athens around 525-520 BCE - inverse of black-figure - light-colored figures are set against a dark background - thick slip used to create "relief lines" to help outline - lines raised prominently from the surface White-ground technique - polychrome figures on a white-washed background Black figure technique - black figures with light background - developed by about 700 B.C. in Corinth - not adopted by vase-painters in Athens until about 620 B.C.E. - surface was first burnished and polished - ocher wash might have been applied for orange/red - burnished again - outlined design of the figures then filled in with black. - firing, incisions were made through the black gloss with sharp pointed tool show details of the figures - in the lighter color of the underlying clay Function: - Type of vessle: Calyx-krater: - Large punch bowl - used to mix water and wine

19. Code of Hammurabi

Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Basalt. Form: Visual art but also a form of written document helping to preserve history Function: piece of art AND code of law hierarchical scale enormously important and cherished source before biblical texts high relief sculpture of the king Hammurabi receiving the code from the god of justice (Shamash) Sitting vs Standing despite this, it is clear the artists decision to make both visually the same height to portray equal importance Context: What was happening at the time? Art and Societal Control Power and Posterity perception of society Devine elements destiny Content: These laws were written in cuneiform Order Predates 10 Commandments Covered in small registers right to be king ode to glory over 300 forms of laws that govern Babylonia cuneiform in the acadian language (language very accessible)--wanted for it to be a legacy for understanding laws and consequences were very serious outlines actions (beginning in a tradition in saying laws are uniform) Judah Christian Belief

#1 Apollo 11 Stones

Namibia, Africa; 25,500-25,300 B.C.E; Charcoal on stone; abt the size of a plate; Global prehistory CNTNT: Depiction of some animal thought to be called a Therianthrope. The animal resembles a feline body and human hind legs. Thought it could be some supernatural being. CNTXT: It was found along with seven other tablets that contained animal figures on them. Found during the Apollo 11 moon landings and there was given the same Apollo 11. FORM: Crudely drawn figure; charcoal once opaque, faded with time. FUNC: It is not known what exactly the function of this piece was. It is small enough to be carried in one's hand, portable.

10. Tlatico female figures

early formative period, Tlatilco, c. 1500-1200 B.C.E., ceramic with traces of pigment, 9.5 cm. high Content: Two-faced, one body Naked (presumably), as no clothes are depicted and the nipples are emphasized Matching (elaborate) hairstyles Context: Tlatico, c. 1500 - 1200 Creator's identity unknown (possibly because the concept of names was nonexistent) Form: Curved, rounded Faces blended into one another "Tally mark" lines indicating texture and shape of hair (possibly alludes to race/ethnicity) Somewhat discolored by time and wear Function: To depict the female figure and signify its importance Possibly an idol or physical manifestation/representation of a deity

24. Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer (page from Book of the Dead)

1275 BCE, c. 19 Dynasty, New Kingdom (Egypt) Papyrus Thebes, Egypt Form: Drawings and painting on papyrus scroll, a reed that grew in the Nile Delta, made into paper. Function: To prove Hunefer, the white-robed priest depicted in the above scenes, had lived an ethical life and deserved to enter the afterlife. Content: In upper left, Hunefer is speaking to a line of crouching deities, explaining how he has lived a good life and deserves to life in the afterlife. He is depicted in a white robe. Hunefer is led by Anubis, a jackel-headed god, who is carrying an ankh, a symbol of eternal life. Anubis is seen with a scale, weighing Hunefer's heart with a feather from Ma'at (associated with living an ethical, ordered life.) If the feather weighs more, he has lived an ethical life. If heart weighs more, the beast Ammit (crocodile, lion, hippo beast) will devour Hunefer if he's found to have lived an unethical life. Ibis, Faaf, is the scribe recording the deeds of Hunefer, with a green ibis-like head. Horus (a falcon-headed son of Osiris; holds an ankh in his hand) introduces Hunefer to Osiris, the enthroned deity on the far right. Isis, Osiris's wife, and Neftis, Osiris's sister, stand behind Osiris and join him in making the judgment on Hunefer. Context: Book of Dead was an ancient Egyptian text with spells, prayers, and incantations that helped the dead in the afterlife. Book of Dead was part of "pyramid text" writing (instructions for afterlife.) Pyramid Text preceded "coffin texts:" instructions written on coffins, and also writing on shrouds. Originally texts for the afterlife were just for kings, but then extended to those of wealth or priestly status. Hunefer had a priestly status, this text was found buried with him. Egyptians believed that people had an afterlife only if they had lived an ethical life. Lotus blossom, ankh, and ostrich feathers depict eternal life. Horus's 4 children are responsible for caring for Hunefer's internal organs; they represent the 4 cardinal points. During Armarna period in Egypt there were very atypical, angular depictions of humans; this scroll followed that period and returned to the original Egyptian depictions of deities and the human form.

15.Seated Scribe

2620-2500 BCE, c. 4th Dynasty Old Kingdom; Saqqara, Egypt; Painted Limestone with rock crystal, magnesite, copper/arsenic inlay for eyes and wooden nipples. Form Unique that the figure is seated as opposed to upright and statuary. Unique in its individualistic features Irises are inlaid with rock crystal Figure is limestone painted with red ocher. Nipples made of wood Would have been placed on top of a description piece about the scribe Function Commemorate and revere the scribe himself and his importance in preserving Egyptian history. Serves a funerary purpose to help the scribe transcend into the afterlife. The position in which the scribe was posed was originally for royal sons Content Holds a papyrus scroll Midriff fat shows his wealth and importance His tranquil face symbolizes wisdom. His calm gaze symbolizes his knowledge and intent desire to reach the afterlife He would have been seated on a larger piece that would have had descriptions of his titles and names The scribe is depicted at work which is unusual for a Egyptian statue The position of the scribe in this statue is a position of royalty in the sitting down Context Depicts a scribe from the Necropolis at Saqqara, Egypt. Scribes were revered for their literacy and writing abilities, which were not ubiquitous at the time. Egyptian sites for years have been pillaged and it is very fortunate that an artwork like this was recovered and sent to the Louvre

92. Woman Holding a Balance

92. Woman Holding a Balance. Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas. Form: pinky is the vanishing point center of the painting is the center of the balance compositional control in the way that color is handled gold from curtain on the inner painting frame and the pearls and dress soft swirled painting style common in baroque generally muted colors save his favorite blue and gold ----------- Baroque: - "Baroque art is characterized by great drama, rich color, and intense light and dark shadows. Baroque artists chose the most dramatic point, the moment when the action was occurring. 's baroque David is caught in the act of hurling the stone at the giant. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance." - Vermeer uses: - light - shadows - vibrant colors - emotion thought - diagonals - attention to details Function wealth and piety / spirituality need a balance between those two world possessions in front christ behind idea of weighing ... judging mirror ... sign of vanity so maybe relating to the worldly possession idea ignoring the painting and focusing on what is in front of her but also sign of self knowledge and truth Functional - To show what people in 17th C Holland were like - maybe they were straying from religion? Content: scene of everyday life BUT lots of symbolism woman is dressed in fine clothing she's part of the upper MERCHANT class in Holland during the 17th C this class was increasingly buying more art "the scale and subject of which is very much like this painting" typical cap made of linen worn by women at home fur trimmed jacket meaning it's cold out / in stands in front of table on the wall opposite her is a window LETTING LIGHT IN !!! golden curtains also a mirror right hand has a very fine balance nothing on the balance as if she is waiting for the balance to come to a rest on the table in front of her there are a number of boxes one is open and is thought to have held the balance and weights in the other box are strings of pearls coins also which are an indication of material wealth maybe she's going to weigh valuables? Behind her, there is a painting christ "in a brilliant mandola towards the top" functioning as a judge over souls souls at bottom one on the right are blessed and left are damned LAST JUDGMENT strong indication that this painting is about more than just a woman weighing her valuables her head divides the blessed from the damned Light also plays a huge part in this her front is illuminated = the side of the blessed her back is dark = damned the light also creates motion, brings to life this idea that she is waiting for the balance to become still aka the idea of time and change very real and natural at the same time bc this is a snap shot so it is frozen and quiet She is not pregnant "He observes that Dutch fashions of the mid-17th century seemed to have "encouraged a bulky silhouette. The impression of the short jacket worn over a thickly padded skirt in Vermeer's painting in particular may create just such an impression." interior scene = intimate

27. Anavysos Kouros

Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble with remnants of paint. Context: 6th century B.C.E. Archaic period (700-480 BCE) First obtained iron Chisels in this period Iron, being much denser than anything earlier works were carved with, allowed the Greeks to carve out of harder stones like marble Unknown artist Found in the cemetery of Anavysos Grave marker for Kroisos Died in a war, "Slain by the wild Ares" Content: Slightly larger than life size roughly 6'4" Representation of ideal male youth gives the work its name "Kouros" literally means youth Form: Extremely idealized male figure very muscular and lean Egyptian style stance Tense and flexing his muscles Completely naked shows off the realistic and proportional anatomy Neatly Braided hair Function: A Kouros was very popular in ancient Athens Thousands were made and were used in a couple different ways Most commonly used as grave markers (like this particular Kouros) offerings to a god less common but as a representation of god, usually Apollo This Kouros was set up by aristocratic family as a grave marker for their son Is not a portrait but simply an idealized figure Anavysos Kouros is a transition for this type of work sculptures from earlier in the 6th century BCE were more abstract The focus on Realism indicates a society that revered the human form, and desired to understand the natural environment as a series of cause and effect arguments. Differed from the Egyptian statues in this way The only real similarities between the cultures is the body position

28. Peplos Kore from Acropolis

Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble, painted details. Context c. 530 B.C.E. Acropolis (ancient citadel on a hill) at Athens, Greece Artist unknown Content Kore statue (young maiden) Most likely one of the maiden goddesses A peplos robe (not confirmed*) Arm extended with the intent of holding something, breaks mold of static Archaic statues Object was lost to time (may indicate which goddess is depicted) Classical Egyptian stance (prior to Contrapasto) Facial expression alludes to unearthly wisdom, association with transcendance and being above humanly emotion Form Brightly pigmented paint Much of which still remains (red of the hair and eyes) Skirt formerly colored, designed with animals (such as the sphinx, horses, and possibly goats) Fine-grained Parian marble (white) Missing left arm Tightened waist Breasts revealed beneath drapery Rounded, naturalistic face Hair falls naturally on her figure (natural theme) Free-standing Function (*interpretations) To honor and depict a Greek goddess (likely Artemis) Place holder for altar in Greek temple > Acropolis Kore often used to mark graves, were offerings to the gods (6th-5th c. B.C.E.) Physical representation of a deity (specifically the goddess Artemis or Athena), which is the most likely option as she is clothed differently than all other korai found at the Acropolis

26. Athenian Agora

Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.-150 C.E. Plan. Form: See diagram and labellings for the specific name of each building (no sense in repeating it here) Buildings originally made of marble Pan-Athenaic Way goes through the center of the city → leads to the Acropolis A lot of open space Function: Originally a burial ground (in Bronze and Iron Ages) → later converted into a public space Started as a market → then became a place of government with administrative buildings and sacred spots Once a year → procession through Agora and to the sacred mount Dedicated to Athena Content: See diagram and labelling for the specific name of each building Temples honoring gods Athena → patron goddess of Athens Increasingly substantial structures The Stoa → business, political discussions, civic life Context: Was invaded by the Persians but rebuilt in the early Common Era Athens 500 BCE → citizens start to be able to participate more in the government Didn't vote → participated directly Offices held by rotation Positions that were voted on required skills (like generals) Citizens → had to be male and Athenian Meritocracy and equality before the law Themes: Urban life Cities and monumental architecture Religion Manifestation in daily life Separation or no separation from government Democracy

100. A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery

Artist: Joseph Wright of Derby Patron: Unknown Location: England Date: 1763-1765 Style: English taste for the natural Medium: Oil on Canvas Movement: Enlightenment FORM - Color and Lighting Contrast between the dark background and dramatic lighting coming from the center of the Orrey Light illuminates peoples faces to expose their expressions Philosopher is dressed in red = importance Perspective People have their backs turned to the viewer = viewer is a part of the scene CONT - Shows a group of people (including 2 small children and a veiled woman) gathered around a scientific device called an Orrey Man in the center = philosopher delivering lecture Man on the left = note taker CONTXT - Orrey = mechanical clockwork device (recreates the movements of the planets in the solar system) Artist used this object to communicate scientific information that was becoming available to the upper class on a global scale ---> Enlightenment Challenged peoples myths and preconceived ideas Painting suggests that even woman and children were beginning to have an opportunity for higher education FUNC - Shows scientific advancements

99. Portrait of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz

Artist: Miguel Cabrera Patron: Sor Juana Ines De la Cruz Location: Latin America Date: 1750 Style: Portraiture Medium: Oil on Canvas Movement: Art of New Spain = Mexico (Enlightenment/Neoclassical) FORM - Realistic Similar to other portraits of the time Red curtains behind her were common in elite portraits (higher status) Religious garments = convey the deep connection she had with her faith Books = communicate her love for learning FUNC - A Portrait CON - Portrait of Sor Juana, a catholic nun and sister of the jeronimite order in New Spain Portrayed as a hero (Neoclassical) Intellectual rather than traditional TXT - Sor Juana Sor Juana was considered one of the first feminist of the Americas because she joined a religious order and became a nun in order to pursue her intellectual interests Engaged in debate with philosophers and scientists of the time Instead of marrying, she decided to pursue her intellectual passion in a Carmelite convent before converting to the Jeroimite order (more freedoms) Despite being a nun, she defended her rights as a woman Eventually drew concern from the church Church forced Juana to sell her library and give up her pursuits She was made to sign a document declaring she would cease her education After being denied her intellectual abilities...Sor Juana served as a nurse in an infirmary She caught a disease and passed away Miguel Cabrera Portrayed the nun in a way that gave tribute to her religious AND intellectual purposes Painted after Sor Juana's death (probably based off of other portraits)

96. Fruit and Insects

Artist: Rachel Ruysch Date: 1711 C.E. Current Location: Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy Material: Oil on Wood Form: Still-Life paintings Function: Painted for her Cosimo III = sign of friendship and common wealthy status Sold for double that Rembrandt's paintings sold for Painting for a widening merchant class Intricate and formulaic approach that dominated the late Renaissance Less complex but more realistic Context Renaissance art was at its peak--> artists began to challenge the societal norms (accepted artistic styles and elements of the time) Artists reinvented the way art was portrayed --> led to a new form of art Vibrant colors (red and green) Uncommon subjects 1648 = Netherlands became independent from Spain (economic prosperity) Flourishing international trade = newly affluent middle class Wealthy merchants created a new kind of patronage and art market = producing directly for buyers (rather than work commissioned by the church) Historical, mythological, or religious paintings were no longer desired = buyers wanted portraits, still-life, landscapes, and paintings of everyday life Artworks that would reflect their success Rachel Ruysch became known as one of the greatest floral painters of her time Rachel Ruysch Grew up in Amsterdam into a wealthy family of Dutch artists, architects, and scientists First successful female artist during the Baroque She specialized in still life (a theme of natural beauty in life) Art that reflected the time period (microscope was perfected) Her father, Frederik Ruysch, was a scientist (professor of anatomy and botany) who inspired the small details in her work He had a collection of rare natural historic specimens that led Rachel to help, catalogue, and record Led Rachel to her fascination with insects He encouraged her artists talents with careful observation of the natural world At 15 years old, began apprenticeship with famous painted Willem van Aelst (also specialized in still life) At 18 years old, she produced her first still life and established her career... At 29 years old, she married painter Juriaen Pool (had 10 children) Remarkably prolific = produced 250 paintings in 7 decades "Holland's art prodigy" "Our subtle art heroine" Scientific interest into categorizing Content: Possessed elegant skill and technique (element of sensitivity) She used bold and dynamic colors and textures Parallel to the growth of the Dutch industry and science of botany Flowers became newly appreciated simply for their beauty and fragrance Desirable status symbols for the wealthy However this work speaks to fruits and insects Season = Autumn Subject = fruits, vegetables, harvest, and insects Composite of the studies (combined into this composition) Grapes = blood of Christ Animals = naturalism Corn, Squash, Chestnuts Also Wheat = Eucharist (christian symbolic value) Attention to detail (particularly leaves and flowers) Less symmetrical and much more lively Curves (a sense of movement) Less formalized and orderly Possessed energy and creativity A sense of illusion and realism (the painting seem real) Story (a world of its own) Butterfly that is about to land but perhaps has second thought because there is a salamander or a small lizard

35. Acropolis

Athens, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. c. 447-410 B.C.E. Marble. Form: fragment from the frieze on the east side of the Parthenon Pentelic marble 0.96 x 2.07 meters high relief (?) higher relief towards the to of the frieze shallower carving (bas-relief) towards bottom of frieze This is because people looked up at this sculpture, so the gradient depth made the sculpture visible from the angle from which it was intended to be viewed. "frieze," in this case, according to Khan Academy = a band of sculpture that's about 3 feet tall, that wrapped around the entire Parthenon, just inside the first colonnade. to view the frieze, visitors to the Parthenon had to look up frieze was originally located above columns, harder to see from the ground this indicates the Plaque of Ergastines was an important part of the sculptural program, but not the main attraction. would have been easier to see when painted with bright colors This frieze was originally painted in bright colors Paint faded or wore away with time, now plain marble This inner frieze is an Ionic element of the Parthenon, which is on the exterior, a doric temple isocephalism heads of figures are all aligned at same height Function: To impress the glory of Athens upon those who see it depicts a scene of the Pan-Athenaic Procession Dedicated to the goddess Athena, patron of the city of Athens Decoration/beautification of the Parthenon temple To tell a story that is relevant and important to the Parthenon/the Acropolis, Athens, and Athena Content: Historians generally agree that this scene depicts the Pan-Athenaic Procession people of Athens gathered in procession up to the Acropolis (highest and one of most important points in the city) procession was to honor the goddess Athena, the patron saint of the city of Athens, to whom the Parthenon was dedicated Who were the Ergastines? Young women from notable families brought peplos—a woven, dress-like garment worn by women—to clothe an olive-wood sculpture of Athena the olive wood sculpture does not survive today was not located in the Parthenon itself, but in an adjacent temple called the Erechtheion this ritual was part of the Pan-Athenaic procession frieze shows procession of the Ergastines, along with animals being brought for sacrifice; libations figures stand in contrapposto most women put weight in left leg, right knee is bent slightly in front fabric of dress hugs and drapes around the bent knee shows movement of figure and artist's mastery of naturalistic human form figures are serene, confident, relaxed, and graceful paragon of Athenian democratic ideal There is another theory that the scene on the frieze does not actually feature the Pan-Athenaic Procession, but a mythological event this theory is not commonly accepted by art historians however it does fit better with the usual greek focus on mythological subject matter Context: High Classical style (GOLDEN AGE) acute awareness of human figure, how drapery folds and hangs around the shape of the body very intricate, curvilinear folds and drapery of cloth Phidias was one of the leading sculptors of the period helped define the classical style the height of idealized beauty we see mastery of human anatomy life, movement, and emotion represented in these figures perfection of the athenian figures depicted on this frieze reflects the idealized "perfection" of Athens and athenian democracy Athenian Renaissance of sorts end of Greco-Persian wars (499-449 BCE) once greek states were secure from Persian threat, funds from Delian League being used for military defense were turned towards the rebuilding and beautification of Athens attracted many artists (especially sculptors) to the capitol city new temples were built, old temples renovated Mythology was the subject of the vast majority of ancient greek art this frieze is an exception the choice to represent a scene of civic importance rather than mythological is significant perhaps marks the nationalistic, pro-athens zeitgeist? in wake of the Athenian victory over Persia, artist(s) now view the athenian people as worthy of being immortalized in art (?) Current controversy: Greek government is trying to get these sculptures back from museums around the world some fragments are still in Greece, some at the Louvre, but most are at British Museum Greece wants them returned to their native country British originally procured the "Elgin Marbles" from the Ottomans, who were occupying Greece at the time both sides (greek government and british) are being very tenacious tense, controversial situation FORM Contrapposto (old greek art: one leg in front of the other) Chain Folds Pull of gravity Two other nikes or nikai Coaxing on animal to sacrifice Offering trophies to a military victory How it was made? Sculptures in stone--variety of chisels to chip away at the stone hammered blows at various angles to create their effects running drill permitted sculptors to create more expressive drapery effects Sculpture in high relief lends itself to expressive contrast effects--flat with ripples Modeling lines allow sculptures to create linear patterns in drapery reveal body beneath CONTENT Nike Adjusting Her Sandals Never been clear whether its been off or on (off because walking on sacred ground) Off balance Other leg is bent while also leaning forward Wing behind her left arm (two wings) Wing help her maintain balance *Contrapposto Intentional interest to make form out of balance Relationship between the body and the drapery--accentuated it Style of Phidias drapery that clings to the forms of the body and creates very intricate folds--cascading around it (Ex. three goddesses) In this specific sculpture=transparent Peaks giving a sense of the weight of the cloth *Chain Folds Woman a Nike, the goddess of victory reaches down to fix the strap of a sandal relationship between drapery and the female anatomy FUNCTION Temple of Athena Nike Constrained space Falling off--added railing 4ft tall--with figures: Parapet Faced the walkway up High relief with figures of Nikes (figures of victory/ goddess personification of victory) CONTEXT Ionic Temple: Temple of Athena Nike A catenary is the curve a suspended line makes when hung in Greek sculpture=drapery effect created when a series of such lines are formed by fabric, often falling from the shoulders catenary pattern of parallel lines is an especially pleasing method of giving the drapery the springy qualities of actual fabric Typical of greek temples--sculpture of the goddess Athena Associated with victory and battle To show Athena's power...leading to her statue in the parthenon The Acropolis was home to several temples, one of which, the Ionic Victory against the Persian Empire (449 BCE) Peloponnesian War Athens and its allies -vs- Sparta (Athens long time nemesis) and its allies (431-404 BCE) PARTHENON- Function: dedicated to athena place of worship and importance symbol of wealth Context: top of rocky outcropping overlooking city all cities had hill period was good for athens so they built parthenon high classic detailed huge perfect incarnation of greek ideal neo classical birth place of demo reforms allowed more people to let people participate in govt 50,000 citizens out 300-400,000 inhabitants Iquitos and kallikrates built the parthenon 447-432 BCE around this time artists started signing their work (not everyone but some people) Content/Form: trad greek temple (marble) - doric with ionic features doric - fluting vertical indentations on the columns doric - vertical lines doric - columns go straight into the ground (styloblate) doric - capitols are simple doric - little flare that gives way to rectangular block abacus -- above triglyphs and metopes friezes on all four sides scultpure in peidmonts and metopes 4 ionic columns inside temple parthenon contained giant sculpture athena frieze around building under — ionic on outside frieze maybe showed Panathenaic Procession religious procession for Athena at entrance had a story of athena vs poseidon athena gave the olive tree (peace and prosperity) poseidon gave a spring -salt water (naval superiority) metope showed battles both real and not greeks vs amazons greeks vs torjans greeks vs titans etc. frieze similar to stained glass windows in churches parthenon used to be full of color athena made of gold and ivory everything distorted to makeup for flawed perception

36. Grave Stele of Hegeso

Attributed to Kallimachos. c. 410 B.C.E. Marble and paint. Form: Stele (upright slabs with relief sculptures) (like a modern day grave stone) 5'2" Marble and paint Function: grave stones Content: Relief sculpture of Hegeso and servant girl servant holds a jewelry box, and Hegeso hold and looks at a necklace now we cant see the necklace because it was painted on the stele and has worn off might represent a dowry drapery elaborate forms and swirls very close to her body She does not touch the ground her foot is on a pedestal Composition of the drapery Inscription on top says Hegeso, daughter of Proxenos Context: in the Dipylon cemetery in Athens 410 BCE: end of fifth century BCE (High classical moment) resurgence of funerary sculpture in Athens same time as the sculpture of the Parthenon and other buildings of acropolis Big time for public sculpture, but moving into private sculpture during period of democracy the state was the most important, nobles were not, sculpture showed that Hegeso woman domestic basically in a house on the stele: two walls and a roof not citizens of Athens women were defined by their relationships to men (daughter of __, or wife of __) noble, her family grave plot was super magnificent attributed to the sculptor Kallimachos Detailing of Drapery naturalistic closely follows the fold of the body resembles the carving we see on the figures of the parthenon frieze has its own motion pools around belly area, very detailed Perception of depth with drapery delicate veil around her head that is further away drapery near her feet goes behind the leg of the chair drapery at her hips hangs in front of the chair shallow space with full width of the body in the carving vivid imagery, but somehow still quiet and appropriate for a stele

97. Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo

Content: -simple composition (arrangement of visual elements in a picture) -Spanish father and Indigenous mother with their son -mother and father surrounding two children: a young boy is carrying the couples baby *NOTE THE YOUNG BOY (NOT BABY) IS NOT THEIR CHILD -Modeled off the Holy Family: Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and Christ as a child (interpretation) -The indigenous mother: dressed in huipil (traditional woman's garment worn by indigenous women from central Mexico and Central America), lace sleeves, and expensive jewelry -turns and looks at husbands as she gesture towards child -husband (Spaniard father): -wears French-style European clothing, powdered wig -gazes down at the children, hand resting on the child's back or wife's arm -the young servant looks upwards to the father (not his father): allude to his greatness -The family appears calm, harmonious, loving Context: -mestizo: (a person of a European and indigenous parent) a Spanish man and an elite Indigenous woman -This painting (the first of the series as many like this were= indigenous mother + Spaniard father)belongs to a larger series of works that document the intermix racing of the Spaniards, indigenous, Africans, and mixed population (e.i. mestizo) -Casta paintings: focus on bad living conditions for families that become more and more racially mixed, 2nd half of 18th century -As the series progresses in casta paintings (different races mixing, as families become more racially mixed) = displayed in tattered, torn, and unglamorous surroundings/ bad family dynamic after the Spaniard and indigenous family: race mixing is bad, seen as lower if you do not have European descent -also appear darker as they become more mixed, less attractive and dirty: race mixing in bad Function: -Discourage race mixing -influences that if mixed with European blood one is superior, the family will live in harmony, and "perfection" as seen in the work -casta paintings: reflect increasing social anxieties about inter-ethnic mixing -it is possible that elites (pure blood) found the dilution of pure-bloodedness alarming (they were the ones that commissioned the paintings) -My interpretation: as many European (Spaniard men) voyaged to South America, they did not bring European wives and had to mix with the women there. They still didn't agree with racial mixing and discouraged it (contradictory) therefore disliked when people keep mixing more because it "dirtied" European blood

86. Henri IV Recieves Portrait of Marie de 'Medici

Content: A young woman in a bejeweled dress with a stiff lace collar gazes confidently out of a simply-framed, bust-length portrait placed at the very center of a large canvas. Her name is Marie de' Medici, daughter of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The ancient gods of marriage and love—Hymen and Amor (Cupid), to the left and right, respectively—hover in midair as they present this portrait to Henry IV, the king of France. Hymen holds in his left hand a flaming torch, symbolizing the ardor of love, while Cupid extols the virtues of the Medici princess. Jupiter's fierce eagle, seen in the top left corner, looks away from the couple and clenches its lightning bolts in its talons. In contrast, Juno's tamed peacock looks at the divine couple, while his mate cranes her neck to look at the portrait. A pink silk ribbon binds them together. The peahen perches on Juno's chariot, directly above a golden relief of Cupid who balances a yoke-shaped garland (a symbol of marriage) on his shoulders as he playfully dances on the wings of a proud eagle. Context: This canvas is the sixth in a series of twenty-four paintings on the life of Marie de' Medici commissioned by the queen herself from Peter Paul Rubens in 1622 to adorn one of the two galleries in the Luxembourg Palace, her newly-built home in Paris. In both scale and subject matter, this cycle is unprecedented. After Henry was assassinated in 1610, Marie—acting as regent for their young son, Louis XIII—ruled the kingdom of France for seven years. The position suited her; but many French nobles begrudged her power. Divisions in the court, including tensions with her own son, led to Marie's exile from the Paris in 1617. The commission of the biographical cycle marked her reconciliation with Louis and her return to the capital city in 1620. It vindicated her reign as the queen of France. Formal qualities: Marie and cherub are the only 2 looking out at the viewer: establishes the central authority and future importance of Marie and her progeny for France. Strong vertical axis running through the work from Juno/Hera (top) through Marie de' Medici shows the maternal, fertile connection between ideal wives and mothers, as Rubens depicted it. Function: To serve as propaganda, glorifying and justifying the life and accomplishments of Marie de' Medici, Queen and Regent of France Meaning: Not only is it unique in its dedication to the major life events of a queen, but it also includes events that were both quite recent and quite humiliating.

88. San Carlo alle Quatro Fontane

Content: Above the main entrance, cherubim herms frame the central figure of Saint Charles Borromeo by Antonio Raggi and to either side are statues of St. John of Matha and St. Felix of Valois, the founders of the Trinitarian Order. The plan and section show the layout of the cramped and difficult site; the church is on the corner with the cloister next to it and both face onto the Via Pia. The monastic buildings straddle the site, beyond which Borromini intended to design a garden. The church interior is both extraordinary and complex. The three principal parts can be identified vertically as the lower order at ground level, the transition zone of the pendentives and the oval coffered dome with its oval lantern. Context: The name translates to "Saint Charles at the Four Fountains." The building itself was created as part of a small monastery for Spanish monks living in Rome. The interior floor plan is unique in that its shape resembles a Greek cross. It is located near the Sant'Andrea al Quirinale on Quirinal Hill and the two small churches are often viewed together as influential architectural works of the 17th century. While the building itself was completed in 1646, the facade was not added until 1677 by Bernardo Castelli Borromini, nephew of Francesco. Francesco Borromini had a difficult upbringing thanks to his issues with mental illness. Those wishing to commission him were often driven away by his melancholic demeanor and his quickness to anger. However, his talent was prevalent in works such as this, being that he was a student of Michelangelo and he was known for his skill in soft lead drawings, which separated him from his competitors. Formal qualities: The concave-convex facade of San Carlo undulates in a non-classic way. Tall corinthian columns stand on plinths and bear the main entablatures; these define the main framework of two storeys and the tripartite bay division. Between the columns, smaller columns with their entablatures weave behind the main columns and in turn they frame niches, windows, a variety of sculptures as well as the main door, the central oval aedicule of the upper order and the oval framed medallion borne aloft by angels. All the altars are visible as the two central columns in each arrangement of four are placed on the oblique with respect to the axial ordering of the space. This creates an undulating movement effect which is enhanced by the variation in treatment of the bays between the columns with niches, mouldings, and doors. Function: Built as part of a complex of monastic buildings on the Quirinal Hill for the Spanish Trinitarians, an order dedicated to the freeing of Christian slaves. Meaning: The site for the new church and its monastery was at the south-west corner of the "Quattro Fontane" which refers to the four corner fountains set on the oblique at the intersection of two roads.

85. Calling of St. Matthew

Content: Biblical story of the calling of Saint Matthew: Matthew, a tax collector is sitting at a table counting money, generally being shady. Jesus walks in from the right with Saint Peter by his side. Jesus points to Matthew with his hand extended, says, "You. I want you". Jesus singles Matthew out and calls on him to join him and his disciples. Matthew points to himself in a gesture of incredulity. This scene takes place in what appears to be a tavern or pub, makes the event commonplace, relatable. Characters are all dressed in contemporary clothing, setting this event in Caravaggio's time, rather than biblical times; this serves to make Matthew's experience (sinner turned follower) into something that is relatable to and possible for the everyday citizen of Rome. Context: The Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church reacted against the Protestant Reformation begun by Martin Luther (1517) after a period of austerity and withdrawal from lavish art, Catholic church experienced a revival in Rome. Change of tactics: draw believers into the Catholic faith by enthralling drama, theatrics, and shocking beauty in artwork, architecture; want to make people feel an overpowering emotional response to Catholic-inspired art, differentiating their approach to Christianity from that of the Protestants. Formal qualities: Light plays an active role in furthering the action/plot, rather than merely creating a general, ethereal glow as in the high renaissance: looks like it is streaming in from the open doorway behind Jesus and Peter (there is a clear light source); the stream of sunlight comes in diagonally from top right corner, follows Christ's finger pointing toward Matthew, highlights Matthew's face, almost seems an extension of Jesus's pointed finger. The Baroque style: frozen action (like movie stills), theatrical, high contrast tenebrism, diagonal lines, gruff gritty realism. Function: Didactic element: to portray the story of The Calling of Saint Matthew, taught from the Catholic perspective (recognizing Saints) so as to convince believers of the Catholic doctrines, to inspire support of the Counter-Reformation/Catholic Reformation. To bring viewer into the experience of the painting: Caravaggio does this by use of commonplace setting, contemporary clothing, realism, naturalism, emotive/expressive theatrics Meaning: The formation of Jesus's outstretched hand mimics Michelangelo's hand of God in The Creation of Adam (Sistine Chapel ceiling).

83. Hunters in the Snow

Content: Part of a six-part series of images called seasons of the year. Figures, and houses painted in warm, earthy tones -- contrasting from the cold blues and grays used to represent the elements. Homogenized figures, none of which show their face--represent the poor, "nameless". Hunters return from what might have been an unsuccessful hunt. Both figures and dogs bend down and sulk, looking exhausted. Small figures in the background dot a pair of frozen lakes, seemingly enjoying the winter. Figures dance about the ice, interacting with each other and small objects. Mood in the foreground -- solemn, sense of despair. Figures in bottom left third sag, trudging through the snow. Leftmost figures huddle by the fire, desperate for warmth. Almost every visible figure has a downward gaze. Architecture -- where nature and civilization meet. Rows of houses fall away into vast fields of snow. Context: Painted by Pieter Brügel the Elder in 1565. Brügel is best known for his landscapes and his focusing on the life and mannerisms of peasants; this is fitting considering the content of this work. This is probably the reason this work's patron picked Brügel. It was commissioned by Nicolaes Jonghelinck. This is a secular painting. This is one of six works in series entitled Months of the Year: strangely there are only six works instead of twelve and only 5 still exist. Northern Renaissance: the patron was from Antwerp in modern day Holland. This probably depicts a scene somewhere in the Alps. This is because Holland is an extremely flat country, yet there are mountains in the background. Formal qualities: Figures with their back towards the viewer -- draws eye into the scene, away from the foreground. Lots of contrasting colors -- draws eye around the composition. Sharp forms, less gentle blending. Very, very subtle use of atmospheric perspective in the back-most mountains and hills. The viewers eyes are drawn across the painting diagonally by the positioning of the subjects and statically placed lines. Function: Sheds light on the activities of everyday life. Reaction to the renaissance themes of nobility and religion. Making art to depict the world as it is seen. Meaning: Represents both the hardships and the enjoyments of winter.

82. Il Gesù, including Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco

Content: Single aisled church, removing others as a space for traffic to clear it up. Church has a cruciform floor plan, although the transept is not overly long on either side so it does not bear exactly like a cross in terms of proportions. The church has a dome over the intersection of the large nave and transept. Very dark interior, and it is thus chiefly dependent on natural lighting from outside. An interesting mix of the rational and Baroque styles. Focus on the altar in the center. Renaissance style columns. Corinthian, ornate, and made of rich materials. Some of them reuse ancient pieces/ The reusing of ancient materials is called "spolia". Context: Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the newfound Jesuit religion, needed a church to serve as the religion's center. The Jesuit religion was a very dramatic response to the recent reformation. They were very against the reformation and focused their teachings on charitable works, education, and missionaries. Very tense moment in terms of religion, as the reformation was almost 100 years prior and there were many religious wars going on. It was then funded by Cardinal Farnese, who was the Pope's grandson. Church is in the center of old Rome/ Very close to the Pantheon and Roman Forum/ Formal qualities: A Gesú, which is simply Italian for the name for the mother church. Church was designed by Giacomo da Vignola and Giacomo Della Porta in 1575. Triumph of the Name of Jesus is a fresco painted in the traditional style. Ceiling fresco done in 1678-1679 by Giovanni Battista Gaulli. Function: Serves as the main and original church for the Jesuits. Also served as a model for the future Jesuit churches in terms of architecture and style. Ceiling fresco serves to illustrate the beliefs of the Jesuits. Called the people to their faith and scared them into not believing. A strong emphasis to choose this path and not leave or refuse it Meaning: Important place for previous and current Jesuits, as it is the mother church.

90. Angel with Aequebus

Content: The dress of the angels with guns corresponds to the dress of Andean aristocrats and Inca royalty, and is distinct from the military attire of Gheyn's harquebusiers. The dress of Asiel Timor Dei was an Andean invention that combines contemporary European fashion and the typical dress of indigenous noblemen. While colonial gentlemen were aware of fashion trends in Europe through the dissemination of prints, they invented certain outfits that came from Spanish America, such as the overcoat with large balloon-like sleeves. The excess of textile in Asiel Timor Dei indicates the high social status of its wearer. Context: The Catholic Counter Reformation held a militaristic ideology that portrayed the Church as an army and angels as its soldiers. The armed angel in Asiel Timor Dei represented this philosophy: its gun and mere existence protects faithful Christians. Although the Council of Trent (1545-1563) had condemned all angelic depictions and names but those of Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael in the mid-sixteenth century, this ban was observed neither in the Viceroyalty of Peru nor in Baroque Spain. In fact, angels appeared in paintings in the royal convents of Las Descalzas Reales and Encarnación in Madrid, Spain. Some of the angels in the paintings of both these convents (painted by Bartolomé Román in the early seventeenth century) were reproduced and sent to the Jesuit Church of San Pedro in Lima, Peru. The workshop of the famed Spanish artist Francisco de Zurbarán also sent paintings of angels to the Monastery of Concepción in Lima. The Spanish Inquisition later prohibited the cult of angels in the mid-seventeenth century, but depictions of angels still flourished in the "New World." Function: The angels with guns personify at once the military, aristocracy, and sacred beings, and were adorned with the most lavish attire.

84. Mosque of Selim II

Content: The mosque, with two madrasas on its southeast and southwest, is located within a courtyard (190 m x 130 m). Mosque: two symmetrical square madrasas (served as a college for studying traditions of Muhammad). Square prayer hall: approached through porticoed courtyard. Approach to north facade of mosque is overwhelming— aligned gates of outer precinct wall, focus eye towards dome which can be seen from a distance. Buttresses support the east and west piers— hold up the weight of the massive dome. The Qibla: wall that faces Mecca, projects outward emphasizing openness of interior space. Muezzin's platform (leader of prayers to chant congregation): placement under the center of the dome is not traditional— reflects Sinan's interest in surpassing Christian architecture— position of platform also creates a vertical alignment of octagon, square, circle. Context: Completed in Edirne, rather than capital Istanbul. Edirne was where Selim was stationed as a prince when his father campaigned in Persia in 1548. Edirne located in the Balkans, had historical and geographical significant for its history as a capital of the Ottoman Empire before Istanbul and was the second city of the Empire. Edirne was first major city that traveling Europeans would pass in the Ottoman Empire. Selim built this mosque there to exemplify Ottoman Empire's greatness. Mosque also was able to dominate the domestic landscape of Edirne, making it the defining place of the city. Son of Suleiman the Magnificent. Formal qualities: The ethereal dome: weightless and floating in prayer hall, architectural features are inferior to the grand dome. The grand dome rests on eight muqarnas-corbelled squinches supported by eight large piers. Muqarnas are faceted decorative forms, protrude and recess- they bridge a point of transition. Interior decoration: repainted, polychrome, Iznik tiles, Ottoman decoration, motifs iconography saz leaves and Chinese clouds. Muqarnas: ornamented vaulting, geometric subdivision of a squinch. Function: An example of Ottoman Empire's wealth and greatness, along with its power and vastness (along a popular tourist passing through place, showed tourists of its dominance). Mosque— displays differences between Islam and Christianity. Meaning: The mosque represents Islam's triumph. It also was an attempt to surpass the Hagia Sophia and the Byzantine Basilica in Istanbul.

87. Self Portrait with Saskia

Content: The two figures are presented in half-length, seated around a table before a plain background. Rembrandt dominates the image as he engages the viewer with a serious expression. The brim of his hat casts a dark shadow over his eyes, which adds an air of mystery to his countenance. Saskia, rendered on a smaller scale and appearing rather self-absorbed, sits behind him. Rembrandt, however, has transformed the traditional marriage portrait into something more inventive. Context: In addition to serving as one of many self-portraits, this small etching can also be regarded as an example of a marriage portrait. The young woman shown seated at the table with the 30 year old Rembrandt is his wife, Saskia van Uylenburgh. Rembrandt most likely met Saskia while working for her cousin, Hendrick Uylenburgh, an art dealer who had a workshop in Amsterdam. The two married on June 22, 1634 and remained together for thirteen years until Saskia's untimely death at the age of 30. Surprisingly, it is the only etching that Rembrandt ever made of Saskia and himself together. Formal qualities: This etching marks the first time that Rembrandt has presented himself as an artist at work. In his left hand he holds a porte-crayon (a two-ended chalk holder) and appears to have been drawing on the sheet of paper before him. By identifying himself as a draftsman, Rembrandt draws attention to his mastery of what was regarded as the most important basic skill of an artist. Function: Documentation of Rembrandt's life with his favorite wife. Meaning: The image is probably intended as an illustration of the idea that 'love brings forth art'.

89. Ectasy of Saint Teresa

Content: When we walk toward the chapel we see that on either side of us, on the side walls, there are what look like theater boxes. In these boxes, seated figures in appear to be talking and gesturing to each other. Perhaps they are kneeling in prayer as they watch and discuss the scene of the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa. This is Saint Teresa's description of the event that Bernini depicts: Beside me, on the left, appeared an angel in bodily form.... He was not tall but short, and very beautiful; and his face was so aflame that he appeared to be one of the highest rank of angels, who seem to be all on fire.... In his hands I saw a great golden spear, and at the iron tip there appeared to be a point of fire. This he plunged into my heart several times so that it penetrated to my entrails. When he pulled it out I felt that he took them with it, and left me utterly consumed by the great love of God. The pain was so severe that it made me utter several moans. The sweetness caused by this intense pain is so extreme that one cannot possibly wish it to cease, nor is one's soul content with anything but God. This is not a physical but a spiritual pain, though the body has some share in it—even a considerable share. Context: A deliberately intense work of Christian art, it is regarded as one of the most important examples of the Counter-Reformation style of Baroque sculpture, designed to convey spiritual aspects of the Catholic faith. The work depicts an episode of "religious ecstasy" in the life of the cloistered Spanish mystic and nun Teresa of Avila, as described in her autobiography "The Life of Teresa of Jesus". Formal qualities: Its spatial construction, use of light, trompe l'oeil mural painting, along with the marble, gilded wood and gilt bronze materials used, is a perfect vehicle for such an expression of piety. The marble sculpture itself - its whiteness contrasting with the polychrome marble surround - precisely poised above the altar as if it were a divine occurrence in mid-air, is a perfect combination of movement and stillness. Yet the drapery also conveys the "agitation" of the swooning nun. And Bernini's incredible attention to detail is clearly visible in the meticulous carving of the little finger of the Angel's left hand, and the thumb and forefinger of his right hand. Function: The work is consistent with the aims of the Catholic Counter-Reformation art campaign, which sought to convey the mysteries of Catholicism as cogently as possible. Meaning: The traditional interpretation of Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa is relatively straightforward. The sculpture portrays the Saint's overpowering sense of spiritual pleasure in serving Christ. Bernini employs imagery which suggests sensual pleasure, but only in order to convey the tangible nature of Teresa's experience - a manifestation of her love of God and her yearning for spiritual union with him.

81. Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza

Content: At the center of the schematic diagram of Tenochtitlan is an eagle on a cactus growing from the midst of a lake. The eagle and the cactus relate to the narrative surrounding the capital's establishment. According to Aztec myth, their patron deity, Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird Left), told the Aztecs' ancestors to leave their ancestral home of Aztlan and look for a place where they saw an eagle atop a cactus growing from a rock. He informed them that when they saw this sign, they should settle and build their city. For the Aztecs, they observed the sign in the middle of Lake Texcoco, and so established their capital on an island in the lake. Context: Around 1541, the first viceroy of New Spain, Antonio de Mendoza, commissioned a codex to record information about the Aztec empire. The codex, now known as the Codex Mendoza, contained information about the lords of Tenochtitlan, the tribute paid to the Aztecs, and an account of life "from year to year." The artist or artists were indigenous, and the images were often annotated in Spanish by a priest that spoke Nahuatl, the language spoken by the Nahuas (the ethnic group to whom the Aztecs belonged). Viceroy Mendoza intended to send the Codex to the Spanish King, Emperor Charles V of Spain, although it never made it to Spain; French pirates acquired the Codex and it ended up in France. Upon its appearance in sixteenth-century France, it was acquired by André Thevet, the cosmographer to King Henry II of France, and Thevet included his name on several pages, including at the top of the Codex Mendoza's frontispiece. Formal qualities: stylized, two dimensional, solid bright colors, animal symbols and motifs. This story, of the eagle swooping down to pick up the prickly pear, has even made it into the modern day, influencing the centerpiece of the current Mexican Flag. This page, as well, shows a temple above the eagle, and a skull rack to its right. This placement tells us about the city planning of Tenochtitlan, and displays for us what each quadrant is meant for in the city. Finally, below the city, we see a depiction of conquest, informing us as to how the Aztecs gained the lad that they were settled on Function: The Codex contains a wealth of information about the Aztecs and their empire. Meaning: images annotated by Spanish priest that could speak Nahuatl (language of the Aztecs)→ sense of the control the story

39. House of the Vettii

Context Many wealthy families of Pompeii fled to other Roman cities after Earthquake of Pompeii in 62 CE Created a vacuum of wealthy families; a new upper class emerged consisting mainly of freedmen Conviva and Restitutus were both freedmen, new to wealth and status. House owned by Aulus Vettius Conviva and his brother, Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Conviva was an augustalis, a position of the highest civic office a freedman could attain. To become augustalis like Conviva, one had to make a significant donation to a public works project. House excavated first from 1894-1896. 2 of the rooms opening onto the peristyle were still being painted at the time of the eruption Speculated the brothers got their wealth from being wine merchants, and effectively bought their elite status Domestic art (wall painting and sculpture) after the Earthquake became markedly sexual and less morally clean. Newly rich homes had art with mythological and cult paintings to impress their guests and pronounce their status. Form Covers 1,100 sq. meters Demonstrates Pompeii's late artistic and architectural styles (was still being completed at Vesuvius eruption.) No office space (tablinum): could show they have no differential between public and private affairs (they were social climbers; not extremely private perhaps.) The house's paintings and interior decoration indicate a theme of forward-thinking Layout demonstrates the relatively public nature of Roman houses Large entertainment rooms also served as places of commerce and business Only rooms that were truly private were servant's quarters and women's "gynaeceum" Content Wall paintings, called "decorative schema" have meaning disputed amongst Art Historians Some think wall paintings represent the transition from Pompeii's 3rd to 4th style of painting Others think the paintings are examples of only 4th-style-Pompeiian painting. Fourth style wall paintings were generally expansive and imitated higher art; they turned rooms into galleries* Contains two large, central halls (atria) Largest of the rooms opening on the peristyle contains wall paintings in red and black Has detailed motif of putti/erotes: mythical winged gods of love The impluvium (water basin) lies at the center of the atrium for collecting rain. Increasedly sexual nature of the paintings and artwork marks a decline in Pompeii's moral standards and decency. Phallic figures, god Priapus, females being sexual objects and raped by men and gods. Depictions of nude males, however, symbolized "fertility" and protection of the house... Graffiti found on the house suggests prostitution was a common and inexpensive ordeal in Pompeii at the time Wall paintings depict Cupids collecting grapes; it was later discovered that Pompeii was home to great vineyards Function To display the wealth and status (albeit newly gained) of the brothers Vettii 2 lockboxes for storing valuables were displayed proudly in the vestibulum Painting of the god Prianus was displayed in the vestibule; he weighs phallus against money Painting may have showed the Vettii's unique ambitions and motivations for wealth, differing from the traditional Roman wealthy families' ways. The smaller atrium functioned as a service area Peristyle and its rooms functioned for dining and entertainment Insight into Pompeiian domestic architecture and design (specifically at the transition from 3rd to 4th style) Significant in size Indicates the changes in design of Roman Houses around the 3rd quarter of the first century CE. Indicates social mobility in Pompeii around that time; brothers went from freedmen to very wealthy Leads to historical discoveries (like in 1970 --> discovered that Pompeii had grown grapes; paintings in house depict grape-picking)

47. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

Context: sarcophagi start to appear more commonly in the beginning of the second century. found at a tomb near Porta Tiburtina (a gate in the Aurelian Walls of Rome). no one knows whose sarcophagus this is, but whoever it was was rich (to buy such a large piece of marble and high such a skilled sculptor would have been expensive). created at a time in Roman history which was marked by instability and civil wars (and preceded by stability and peace). this historical shift is clear in the chaotic, complex nature of this piece . moves away from high classic Greek art (in fact, it's almost the opposite!) less focused on the beauty of the human body and more focused on the interactions between people. an example of the typical artistic style of Late Imperial Rome (also includes aspects common to the Late Antique period). this style is marked by emotional subject matters and a lack of realistic space. inspired by the Hellenistic style (as seen the movement and density of the composition). named for its first modern owner, Ludovico Ludovisi. Form: made of white marble; high (like REALLY HIGH) relief. some of the figures are almost completely disconnected from the base. incredibly detailed carvings ; made with a drill. used to mimic the intensity and chaos of the battle. at some places, this piece has 4 layers of figures on top of on top of each other (!!!). the figures along the bottom are physically smaller (makes a viewer feel like they are looking down upon them). the sculptor uses shields and other aspects to frame and intentionally highlight certain figures this piece greatly utilizes the alternation and contrast of light and darkness to guide a viewers eye; the shadows caused by the multiple layers of carving and the extremely high relief greatly contribute to the piece Content: generally the figures lack individuality. Romans = very clearly the noble soldiers and good guys in this piece. This can be seen through their appearance. The Romans have...attractive characteristics; serious expressions; smooth skin. The Goths/the Barbarians/The Gauls (celtic tribes that were in Western Europe) = the enemy. They are displayed disdainfully (in the same way the Greeks portrayed them) with...puffy cheeks and noses; wild expressions; uncivilized, primitive features; rough, uneven skin. The Hero - the man in the top center of the sarcophagus; the clear focal point (the only somewhat open space in the midst of a tangled mess) splayed out; open-chested; strong; fancy, heavy draped armor; no weapon; likely a general; no helmet = invincible. Everything is MOVING! Movement is KEY to this piece; a narrative piece, the sarcophagus displays dozen of stories through the individual interactions between figures Function: Created to mark the grave of a rich, unidentified Roman (many scholars believe that the sarcophagus belongs to the splayed-out-focal-point-man in the carvings)

#6 Anthropomorphic Stele

El-Maakir-Qayrat al-Kaafa near Ha'il, Saudi Arabia; 4,000-3,000 BCE; Sandstone; 29x21 cm CONT - represents a human (anthropomorphic) where the work gets its name from Emphasis of carving is on the front, both sides are carved, specifically the face, chest, and waist The face/head is trapezoidal in shape with a pair of eyes and a long nose The chest has a necklace running parallel, across the body with an awl (small pointed tool) running perpendicularly through it Along the waist there is some sort of belt or sheath holding a double bladed dagger The belt runs all the way around the front and back CONTXT - This work was formed in pre-islamic Northern Saudi Arabia, Ha'il Ha'il is along the trade routes from the Arabian peninsula into modern day Iraq and Syria This specific Stele was found among over 60 others near Ha'il This area was heavily populated for the time due to its fertile ground Other Stelae with similar characteristics have been found all over the Arabian Peninsula this possibly indicates a similar belief system also indicates that objects like these were traded and exchanged during the Neolithic period FORM - Made from Sandstone The carvings are not very intricate despite sandstone not being difficult to carve/ Simple and slightly abstract indicates artistic ability/skill of the society The carvings are bas-relief FUNC - These objects were small and found over the expansive area of Saudi Arabia indicating that they had some value Stele- A stele is a vertical stone monument or marker often inscribed with text or relief carving considering that they were found in large quantities near a village, they may have had some cultural importance Connected to the pre-islamic belief in the afterlife Shows the importance of the human figure

29. Sarcophagus of the Spouses

Etruscan. c. 520 B.C.E. Terra cotta. Context: Found in an Etruscan tomb in a necropolis, Banditaccia at Cerveteri This is considered the most important work ever found in one of these tombs Only history of the Etruscans being the art and the inscriptions that came with them there are two versions of this work One in the Louvre in Paris The other in the Etruscan Museum in Rome Both are meant to be appreciated as the same work The Etruscans were in Northern Italy just North of the Romans Before the Romans became the vast empire that they are remembered as Made in 520 BCE, 11 years before the last Etruscan King was kicked out of Rome Found in approximately 400 hundred pieces other Important work being "The Tomb of Triclinium" Form: Painted Terra Cotta High-relief Relaxed figure Odd considering concurrent works would be the Kouros in Greece those being extremely stiff Split twice Once sagittally and once to separate the lid and the base Most likely so that it would fit in a kiln Content: two figures Man and a woman Previous greek statues were mostly free standing With both together, it creates a sense of intimacy Both are seemingly reaching out, creating depth and a 360 degree work of art The figures are thought to have held something in their hands, however, what exactly that was is not clear Could have been objects relating to a banquet Not a portrait Have the Archaic Smile Function: takes the form of a bed, upon which the deceased are resting Serves similarly to the Kouros Gravemarker Indicative of burial practices Displays the importance of the woman in Etruscan culture by displaying the woman with her husband In greece, the banquets were reserved for just men

91. Las Meninas

FORM: -1656 -Oil on canvas -125 1/4 x 108 5/8 in. (318 x 276 cm) - Located currently in Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid -Used to be housed in the royal palace(Royal Alcazar of Madrid), the king's study -Extremely large painting, and inside the painting we can see a very large painting of the same size of the painting itself, being painted -Uses very loose brushstrokes, but still comes together compositionally to create a clear, detailed, realistic image that also has a sense of life -Utilizes scientific, but also aerial perspective - Multiplication of the light sources FUNCTION: - Velazquez gives us informal glimpse, something we, as commoners could never see -Made for the King and Queen to privately view -at a most basic level it demonstrates the art of painting by showing an artist at work, trying to give idea that artists were intellectuals -The characters stare beyond the frame, at us -a self portrait that shows status, he is seen in the same room with the royals, holds a paintbrush because his ability to render these figures gives him his on power, this interp. fits with his obsession at the end of his life to become a gentleman, wanted to be a knight a the order of Santiago CONTENT: -Paintings of Ovid's The Metamorphisis that hang in the background, both stories of gods wrestling with mortals, very applicable to the themes of Las Meninas -These paintings on the were done by Rubens who was his hero, and their choice in the painting is a reference to his own title of art installer -Utilizes Illusions of space, depth and perspective -Surface of his canvas is hidden to us, could be a portrait of the little princess, could be a portrait of the King and Queen, who are seen reflected in the mirror -The people in the center are the princess, maids of honor,palace official, chaperone, dog, dwarf (often hired to keep children company), and other attendants -The figures in the painting look at us in a very real way, the glances tell a story -The painting is set in his studio -he paints a pallet which is very mind-blowing because it is shown housing raw paint, the very stuff Velasquez actually created this work with - He was inducted into the Catholic organization the Order of Santiago posthumously by the king, so in the painting, after he died the insignia of the group was painted onto his figure, it is even rumored that the king painted it on himself -groups of two's all male/female pairs highlighting the princess, also use of groups of three on same horizontal plane CONTEXT: -To fight the unattractive qualities from the royal family's inbreeding he compensated by painting them in elaborate clothes, demonstrating wealth and distracting from flaws - Velazquez was the court artist, "the first painter to the king" he was responsible for art instillation in the palace, and he also was commissioned to do several portraits of the royal family -Not a typical portrait, which demonstrated ethereal perfection, wealth, and command, this scene is more chaotic/informal, making commentary on the false nature of portraiture of royalty -Combines genre scene with royal portrait - Specific names of figures: King Philip IV of Spain, princess- the Infanta Margaret Theresa, attendants-María Agustina Sarmiento de Sotomayor, doña Isabel de Velasco, dwarves- Maria Barbola and Nicolas Pertusato

40. Alexander Mosaic

FORM: -floor mosaic, 2.72 by 5.13 meters -made from more than one million and a half pieces of stone and glass -found in the House of Faun in Pompeii -possibly based on a wall painting done in 315 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period by a greek artist named Philoxenos because it matches a description of the painting written by Pliny -found on the floor between to peristyles (open courtyards) crowded by columns FUNCTION: -found in the House of Faun which was the nicest mansion found in Pompeii which means it was a piece of art aristocrats would have invested in for perhaps their own enjoyment and for the enjoyment of guests -the bronze faun statue found there suggests the owners cared much for art -the subject matter is significant, it depicts the god-like (think about his breastplate)breastplate, powerful, strong historical figure, Alexander who like the Romans, wanted to conquer the world, and had qualities of strength and military genius which would have been admired by Romans -Alexander's conquest notably lead to the unification of Greece, a culture the Roman's respected and imitated, the mosaic would have been a symbol of this respect, and almost a source of inspiration CONTENT: -depicts the Battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great and Darius III -a very dramatic and chaotic scene with a sense of momentum as the massive chariot is turning around - Darius is turning his army around, his face with a desperate and, emotional quality, his hand extended in horror of his guard who has just been speared in front of him, a gesture preventing him from actually fighting and he is rather just taken aback -pretty empty at the top, considered evidence it was based on the painting -turned faces and bodies, show an understanding and respect for the human form and anatomy -excellent use of foreshortening in the horse -Foreshortening: used in art to reduce or distort (parts of a represented object that are not parallel to the picture plane) in order to convey the illusion of three-dimensional space as perceived by the human eye: often done according to the rules of perspective -incredibly detailed due to the use of so many pieces, one example being the soldier's reflection in his own shield -Alexander's breastplate has Medusa's head, which was used as a magical protection spell from evil, it also can symbolize divine birth -most, about 3/4 of the remaining mosaic depicts the Persians, but almost all their spears providing a line of focus to Alexander CONTEXT: -Republican Roman, c. 100 B.C.E. -found in the city of Pompeii which was preserved in ash after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius -it was found in the House of Faun, named after the bronze statue of a faun found there - wishful thinking on the part of art historians that it is based on a greek painting because there are none left - the Battle of Issus (333 BC) which was a turning point in ancient history because the ruler of Persia (Darius III) is ordering a retreat of his troops -Darius has a look of desperation, and history says that Alexander pitied his family and let them live -this piece's choice of subject matter and naturalism ultimately shows the Roman appreciation for greek art -Alexander is not depicted in his typical form here, as an incarnation of Zeus, Helios or Apollo with long ringlets and soft, idealized features, but is more natural THEMES: -Function of art: art as decoration -Preserving history -Commemoration

43. Augustus of Prima Porta

FORM: Imperial Roman, Early first century C.E., 20 B.C.E Marble found in the villa of Livia (his wife), at Primaporta free standing, sculpture in the round bas-relief carving on the breastplate standing contrapposto most likely a copy of a bronze sculpture, many copies would have been made CONTENT: political significance, filled with Roman political ideology idealized statue of him, very young and attractive cupid is pulling down his garment at his ankle, symbolizing his own divine lineage the cuirass, or breastplate depicts the god of the sky and the goddess of the Earth, divine convergence, on its sides there are female personifications of the nations conquered by Rome (specifically by Augustus) the sun god and sky god (Sol and Caelus) are at the top of the cuirass, and therefore shine down on all these parts of the empire spreading Roman glory and light his prestige is awarded by the use of elements from Ancient Greece wearing army garb and has his hand out, not just an orator...he is addressing his troops who will go and conquer perfect/flawless flake and body, athletic, young unlike early Hellenistic statue he is very still, calm and stately, with little movement barefoot goes against typical statues of the time and makes it more naturalistic and divine wears a tunic which at this point in history was associated to the deified Julius Caesar CONTEXT: Augustus claimed to be reestablishing the senate, but in reality, he is just trying to stabilize the Roman government so he could establish himself as Rome's first real emperor in the previous historical period (the Roman Republic) had an age requirement, an old council of elders, and it was ruled by the senate, but in the Imperial Roman period Augustus was the sole ruler utilizes the "Canon" of proportions and his statue is reminiscent of Athens during the age of Pericles (5th century BC), Polykleitos' Doryphoros the Cupid is a significant choice because Caesar Augustus claims his ancestors are: Aeneas (founder of Rome and son of Venus, hence the Cupid) and Julius Caesar (made into a god) Cupid rides a dolphin which symbolizes Augustus' win in the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) using naval power over Antony and Cleopatra, a victory making Augustus emperor named after the Italian town it was discovered in (1863) after his reign he created 200 years of peace (pax romana) so this statue is a precursor serenity of peace and even chosen imagery on breastplate (no battle scene) reflect how he recently ended civil wars doesn't have anything like sun rays or specific qualities of a god like Alexander would have had, Augustus refused to be deified or called a dictator to keep the guise of the republic and not make the people envious FUNCTION: served as a portrait of her husband considering it was found in her home there would have been many bronze copies distributed around Rome, and put in public places as a type of propaganda the statues showed the positive qualities, what he looked like (no photos so commoners wouldn't even know what the Emperor looked like), it shows how he wanted to portray himself to the people in a godlike way one scene on the breastplate depicts the Romans getting back their standards from the Parthians, showing Rome's superiority and power "visual propaganda" demonstrating Augustus' military prowess and the Religion of Rome

93. The Palace of Versailles

FUNCTION To emphasize and demonstrate Louis XIV's Importance To host parties and military agreements To compare Louis XIV's competence and wisdom with that of the ancient Greeks and Romans, especially Apollo, the Sun God. Residential palace for Louis XIV and successive French monarchs, from 1682-1789 (Revolution began) Demonstrated the shift in the French government's power from the Noble families (aristocracy) to the King, Louis XIV To embody and define the French Baroque style, and establish Louis XIV's dominance over the arts and architecture of the 1600s. To symbolize the power and prestige of Absolute Monarchy. 2. CONTEXT Begun in 1661, completed ~1682 Louis XIV's Staff Louis le Vau: chief architect to the King Built the Grand Façade and the King and Queen's apartments Built the park's Orangerie and Menagerie Adopted the Italian-style 'invisible' roof hidden by a trophy-adorned balustrade Balustrade: a railing supported by ornamental parapets André le Nôtre: landscape designer of the gardens Charles le Brun: interior decorator and painter Jules Hardouin Mansart: favorite architect (toward the latter parts of the construction process) Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Principal advisor to the King Collaborated with Louis XIV to organize art and architecture to serve the French state. Hyacinthe Rigaud: Painter to the French King Pierre Puget: Sculptor; his works are in the King's Gardens Portraiture Often portraits of Louis XIV, the Sun King, were collaborations by artists with specializations in fabric, architecture, landscape, armor, or fur. Most famous portrait is by Hyacinthe Rigaud, called "Louis XIV," done with Oil on Canvas in 1701. Larger than life portrait Now hangs in the Louvre Shows Louis XIV in his finest robes and heels (he was only 5'4"!) Rigaud's portrait hung over his throne, and served in his place when he was absent; courtiers never turned their back to the portrait. Louis XIV Himself -- and his Plots to Control French Culture Louis XIV was most prominent patron of the arts in the 1600s France in 1600s was the largest, most powerful European nation, despite its semi-expansive economy. Louis XIV was a master of propaganda and political strategies He and Jean-Baptiste Colbert recognized the power of visual imagery and architecture in creating public personas. Louis XIV and Colbert tried to normalize artistic taste and define the dominance of the Classical Style How Louis XIV exercised his control Kept the Nobility's power in check, invited them to festivities at Versailles to remind them of his power Gave them benefits, but didn't let them rebel Stated his Divine Right to rule Named himself "le Roi Soleil," the Sun King (Like Sun God Apollo) Louis XIV converted a royal hunting lodge into the palace of Versailles Just south of Paris Louis XIV hired architects, decorators, sculptors, painters, landscapers under Charles le Brun's control 3. CONTENT Satellite city to the East of the Palace at Versailles Housed court and government officials, military and guard detachments, courtiers, servants City's 3 main avenues' axes converged on Louis XIV's bedchamber He could keep an eye on all the highest-ranking officials in his regime King's bedroom was an informal audience chamber Extremely detailed, ornate interior Top architects and decorators designed wall paintings, beds, doorknobs in French Baroque style Hall of Mirrors (Galerie des Glaces) Originally had furniture: gold and silver chairs, bedazzled trees Walls inlaid with mirrors Mirrors create illusion, the hallmark of the Baroque style Used for Louis XIV's many festivals Gardens Visible from Hall of Mirrors: central axis lined with trees, terraces, pools, and lakes Designed by André le Nôtre, who transformed a forest into the park/gardens Formal gardens serve as a transition from the ordered, man-made palace to the natural gardens Manicured shrubs, highly designed space Changes depending on time of day, season, and location: it's an experience Great undertaking, both in size and complexity 4. FORM Stone, marble, glass, gold, silver, wood, gardens 700 rooms 2153 windows 67,000 m^2 of floor space 2000 acres of gardens

38. Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon

Form 35.64 by 33.4 metres White marble remains; would've been painted brilliantly in its age High relief sculpture creates great drama, shadow, contrast More prominent gods and figures are in higher relief Function Worship of the Greek pantheon of Gods and their dominance over their enemies Optimism of the Greek spirit in confronting the unknown and unfamiliar cultures (like the Giants) Representation of Greek prowess and might Sacrifices may have been offered at the top of the stairs Content A battle of the Greek mythological pantheon of gods vs. the Giants to determine the controller of the universe Athena Fights Alkyoneus, the main giant, as his mother looks on in horror Appears confident and triumphant as she fights Being crowned from behind by a winged Nike Uses battle snakes to aid in defeating the giants Earned name Athena "gigantolteira" = slayer of the giants Zeus Battles 3 Giants at once, with the help of an eagle (above) and his lightning bolt Cloaked in realistically ruffled robes 2 of the three giants he has already defeated; they lie in (youthful) ruin around him Context Created during the Hellenistic Period (c. 200-150 B.C.E.) in Pergamon, modern-day Turkey, 20 miles from the coast. Alexander the Great "Hellenized," or spread Greek influence, from Egypt to the Indus Valley during his reign. When Alexander the Great died, his four generals inherited his land and reign. One of the generals saw the hilltop of Pergamon as geographically desirable, and therefore built the city of Pergamon. In the 1800s, the Prussians wanted to achieve/mimic French and British culture, so they created the Pergamon Museum. The Pergamon Museum of Berlin recreated the Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon very realistically (lots of artistic effort by the Museum.) In ancient Pergamon, the altar would've been surrounded by a library of 200,000+ scrolls, a royal palace for the king, and a garrison for soldiers. The altar was never fully completed because King Prusias II attacked Pergamon in 156 BCE. Themes Divinity Power of the gods, role of the gods Reverence towards and fear of the gods Religion Rituals and performance - sacrifice Worship Preserving history, myths, and legends - preserving culture

42. Head of a Roman Patrician

Form Also known as the Otricoli Head (the name of the individual is unknown) From Otricoli, Italy; now housed in the Palazzo Torlonia in Rome, Italy Approx. 1' 2" high Republican Roman c. 75-50 BCE Marble Polychromed (painted in several colors) Terra Cotta- was used and then painted with encaustic (otherwise referred to as a hot wax process) Use of clay (additive and subtractive) process was convenient because with this form of sculpting mistakes can be fixed Veristic Style: Verism A form of realism (hyper-realistic) Over exaggerated (extremely aged and care worn) Used as a way of honoring powerful elders Unlike the Greek, the Romans believed that a head was enough to suffice as a portrait Influenced by the tradition of ancestral imagines Death wax masks of notable ancestors were kept and displayed by the family Aristocratic families Masks were used at funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade A reminder that one's public image played a major role in what was a turbulent time in Roman history Function A veristic sculpture that accurately depicts a patrician Admire the age of the elderly (in this case, an old patrician) Symbolizes the virtues of wisdom, determination, experience, valor and strength that all Roman Republicans hoped to obtain Content Description: wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls The face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages Physical traits meant to convey seriousness of mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors--in the days of the Roman Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena This Veristic (or surrealistic) portrait of an unknown Roman patrician depicts carefully sculpted detail in the face, especially wrinkles and changes in texture Instead of trying to make their subject appear perfect and youthful patrician portraits from the ancient Roman Republic aimed to highlight distinctive facial features wrinkles and other signs of ageing on this portrait in particular serve to point out his admirable qualities of experience, seriousness, and determination

45. Forum of Trajan

Form Luna Marble originally painted 125 ft tall (monumental sculpture) actual column 98 ft atop the pedestal weights 1,110 tons top drum weights 53 tons made from multiple blocks, hollow, there is a staircase inside (spiral, 185 steps) topped with a bronze statue of Trajan (but was replaced by a statue of st. peter in 1588 CE) Function narrates two campaigns that Trajan fought the Dacians defining event of Trajan's 19 year rule brought back tons of gold and silver and land to commemorate the victory, Trajan commissioned a forum towering over the forum, stone column Content 155 scenes carved into a spiral frieze bas-relief (58 feature Trajan) 2,662 intricately carved romans and Dacians romans orderly and uniformed, Dacians less so romans clean shaven, Dacians shaggy scenes of Trajan leading the army, judging prisoners, and holding war councils, addressing troops, performing sacrifices when he is in the scene, all figures focused on him to draw the viewer's attention some of the scenes they are building camps and fortifications very solid, regular, and well designed compared to humble Dacian buildings bottom - bearded naked man with back to us - representation of the Danube river, where the war started (Germany-ish) all rivers depicted as bearded half-naked men 190 m long narrative goes from the beginning of first war to second war to scene of enemy leader Decebalus killing himself 22 layers total, each layer 1 yd (layers not registers b/c spiral) each campaign separated by a scene with a shield and victory trophies Base: the defeated weapons (not people) representation of typical dacian weapons shows them as powerful opponents base of the column was a victory crown Inscription on base reads "The Senate and the People of Rome To Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan Augustus, son of the divine Nerva Conqueror of Germany and Dacia, high priest, with the office of the tribune 17 times Proclaimed Imperator 6 times, elected consul 6 times, father of the Empire Here shows the height which this hill once stood Now removed for such great works as these" Context completed 113 CE Dedicated to Emperor Trajan (b 53, d. 117 CE) in honor of his victory over Dacia (101-02 and 105-06 CE) Dacia = modern day Romania they were a "troublesome neighbor" to rome and were also rich in natural resources First campaign - Trajan defeats Dacian leader Decebalus Then dacians were hostile second war - Trajan won again 100 days of celebration over the victory as Rome exploited Dacia's natural wealth celebration of the greatness of the roman people, the empire, ability to bring civilization, their ingenuity, their ability to build. victory, the reign of Trajan, he was able to build something lasting, like the forum. Celebration of the person, not one aspect of his life. Trajan's ashes buried within the foundations of the column building this was really freaking hard demonstrates the complex tasks that roman architects could complete was the first of many honorific columns (column of marcus aurelius, column of arcadius, column of Justinian) nowadays used to study the equipment, weapons, and tactics used by the roman army Monumental sculpture "The Triumph" military ritual celebrated by the Romans whenever they would win a victory, there would be a big festival but then it was over (ephemeral) would anyone remember the armies? thats how monumental sculpture came in Started tradition of Triumphal monuments early ones were columns (like Caius Dulius (c260 BCE)) then moves into the arch the later construction of permanent monuments (like the Arch of Titus) served to make an impact on the urban landscape (and the collective memory of city dwellers) that lasted far longer than the events of the day itself. Monumental sculpture is not just big sculpture shows ideals shows what a culture values ex: the kouros is a monumental sculpture shows how the greeks valued athleticism and youth and beauty Column of Trajan shows how the romans value victory, expansion, strength, and power. They value their ability to build and to conquer

46. Pantheon

Form Function Content Context Corinthian columns in front are monolithic, made from marble Corinthian: last developed, most ornate of the orders imported from Egypt the porch: rectilinear upon entry, the space opens up into a curvilinear, radial interior structural system looks like it is based on a series of intersecting arches-eight in total, all where statues of deities would have been housed on the interior structural system is actually dependent on concrete the concrete would have been built on wooden forms, which where then removed after the concrete dried this allowed Romans to create vast interior spaces the barrel is made from concrete, travertine, and tufa and the walls are made from brick and concrete lighter materials used at the top of the dome barrel=terrestrial, dome=divine 141 feet tall originally used as a temple to the gods, then made into a church Emperor Hadrian would hold court inside the Pantheon originally contained sculptures of the gods and deified emperors, focused on the divine was given to Pope Boniface the IV in 608 AD and was used as a Catholic Church (part of why it has been preserved so well) an expression of Hadrian's wealth and power the oculus's light functions similar to a sundial would have originally been fitted in bronze nowadays, we step down to reach the Pantheon, but this is because the street level of Roma has risen through the years--originally would have risen above the street the current-day Piazza, or square in front of the Pantheon, was originally a larger rectangular space framed by a colonnade this would have covered up from view the conical back of the Pantheon, so visitors would have only seen the traditional column-front would have inspired a sense of shock and awe to enter and see the spherical interior the pediment would have held a sculpture that acted out the battle of the titans one enters through a set of massive bronze doors the spherical inside completely fills a person's field of vision, and is representative of human power because it goes all the way to the limits of your sight eight arches which would have housed statues of deities and emperors--the statues of Augustus and Agrippa stood in the apse at the end of the colonnaded side aisles of the entrance the center-point of focus in the interior is right smack in the center, which helps create the spherical effect huge amounts of geometric representation used on the inside--circles, rectangles, squares the floor is tiled with concentric circles and squares almost all of it is mathematically proportioned--for example, the columns on the interior line up perfectly with the fake windows on top of them, but these do not line up with the coffers of the dome, which gives the effect that the dome is independent from the barrel coffers were originally painted and had gilded rosettes hole in the top of the dome called the oculus one great window when it rains, the water comes in! reflects the movement of the heavens because of how the sharp circle of light moves across the building best preserved ancient roman monument synthesis of tradition and innovation the Pantheon was commissioned by the Emperor Hadrian c. 125 AD (new info suggests it may have been started by Trajan before him) representative of the Roman advance in architecture (mainly caused by the use of concrete that allowed spaces to open up) that a building could shape the space most influential building in architecture in the Renaissance replaced Commander Marcus Agrippa's pantheon that rested in the same place the inscription above the doorway still reads as a tribute to Marcus Agrippa bears no signature of Hadrian later, Italian kings and Raphael of the Renaissance would be buried inside

21. Mortuary Temple of Hatsheput

Form- Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut is cut into the stone of the cliff-side done purposefully to increase the perceived power of a structure by making it seem as though it is almost a part of nature and holds the stability of the mountainside itself we can see aspects of symmetry as well as the use of columns (Egyptians didn't know how else to hold up a roof!) Kneeling Statue is made from granite, which is very durable is also very large at almost nine feet tall (would impress any viewer, especially because it would be placed with a number of other large statues depicting the queen) Content- Kneeling Statue depicts Queen Hatshepsut in a kneeling position she was one of the only, and most powerful, female pharaohs though we can tell that she is female, she has many male physical features:her breasts are de-emphasized, she has the classic beard of the pharaohs, and wears the royal male headdress her masculine depiction is consistent with the upkeep of continuity and stability for Egyptian rulers (there is no word for "queen" in Egyptian--she truly saw herself as a king) different style than other Egyptian statues--her kneeling position humanizes her, and she is depicted in offering, most likely to a deity Temple features a lengthy, colonnaded terrace you must walk up a long ramp to enter into the temple (reminiscent of the horizon, Egyptian creation mound) temple held many statues of Hatshepsut, as well as relief depictions of her as well as the gods in the afterlife aligned with the winter solstice sun Function- Mortuary Temple was a funerary shrine to Queen Hatshepsut was a place for people to go and appreciate her power by looking at all of the different statues of her especially important because she was female, so she had to work extra hard to establish her authority meant to help her in her journey to the afterlife people could pray to the gods "housed" in the temple statues impressed upon people Hatshepsut's power and piety Context- shows an interesting aspect to traditional Egyptian continuity break in continuity that Hatshepsut was a female, but many aspects were kept the same--she was still depicted in the stiff, idealized form for her statue, and wore the male accoutrements of office

37. Winged Victory of Samothrace

Form/Function statue itself is over nine feet tall made of Thasian and Parian marble was found in the temple complex on the island of Samothrace called the Sanctuary of the Great Gods this was one of the principle Pan-Hellenistic sanctuaries associated with Mystery religion statue was an ex-voto (votive offering to a deity) most likely given by the people of Rhodes to commemorate a naval victory the offering would have also served to gain the deities favor, protecting sailors and armies against storms and enemies Context currently resides in the Louvre, in Paris France was made around the 2nd century BCE during the Hellenistic period the sculptor is unknown the Hellenistic period followed the death of Alexander the Great when the Greek kingdom got split up, so the constant warring between city-states and other kingdoms increased the emphasis on Nike, who would spread the message of a victory would have looked out over the Parthenon in the sanctuary, with natural winds from the coast seeming to enliven Nike's clothes stands on the prow of a huge marble ship had huge impact on the traditions of Western Art that followed Content depicts Nike, who was the messenger goddess of victory is missing her head and both arms, but may have been holding a trumpet or cupping her hand around her mouth to announce a naval victory "violent motion and sudden stillness meet" was meant to be viewed from three-quarters to the statue's right-hand side, evidenced because the other side is not as intricately carved gone is the stiff, more classical style of antiquity; in its place is a Hellenistic passion and voluptuousness texture is created in the intricate carvings of the wings she is not nude, but her clothing is coming off to reveal her body, which was typical for sculpture of the time the intense, intricate sculpting of her clothes, of how it drapes, adds to the sense of motion in the piece carved in extreme detail: we can tell where the cloth is thicker/thinner, and where it sticks to her skin because it is wet with sea water the way her body is sculpted creates a spiraling effect: her wings reach back, her chest forward, her feet down looking from the perspective from which it was meant to be viewed, follows the form of a right triangle

44. Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)

Form: "amphitheater" two Greek theaters put together (facing each other) to create the oval-shaped amphitheater (stadium) Inner ring made from concrete required less skill, time, and money to quarry, transport, and build with concrete Romans were the first to master and employ the widespread use of concrete as a building material Outer ring (external wall) made from travertine (a limestone) Extensive use of vaults and the Roman arch could hold 50,000 to 80,000 spectators Dimensions: covered an area of 6 acres 50 meters high (187 feet) equivalent to a 12 story building 189 meters (615 feet) long 156 meters (510 feet) wide outer circumference of 545 meters (1,788 feet) the center arena measured 287' (feet long) by 180' (feet wide) construction began in 70 CE, lasted until 80 CE (completed in 10 years) very impressive feat considering its massive size and the fact that everything was constructed and transported individually, by hand. no modern machinery! Content: massive, ellipse/oval-shaped ring four main levels (can be thought of as registers!) levels 1-3 had evenly-spaced, arched windows around the entire circumference of the amphitheater level 4 had a solid exterior wall, no windows this, being the highest section of seating, would be where the lower classes would sit (slaves, foreigners, women) there would have been statuary figures in each window arch on levels 2 and 3, but not on level 1, because those arches served as doors that people would walk through to enter the amphitheater above the 4th level, the upper rim of the colosseum was lined with bronze shields/spears a glorious, dramatic, and impressive-looking decoration could be considered a 5th 'register'? however, not a separate floor of seating, only an independent register in the visual sense flat stage filled with sand in center sand was to absorb blood and other bodily fluids from the fighting seats angled up from the stage in every direction (shallow funnel) the "hypogeum" the underground part of the Colosseum, which included animal pens, trapdoors, and a network of tunnels, was called the 'hypogeum' according to tribunesandtriumphs.org, "The hypogeum consisted of two-level subterranean network of tunnels and 32 animal pens. There were 80 vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for animals and scenery. Large hinged platforms, called hegmata provided access for large animals" the "velarium" a retractable awning that would cover the arena to provide shade for spectators Three different orders of columns are used to support the arches Level 1 = Tuscan (similar to Doric, but even more simplistic, and specific to ancient Rome) Level 2 = Ionic Level 3 = Corinthian columns are sturdier, more basic at the bottom become more delicate, ornate higher up associated with femininity? women sat in the highest level of seating Romans came to watch gladiator fights, wild animal fights, mock naval battles, etc. violence and gore were popular sources of entertainment in ancient Rome Context: Original name was Flavian Amphitheater named after the family/dynasty who paid for its construction Emperor Vespasian (r. 69-79 CE) was the first Emperor of the Flavian Dynasty "Colosseum" is just a nickname given later (in the Middle Ages?), because of the amphitheater's proximity to a colossal statue of the sun god. Vespasian built the amphitheater as a gift to the people of Rome, to win their favor back after the greedy, insane, unpopular Nero (previous Roman Emperor before Vespasian) Concept of Urban Planning unlike Greeks, who shaped their cities around the geography, Romans made the landscape work for them more aggressive builders power of man over nature also necessitated better engineering concrete! arches! their used to be a lake where the Flavian Amphitheater was built drained the lake because they wanted a building there much more similar to how we (in western, urban cities) approach urban planning now Focus on interior space shift from ancient Greek focus on exterior space best example is the Pergamon Roman Social Status/Citizenship Discrimination was not based on color of skin, but on citizenship If you were a Roman citizen, race didn't matter Rome was a very multi-ethnic empire If you were not a citizen (woman, slave, etc), you were virtually nothing Within the population of citizens, there were tiers to that hierarchy as well social mobility was difficult, but less so than in Ancient Greece people were seated in the amphitheater according to status upper-class patricians were seated closest to the stage, those of the lower class were seated farther up, and women, slaves, and foreigners were the farthest away from the action ("cheap seats" at the very top) Reflects Roman Order, Discipline, and Power POWs, slaves, and non-citizens (not women) could win their freedom/citizenship by becoming gladiators and fighting to victory This was such a dangerous risk that it often resulted in the gladiator's death before earning that freedom. Different from Ancient Greece, where it was virtually unheard of for someone to become a citizen citizenship rules in Roman Empire were similar to America's immigration/citizenship rules takes a long time and is difficult, but usually the second generation can earn citizenship if born in the Empire

25. Lamassu

Form: - alabaster -limestone Content: -god-like figures -animal body, human head -5 legs Function; -support doorways of Assyrian palaces -intimidate those who enter Context: - from the citadel of Sargon II (modern day Iraq) - 720-705 BCE -Sumerian high relief sculpture from a monolithic stone of gypseous alabaster 13'9" tall It stands more than 4 meters high by 4 meters wide and is a meter in depth Human headed winged bulls were very large protective genies called shedu/ lamassu, and were placed as guardians at certain gates/ doorways of the city and the palace. Carved from a single block the original position of these winged bulls: This one formed the left jamb of Door K in the palace Function: Guardian figures at the city and citadel gates symbol of the king's power also architectural purpose to hold up an arch to enter the citadel Protective spiritual guardians were placed on either side of these entrances to act as guardians. They also had a strictly architectural function, as they bore some of the weight of the arch above An inscription on two panels between the hind legs of the bull: praises the ruler by rehearsing his virtues and calls down a curse on who ever should seek to harm the edifice Symbols combining man, bull, and bird, they offered protection against enemies. Content: bulls with head of man and wings combination of the natural and the supernatural v powerful Super cool crown and detail in wings, double horns, decorations, beard, earrings around the lamassu, inscriptions detailing the king's power and damnnation for those who would threaten the citadel aka the power of the king 5 legs two standing static when you look at it from the front four moving forewords when you look at it from the side High relief was much prized in the time of Sargon II (when modeling became more marked) The head, the only human element ears are those of a bull has a man's bearded face with very precisely modeled features The eyes are expressive the thick eyebrows prominent nose soft mouth thin mustache A curly beard covers the jaw and chin while the hair falls down to the shoulders= framing the face This human head wears a starred tiara= flanked by pairs of horns and topped by a row of feathers. The body: its anatomy very precisely carved to be is that of a bull the beast has five legs (not 4 legs) so that it looks as if standing still when seen from the front, and as if walking when seen from the side From the shoulders spring the wings of a bird of prey, only one being visible, curving above the back broad panels of curls cover the breast, belly, back, and butt The tail is very long and curly at the end fearsome, huge Context: Assyrians (1000-500 BCE), Iraq Mesopotamia - constantly at war, being conquered by different people Palace of Sargon II 713 BC Sargon II founded his capital, Dur Sharrukin, (present-day Khorsabad) he enclosed it, together with several palaces, within a great wall of unbaked brick pierced by seven gatesThese bulls are motifs of Syrian inspiration and one of the characteristic features of the decoration of Assyrian palacesThey make their first appearance at Nimrud in the reign of Ashurnasirpal II, and disappear again after the reign of Ashurbanipal. height of Assyrian power different Assyrian kings made their palaces in different cities. These sculptures are enormous, but they would have been dwarfed by the architecture of the citadel

41. Seated Boxer

Form: Rare Hellenistic Bronze original greek sculpture Lost wax casting (hollow cast) Process by which duplicate metal sculpture is cast from an original sculpture Copper used to depict wounds on face and hands Seated posture Made in different sections that were then welded together Function: It has been suggested that the statue was attributed with healing powers Represents the cultural shift of the Hellenistic period Could have been a votive statue dedicated to a boxer Some have identified him as the Boxer of Quirnal Could be made to represent the culture of boxing in Ancient Greece Content: The humanity found in this work creates a sense of presence Muscular, powerful, and defeated His body serves a stark contrast to his hands and face Covering his head and face is bits of copper which posed next to the bronze resembles blood, covering his face and hands with wounds In contrast, his body is muscular and idealized, as typical ancient Greek art depicted men This shows a connection to the original Greek art which is combined with the new emphasis on humanity and expanding the focus of art. His posture By sitting with his torso collapsing inwards and his head down the look of defeat on his face is supplemented by this worn down posture Even though his face is down his gaze is upwards Sitting was not common is ancient Greek art so this was a deliberate attempt to convey humility and informality Context: It was created during the Hellenistic period (100BCE) Which was the last phase of ancient Greek art right after alexander the great and before the Romans took over During this time Greek art was expanded to include a variety of art Breaking away from the traditional idealized, heroic, male nude The seated boxer embodies the culture shift of the Hellenistic period Still holding onto the pre Hellenistic ideas his body is idealized with perfect muscle, but in contrast, his posture and face show humanity

17. Great Pyramid (Menkaure, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx

Form: bedrock, local core stones, Tura limestone casing, red granite, mortar. Nearly perfect pyramids. Edges aligned with cardinal pts. tallest of the three pyramids (481 ft) 2,300,000 blocks, over 50 tons second tallest of the three (but actually looks the tallest because it's on higher ground) carved into the bedrock of the plateau next to the Khafre pyramid smallest of the three (213 ft) Function: burial sites for kings. Royal Mortuary complex. perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. burial site for King Khufu burial site for King Khafre symbol of royal power burial site for King Menkaure Content: most complex chambers of the three pyramids held Menkaure's black stone sarcophagus. But then they lost that held many triad statues of the King, Hathor, and a nome Lion with the head of Khafre. a temple for the sphinx right next door three major pyramids for three rulers over three generations and many other smaller cemeteries and temples. Representations of the passages of the dead. grand gallery, King/queen's chambers. King's sarcophagus. 7 boats a burial chamber, a small chamber, 2 passageways Still has some of the outer casing on top Valley Temple Held over 52 statues of the king Context: tallest things for over 4000 years. Ancient Egypt. People had to have everything for the afterlife, so they are buried with all the things they need in life. We still don't know how these were built. Pharaohs were kings, but also divine

22. Akhenaton, Neferiti, and three daughters

House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters, limestone, New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, c.1350 BCE Form: bas-relief carving limestone 32.5 cm high Content: depicts King Akhenaten, his wife Nefertiti, seated on thrones holding three of their daughters on their laps Iconography: monotheistic god, "Aten", represented by the sun disc in the center Cobra in the sun disk implies SOLE leadership, ONLY ONE GOD (monotheism); Aten is the supreme deity ankhs (symbol of life) radiate out from the sun disc and reach toward the king and his wife this shows that Aten connects directly to the royal family, and to them alone Function: this piece was meant to be a house altar the iconography of Aten and the depiction of the royal family of Akhenaten was propagated to encourage people to embrace the new monotheistic religion works such as this relief carving were present and central to everyday life; the house altar serves a practical function as well as an artistic one, so the underlying message becomes present and visible in the family's daily life. Context: Egyptian art and culture generally experienced little change; the Amarna period is an exception pharaoh Akhenaten changed state religion from worship of god Amun to monotheistic worship of a new, sun god, Aten Pharaoh and his wife, Nefertiti, were made to be the only earthly representatives of this new god this upsets the entire Egyptian priesthood because it takes all their power and influence away and leaves it in the hands of the royal family. The change in religion was not made because of the pharaoh's real, religious beliefs, but for purely selfish reasons: to make himself and his family more powerful after Akhenaten dies, Egypt returns to traditional religion so, brief "blip" in Egyptian history There are also significant stylistic changes: domestic focus, tenderness more informal softer, less rigid and permanent than what we see in typical Egyptian artwork disproportionate bodies art historians once thought that perhaps Akhenaten and his family had some genetic disease that mutated the shape of their bodies however, it is now believed that the artist just did not have the skill to proportionally render the human body, and that the sloping, relaxed forms, were meant to be an encouragement of curvilinear forms in artwork Akhenaten encouraged this stylistic change from rectilinear forms to curvilinear as another hallmark of his "new era"

20. Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall

Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: c. 1550 B.C.E.; hall: c. 1250 B.C.E. Cut sandstone and mud brick. Form: - Made of cut sandstone and mud brick - Axis designed and created on the four cardinal direction points - Had both a north/south and an east/west axes - "Hypostyle"=columns supporting a ceiling - Made great usage of these columns, hence the name - One of the largest temple constructions in the world - Includes several unique forms of architecture such as a sphinx and the tallest obelisk in Egypt Content: - The Pharaohs continued to add to it over time - Clerestory lighting, meaning it was natural and coming from openings above - Creates a sort of heavenly, godly feeling - Existed in Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt - Architecture such as the obelisk and sphinx make it uniquely Egyptian Themes: - Power and authority - Religion, spirituality - Legend/mythology - God, the role of god in society - Architectural renderings and influence - Nature and the environment Function: - The principal religious center of the god Amun-Re - Also honors several other Egyptian gods and goddesses - Especially present were the gods Mut and Montu - Known as "The Most Select of Places" - There was a community of religious peoples and elites that lived there - Has a rich economic, political, and social history as well - Served for some time as a small city in a sense, epicenter of life Context: - Built and heavily used during the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, especially the 18th and 19th dynasties. - Temple was built around 1550 BCE - Hall was built around 1250 BCE - Certain areas were very restrictive and only able to be accessed by the elite individuals and Pharaohs - Currently in a poor state due to a lack of preservation - Still able to show us a lot about the architecture, religion, and life of Ancient Egypt

11. Terra cotta fragment

Lapita. Solomon Islands, Reef Islands. 1000 B.C.E. Terra cotta (incised). Form: -made from molded terra cotta, a reddish-brown, unglazed type of clay -many tools were used to create it, like stones, clam shells, their fingernails, bird bones and coral to create the designs on the pottery -made on volcanic islands, interesting materials available -they used a method called dentate stamping, involving carving designs into existing natural materials (turtle shells, bamboo, or wood) and using this as a stamp on the terra cotta clay before it was dried -terra cotta uses fire to harden, showing their developed civilization Function: -fragments are from a pot that would have been used by the Lapita people for culinary purposes -possibly food storage (used like a jar) or even actual cooking (used like a pot) -a "wagelie" was the name for a food storing vessel -pottery was a large part of Lapita culture, it was very widespread and even had cultural significance -could have been a form of reverence for ancestors, ritualistic/religious use -different groups had specific characteristics in their pottery, different family groups,social classes, and economic classes -exchanged within these groups Content: -clear anthropomorphic figures depicted in a central location -faces, highly geometric, large, clear features, designs around the face are not the focus -nose serves as a line of symmetry in the piece, common characteristic of other Lapita pottery - the human face has linear designs, opposed to the designs rippling from it which are circular and radial -consistency in Lapita design reflects the stability and development of their culture -the deign code ultimately influenced Polynesian art, and oceanic art in general Context: -created by artisans in the Lapita culture (a Pacific culture, which is an ancestor of Polynesia, Micronesia, and parts of Melanesia) -the pottery was discovered in New Caledonia, islands about 1,500 kilometers northeast of Australia -about 85,000 indigenous people lived on these islands, (known collectively as the Kanak) -culture had a series of villages each ruled by a chief who was politically in control but also had perceived spiritual importance due to their spiritual ability to connect with the ancestors -seafaring culture, explored the ocean, and lived on the coast

#2 Great Hall of the Bulls

Lascaux, France; Paleolithic Europe; 15,000-13,000 B.C.E; Rock Painting; 11 feet 6 inches; Charcoal and Ochre on white calcite nonporous rock CNTNT: Discovered in 1940 In 1963 original was closed, but a replica was built This was to preserve the artwork Survival women gather, while men kill Humans Vs. Animals CNTXT: The cave is nearly 250 meters long Access of the cave is significant size shows the hierarchical scale of this society; only certain people were allowed and could enter the cave View of animals Food or predator Sacred place; share religious rituals Evidence of human evolvement Narrative type of artwork FORM: animals were important (bulls, horses, cattle, and deer); patterns and details were prominent (could tell us about our past) FUNC: no written history during this time period unknown uses of artwork; preserving history; shows how important survival was around this time hunter-gatherer lifestyle; human/animal relationship (only depicted what they saw)

31. Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo

Master sculptor Vulca. c. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture. Form: Doric columns The temple itself is completely dilapidated, only the model and the floor plan remain accurate and interpretable information Original etruscan temples had stone foundations (longer lasting) and wood, mud brick, or terracotta superstructures that were brightly colored Most etruscan temples no longer exist today because of the fragility of the materials they were made of Divided into two parts Deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns Back portion divided into three separate rooms Triple cella → see content for more information High podium and frontal entrance → different from Greek temples Made of wood (all Etruscan temples were) NOT** made from stone (unlike Greek temples) Function: Was dedicated to the goddess Minerva (Athena) Demonstrates an Etruscan assimilation of Greek gods Etruscan versions of Greek gods/goddesses would take on different names Values of the gods/goddesses would occasionally be adjusted slightly to fit more with Etruscan values/beliefs Happened when the Etruscans assimilated with the Greeks after a victory against the Persians Content: Long enduring tufa-block foundations provide the only remaining context for the location, function, and structure of this temple Square footprint is reminiscent of Vitruvius's description of a floor plan with proportions that are 5:6 (deeper than it is wide) Three-room configuration ("triple cella") Reflects strategic planning to indicate a possible divine trio (Menrva, Tinia, Uni) Temple contained masks, antefixes, decorative details Terra cotta figures were originally placed on the ridge of the temple's roof (see statue of Apollo!) Set up as a tableau, creating a horizontal register that can be viewed from far away Context: How do art historians know what Etruscan temples looked like? Documented in Vitruvius' book De Architectura in the late first century B.C.E., in which he documented key elements of Etruscan temples Inspired Renaissance architects with the use of 'Tuscan' columns Worship of Etruscan Gods and Goddesses originally happened out in nature with ritual spaces, but contact with Greek culture eventually lead to the creation of Etruscan temples Etruscan temples were generally located in ritualistically sanctified groves open to the sky Location: Veii near Rome, Italy 18 kilometers north Date: 15th-16th century (dated by knowledge of the floor plan)

23. Tutankhamun's tomb (innermost coffin)

New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones. Form: Tutankhamen's sarcophagus had three coffins for the kings' body outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with semiprecious stones like lapis lazuli and turquoise. The inner coffin was made of solid gold when found it was "covered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles The death mask originally rested on shoulders of the mummy inside the pure gold coffin made of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg) Function: Spell 151b from the Book of the Dead on the back of the mask Egyptians used as a road map for the afterlife spell protects the various limbs of Tutankhamen as he moves into the underworld The sarcophagus was meant to preserve and protect the pharaoh in the afterlife Content: Tutankhamen's sarcophagus had three coffins for the kings' body outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with semiprecious stones like lapis lazuli and turquoise. The inner coffin was made of solid gold when found it was "covered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles pharaoh = god like The gods were thought to have skin of gold, bones of silver, and hair of lapis lazuli king is shown here in his divine form in the afterlife He holds the crook and flail -- symbols of the king's right to rule The goddesses Nekhbet (vulture) and Wadjet (cobra), inlaid with semiprecious stones, stretch their wings across torso Beneath goddesses are two more—Isis and Nephthys The death mask originally rested on shoulders of the mummy inside the pure gold coffin made of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg) back of the mask is covered with Spell 151b from the Book of the Dead Tutankhamen is depicted wearing the striped nemes headdress (the striped head-cloth typically worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt) goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet depicted protecting his brow He also wears a false beard that further connects him to the image of a god He wears a broad collar -- in terminals shaped as falcon head Elaborate sarcophagus's like this one were only meant for kings and the rich, others were simply mummified or buried in the sand Tut was 9 when he became Pharaoh (18 dynasty -- New Kingdom ) new kingdom after Amarna age Tut is son of Akhenaten Tut lived from 1332-1323 BCE accented moved Egypt's capital to akhenaten/ amarna (mid egypt) after dads rule and smenkhkare Tut shifted back to Amun's worship and capital back to Thebes Tut married half sis (Ankhesenamun) but no heirs died at 18 — don't know how chariot accident, a swift kick from a horse, hippopotamus attack?? Tutankhamun's older advisor (and possible step-grandfather), Ay, married Ankhesenamun (Tut's half sis) and became pharaoh after his death

18. King Menkaura and Queen

Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490-2472 B.C.E. Greywacke. FORM Carved greywacke figures Depicts Egyptian King Menkaure & wife (disputed) Approximately life-sized Both extend one foot forward & maintain erect posture Menkaure's fists are clenched and hold ritual cloth rolls Wears traditional false beard & headdress Backed into stone wall No rear detail Both are nude in the upper body Menkaure wears a wrapped kilt Wife wears an obscure, flat skirt Menkaure is barely taller than wife Without headdress they are around the same height Menkaure protrudes further from the rock than his wife Both have individualized & youthful features Unfinished Area around legs remains unpolished Statue lacks an inscription FUNCTION Communicates the divinity & absolute power of the ruler Likely emerged from a niche in a memorial structure Made them seem as if they were striding out of the building Highlights enduring power & influence of pharaohs Hierarchy of scale further emphasizes his power over the Egyptian people Paint may have been intended to slowly wear away, gradually revealing the black stone and their ultimate transformation into Osiris Although queen is an essential figure of the structure, its purpose was to ensure that Menkaure would successfully reach the afterlife CONTENT Greywacke was difficult to carve Commitment to carving shows devotion to ruler Tough stone lasts/doesn't erode Demonstrates enduring influence/importance Pharaoh's left feet were typically extended in traditional Egyptian art Striding towards the afterlife Unusual for woman to be doing the same Many women were depicted with their legs together Slight hierarchy of scale, but Menkaure's wife is almost his height This lead some to believe that she could be his mother, or the goddess Hathor Displays no divine symbols statue imitates structure of many other royal votive statues Likely confirms the theory that the woman is Menkaure's wife, and not his mother She is standing slightly behind him, showing that she is below him in status but still has importance Idealized musculature and youth highlight the divine perfection of royalty Individualized features balance their divine destination with their human identities Their gaze into space intimates their superiority over earthly beings The woman's femininity, highlighted by her perfect proportions and clinging garment, balance Menkaure's masculine virility Menkaure wears the traditional headdress and false beard, marking him as a pharaoh However, he is not portrayed with the typical protective cobra on his forehead The absence of this cobra leads some to surmise that his headdress and the queen's hair were once covered in precious metals, a decoration that would have included the cobra CONTEXT Geography allowed for them to flourish Some desert, but also lush land around the Nile River Empire lasted 3000 years Culture rooted in the Nile, which flooded predictably & frequently Seasons and concept of time that was built around the seasons and the floods World based on duality and predictable cycles A significant part of their system of belief Strongly defined social/political structure Pharaoh = absolute ruler Seen as divine & on the path to becoming a god Authority & divinity emphasized through hierarchy of scale Conventions such as this one thus remained constant throughout the Egyptian Empire Menkaure was the son of Khafre, and the smallest pyramid was built in his name This statue of him & his wife was found in an abandoned robber's pit in the Menkaure Valley Temple on the Giza Plateau Many similar statues depict a triad of a pharaoh alongside the guardian goddess Hathor and a personification of a region Hathor was connected to the wife of the current king and the mother of the future one This statue is unique in its dual composition & apparent lack of Hathor Menkaure's stature likely would have been situated in an architectural niche in a memorial temple courtyard Would have been vividly painted People connected happenings with gods THEMES Sacred Space Power & authority Ritual belief & the afterlife Gender roles Symbolism of materials Idealism & individuality The human body Divine vs. earthly influence Depiction of royalty Stylistic convention

30.Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes

Persepolis; 6th Century B.C.E.; Limestone Content: 72 columns each 24 meters tall extremely intricate The column capitals were animals bulls, eagles, and lions; all symbols of royalty 2 monumental staircases The walls were carved with illustrations of hundreds of figures bringing offerings to the king from all the states conquered by the Persian Empire Form: Carved primarily of Limestone The carvings on the walls were bas-relief Display the importance and authority of the King The column capitals were high-relief Only a few examples remain The hall was hypostyle architecture columns holding up the roof Context: Built in Persepolis in the Persian Empire, modern day Iran 6th century BCE Built by Darius I The Persian empire was very tolerant for the era represented in the bas-relief carvings displaying all the ethnic groups the Persians conquered Was later conquered by Alexander the Great Even he was impressed by the Persian empire and culture as he respectfully buried the last Persian Emperor (Darius III) Function: Represent the expansive nature of the Persian Empire and Emperor's power Ceremonial Hall Served as the center of the Persian Empire's capital

34. Doryphoros (spear bearer)

Polykleitos. Original 450-440 B.C.E. Roman copy (marble) of Greek original (bronze). Context: Form: Content: Function: found in a palestra (a place for athletes to work out in) in Pompeii one of the most copied Greek sculptures everyone want Greek art because it was representative of a luxurious and leisurely life + they were super high quality and when they raided, they got them for free! created at time when the Greeks were in awe of the mathematical perfection of the human body Polykleitos created a canon (a set of guidelines) outlining the ideal man based on ratios and measurements experts believe the Spear Bearer was made to represent the idealized version of the perfect Greek man (men should aspire to be him even though it's impossible) as outlined in Polykleitos' canon extremely significant because of it's relative realism when compared to the Anavysos Kouros shows an ever-advancing understanding of the human body depicted normal life, a sculpture of a man walking shows that human potential was/is hugely important to this society manipulated symmetry made of white marble subtractive sculpture lifesize aprox. 84 in. (213 cm.) naked = celebrates the nature human body, its beauty, and its strength marks this as a Greek sculpture one of the earliest examples of contrapposto includes a strong a sense of harmony and counterbalancing: left arm and right leg = relaxed right arm and left leg = tensed the man has with broad shoulders and thick torso and is just generally muscular used to hold an iron spear the face isn't individualized he's made to depict everyone's ideal self for enjoyment: to showcase the beauty of the human body

13. Palette of King Narmer

Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000-2920 B.C.E. Greywacke. Form: -Palette of King Narmer. Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000-2920 B.C.E. Greywacke -carved from slate (grayish/green siltstone), in bas-relief, 2.1 feet high (very large for a palette) -typically palettes were smaller, very flat and didn't feature intricate designs, but the pallet of Narmer is unique -carved in stone, lasting, demonstrates strength of culture -found in the temple of horas (showed in his representative falcon) Function: -used as a well for grinding and mixing makeup, like dark eyeliner applied under eyes to protect from the sun's harsh glare (dessert region) -found buried under the floor of a temple in Hierakonpolis -leaders, upper class people, or anyone who had the money would give objects such as this to temples to demonstrate their piety and form a connection with the God -this palette was a ceremonial object, dedicated to a god, used for rituals, and could have been used to apply make up to the actual artistic depictions of the god in the temple -would have been ritually buried after new donations were received -makeup could have been mixed in the well formed by the the two intertwining heads of the mythical seopards Content: -uniquely displays human action, opposed to animals or just mythical imagery -contains iconography that is consistent with other Egyptian art thousands of years later, consistency representative of Egypts stability -contains several scenes, symbols and creatures of cultural significance all explained in full in the above images -features the power of the king through use of hierarchical scale, registers, (uniquely) showingkilts, royal beard, and bull tail, him in the crown of both upper and lower egypt, kilts, the royal beard, and a bull tail Context: -palettes were very widely distributed, as makeup in Egypt was accessible for men and women of all social classes -the unification of upper and lower Egypt under a single ruler was a very significant event in Egyptian history at this point in time, the duality of the piece with the king's two crowns and the two different faces of the palette represents their unity, while depicting their differences -on both sides the lowest register features the dead bodies of defeated enemies, again demonstrating Egyptian strength, this time in a military sense -could also be depicting chaos and order, an essential belief in the Egyptian understanding of the cosmos -some of the imagery could represent the journey of the sun god

16.Standard of Ur

Standard of Ur, c. 2600-2400 B.C.E., 21.59 x 49.5 x 12 cm FORM: Colorful mosaic tiles made from shell (from Persian gulf), red limestone (from India), blue lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan) , set in bitumen Very small- can be carried FUNCTION: Largely unknown "Standard" was usually a flag brought into battle in war- art historians hypothesize that this standard was once on a pole and brought into battle Also intentionally buried- very valuable object at the time May be a holder of currency used to pay for the war May be a music box A lot of speculation, little to no clear record on its use! CONTENT: The other side shows men who are bringing fish and crops to the Sumerians- suspected to be tribute paid to the Sumerians or loot the Sumerians brought back in war - known as the "War" side Very festive- end of war type scene- a large banquet occurs and people are watching one man sing and play the lyre- known as the "Peace" side Talons are holding an arrow- symbol of war Olive branch- symbol of peace Divided into three registers Bottom register- people holding bags and carrying things on their shoulders and on their bags Second register- people bringing animals to sacrifice or for tax collection to the king King (disproportionately large) sitting on a chair (legs are from animals) Celebratory mood and scene with a lot of cups- beverages Other side is divided into three registers as well Naturalistic battle scene taking place- chariots and horses running at full speed and Enemies of war (naked and bleeding) brought into the scene and given to the king A lot of detail present in the scene the registers at the bottom are less detailed and more uniform (and as you move up everything gets more detailed and singular) everyone is in profile perspective shows hierarchical scale king = bigger than everyone else + different clothes CONTEXT: Found just south of modern day Iraq Prosperous and fertile area for agriculture- profit and surplus of food built in more time for art More levels of wealth and different roles in society (wealth led to more priests and organized religion) Different classes of people reflected on the standard- poor on the bottom and rich on the top. found in the Graves of Ur- used from 2600-2000 BCE one grave could hold as many as 74 sacrificial victims very rich resources/minerals found here standard of Ur found in one of these graves THEMES: sacrifice warfare masculinity community power and authority class divide wealth and status

14. Statues of votive figures

Statues of Votive Figures, ca. 2900-2600 BC, Square Temple at Eshnunna, Alabaster Context: Mesopotamia, Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar) ca. 2900-2600 B.C. Early Dynastic I-II Sumerian Aspect of Mesopotamian religion is the votive figure of mortal men and women Worshipers would set up images of themselves in a shrine before a larger image of god as part of devotional practice Content: Alabaster (soft stone) Pedestals (standing up during worship) 1 to 3 ft tall Figures of donor males and females Hierarchical scale of individual parts of the body -- eyes are larger than the hands Small bearded + robed statue Wide eyes (childlike) (Material) Gypsum alabaster, shell, black limestone, bitumen Form Individualized vs. stylized or symbolic Realistic anatomy Detailed eyes → significant, intricate Made of Lapis Lazuli Materials → gypsum inlaid with shell and brick limestone Faces and bodies in a V-shape with the skirt kicking out It is not a true portrait where you could recognize the individual Hands folded in reverence Wide-eyed with head tilted upward -- allow for continuous eye contact with the god Arched brows inlaid with dark shells, limestone, and bitumen Stocky muscular body with heavy legs, large feet, and big shoulders -- shows strength which is important because the statue needs to be strong enough to endure the constant worship Function Portable; temple away from place of worship Stand-in for owner (stylized for a specific person but not an individual) Inscription Reminds anthropomorphic god to look favorably upon the donor Wish to be granted Increase the representation and status of the donor by showing the wealth of the votive offering

#5 Beaker (Bushel) with ibex motifs

Susa, Iran; 4,200-3,500 B.C.E; Painted terra cotta; 28.90 x 16.40 cm; Susa I period CONT - Centralized mountain goat, surrounded by geometrical forms Running greyhound-like animals are above the ibex Diamond shapes band the top of the vessel. Birds encircle the top of the vessel CONTXT - excavations led by Jacques de Morgan, 1906-08 FORM - Uses lines and geometrical shapes; depicts a central ibex. Similar bushels range from 0.5 to 2 feet tall. FUNC - Funerary purpose; was buried with the dead in Susa.

32. Tomb of the Triclinium

Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 B.C.E. Tufa and fresco. Context: Etruscan culture = advanced Iron Age culture wealth based on Italy's natural resources -- metal and mineral ores iron to Greece and North Africa exchanged through medium/long-range trade routes/networks because they were rich, they were attacked by surrounding countries Etruscans believed that their lives in the afterlife would be very similar to their life on earth kind of like Egyptians funerary customs Etruscans did not bury their dead inside city limits, but still sought to provide peace and comfort mainly elite members of society participated in intricate funerary rituals funerals often accompanied by games, feasts, and music and dancing which both men and women could go to banquet -- reinforced the socio-economic position of the deceased person + family show community their importance with: visual reminders of socio-political status indications of wealth civic achievements notably public offices held Other Etruscan tombs have furniture that people would use in them and showed paintings of everyday life they also had demons depicted (maybe symbolize the threat of other countries) most had a door to the after life painted on the back wall Etruscans vs Egyptians vs Greeks Etruscans buried their dead in carved coffins + buried them in houses with necessities for the after life + for the elite similar to the Egyptians (sarcophagus for pharaohs) but Egyptians didn't bury they covered? (with giant Pyramid) Greeks cremated or buried urn (with ashes in them) This tomb gets name from Greco-Roman Mediterranean three-couch dining room --> triclinium located in Monterozzi necropolis a cemetery, especially a large one belonging to an ancient city Tarquinia (where this tomb was found) was a very powerful and prominent center this area is known for its painted tombs Tombs are the only remains because the Romans (when they took over) destroyed everything (or changed it) Content: The tomb is meant to be a single chamber with wall decorations painted in fresco Chamber tombs = subterranean rock-cut chambers accessed by an approach way --> dromos Wall paintings from Triclinium give information on funeral culture but also living society (not intended use) left wall shows four dancers (three female + one male) and male musician playing the barbiton ancient stringed instrument like the lyre right wall shows similar scene back wall shows banqueters enjoying a dinner party Fresco is partial, it probably had: 3 couches each with a pair of reclining diners and 2 attendants one male one female (attendant and diner) diners dressed in bright and expensive robes (elite status) three legged tables with many vessels on top in front of couches animals under couches large cat stalking a large rooster and a partridge trees and shrubs all around the figures - rural setting? Nude cup bearer with wine jug sieve in the corner Tomb's ceiling painted checkered (scheme of alternating colors) meant to evoke the temporary fabric tents near the tomb for celebration of the funeral banquet? Form: Chamber tombs = subterranean rock-cut chambers stylistic comparisons between banquet scene and 5th century B.C.E. Attic pottery from Greece figures are angular and stiff awkward, artists did not know body fluidity and proportions correctly ? clothes do show outline of body underneath -- not as sophisticated as Greek/Roman art typical gender depiction female skin tone = light in color male skin tone= tinted/darker orange-brown Function: Tombs were a huge part of the funerary rituals contain remains of the deceased and various grave goods or offerings like Egypt (Pyramids of Giza) share a final meal with the deceased as deceased transitioned to the afterlife portion of the meal + appropriate dishes + utensils were deposited in the tomb reinforce the socio-economic position of the deceased person + family show community their importance with: visual reminders of socio-political status indications of wealth civic achievements notably public offices held

#4 Running Horned Woman

Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria; 6,000-4,000 B.C.E; Pigment on Rock CONT: white dots = body paint? arms and shin guards -> decoration? protection? CONTXT: thousands of other paintings and drawings from this period were found in the same area as the Running Horned Woman found in a very difficult to reach area (high elevation and unique topology) -> holy sanctuary? the Running Horned Woman is the most elaborate figure -> most important? goddess? symbolic image -> it's unlikely that hunters and gathers of the time would have looked the way that Running Horned Woman does FORM: pictograph = painting on a rock minerals + liquid = pigmented "paint" the "paint" was likely applied with feathers, weeds, and fingers involves the illusion of movement (the running aspect of the woman) profile perspective but horns face outwards FUNC: a piece used to emphasize the importance of survival a recognition of the relationship between animals and humans (and its significance) created as part of a religious/spiritual worship? used to display the role of the woman

#3 Camelid Sacrum in shape of a canine

Tequixquiac, Mexico; 14,000-7,000 B.C.E; Bone CONT: head of a canine natural shape of sacrum bone probably suggested image of canine to the carver nostrils, mouth, other details added by carver CONTXT: There is not much known about this work, because: No stratigraphic analysis from site of discovery, so date of creation is difficult to determine Prehistoric, so no written records of artisan, purpose, meaning, date, etc. Lost to scholars for about 60 years (1895-1956) because it was privately owned during that time it was, for a time, questioned whether this sculpture was actually made by human hands, or if its likeness to a canine head was just its natural shape art historians have resolved that it was indeed carved by a human proven by symmetrical, precisely cut nostrils (precision and sharp cut indicate someone using tools, carving with a purpose) spiritual significance of the sacrum by looking at later Mesoamerican cultures, which viewed the sacrum as spiritual and sacred, it can be inferred that this sacrum was chosen for similar spiritual reasons pelvic bone is the fulcrum of the body, and central to internal organs in particular, reproductive organs sacrum could be symbol of fertility, or connection to ancestry and posterity The English word "sacrum" is derived from Latin: "os sacrum," meaning "sacred bone." FORM: made from the now fossilized remains of the sacrum—the triangular pelvic bone—of a camelid (now extinct), a member of the camelidae family (along with alpacas, llamas, camels) FUNC: Intended function and original meaning unknown prehistoric artisans drew/painted/carved/sculpted what they saw in their everyday life so, choice to render image of a canine makes sense study and depiction of animals was common in prehistoric art

94. Screen with Seige of Belgrade and hunting scene

This artwork is a two-sided biombo enconchado; one side depicts a scene from the Great Turkish War, which was a recent event at the time and served a form of propaganda to advertise the power of the vast Hapsburg royal line, who ruled Spain at the time of the battle. Viceroy José Sarmiento de Valladares married a descendant of Montezuma; he took great pride in New Spain (Mexico). This side of the screen depicts two of the most important European victories in the Great Turkish War. The Viceroy obviously took great pride in the accomplishments of his country, and wanted to impress his guests, seeing as the Siege of Belgrade side was meant to face male visitors while having meetings and discussions with the Viceroy. The backside, however, displays an ornamental hunting scene; it is more relaxed and decorative. This side of the screen was used for the more private room on the other side—it was likely seen more by women, rather than the other side, which was for political visitors who met with the Viceroy; the female visitors usually smoked after dinner while the men talked. This calmer scene shows the simpler side of the people of New Spain, and is a different way of displaying national pride in contrast to the stark patriotism of the Siege side. The screen, originally 18 feet long, was displayed in the home of Viceroy José Sarmiento de Valladares. Half of the screen is now in the Brooklyn Museum while the other is in Museo Nacional del Virreinato. The screen was meant to be seen by the Viceroy himself as well as his political visitors for meetings and discussions, and the women that visited for recreation during these meetings and discussions.

12. White Temple and its ziggurat

Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud brick. Content: White temple: - bright white - high above the town (40 feet tall) - 17.5 by 22.3 meters - tri-partite plan - long rectangular central hall with rooms on either side - three entrances (none face ramp) - walk around the temple once exiting the ramp to be able to enter - turn 90 degrees once entering the temple to face the altar Inside the White temple: - north, east and west chambers have staircases - chambers in middle of northeast room had wooden shelves and (possibly) a solid door - north end of central hall had a podium (accessible through a staircase) - north end of central hall had altar with fire-stained surface Ziggurat - raised platform with 4 sloping sides - sides are broad but broken up by recessed bands from top to bottom - steep stairway from bottom to ramp - ramp wrapped around the north end Form: - Ziggurat is made from mud bricks - flat top of ziggurat is coated with bitumen (asphalt) - bitumen overlaid with brick to create protection from water - temple itself was whitewashed Context: - located in Uruk (modern Iraq) - this is where the first written story is from (where writing first emerged) - most ziggurats had religious connotation Function: - Used for both government and religion (theocratic) - used for rituals and sacrifices (leopard and lion bones) - fire pit - altar - scribes found / tablets found - signifies centralized authority - both god and government in one building - Dedicated to the sky god Anu

98. The Tête à Tête, from Marriage à la Mode

William Hogarth. c. 1743 C.E. Oil on canvas.69.9 x 90.8 cm. FORM -A few objects in the foreground, but overall fairly empty. All central figures in the middle ground (the obvious "focal ground" of the painting) The background consists mostly of a separate room, architectural features, and paintings. One clear area of emphasis is the cluttered mantlepiece, positioned strategically between (and a little above) the couple. Verticals lines are found the in the edges of the paintings and in the columns. Curved lines are seen most prominently in the arch between rooms. FUNC-To provide a satirical commentary on the wealth-based marriage practices of the aristocrats at the time To appeal to the middle class (so that Hogarth could make $$$) (this is done by making fun of the wealthy) To draw distinctions between the inherited ideals of the aristocrats of the 18th century and the actual actions/lifestyles they lived by To criticize conspicuous consumption CONT-The Tête à Tête translates to head to head or face to face -- also a heart-to-heart or one-on-one. This second painting of the set shows the young couple just after their forced marriage and things are not looking good. The scene is set in a lavishly decorated room with plenty of art pieces, a fancy carpet, gold-outlined architecture, and a chandelier. The husband, Viscount Squanderfield is seen slouching in a chair on the right. He looks out of it -- sort of staring into the carpet. He has his legs splayed out. Possibly drunk. He has a dot on his neck that would have been recognizable to the people of the day as the mark of syphilis. He looks exhausted. Has likely just returned from a night of womanizing. A dog (a sign of fidelity in the Renaissance) sniffs at a bonnet in his pocket, insinuating that he's been intimate with another woman. The wife, Viscountess Squanderfield, sits on the left looking quite ruffled. She smirks a little and looks relaxed and quite flirtatious. The top of her bodice is undone, insinuating that she's been intimate with another man. She holds a mirror in her right hand above her head. Her gaze points towards the bottom left portion of the canvas. She has a stain on her dress. She sits with her legs apart, a position that's not very ladylike nor dignified. The account stands perplexed on the middle ground of the left side of the painting. He looks completely fed up with the couple and their lack of care for their finances. His right hand is up in the air as if to say, "I'm done!" and his eyes are pointed upwards as well. He holds tons of receipts and bills in his hands and arms. He's depicted as a pious Methodist (has a book on Christian theology in his pocket). He appears to be exiting the room. In the room, there are several important items: the instrument on the floor that's fallen out of its case (the chair it was on has also fallen!) music was often associated with sensuality and sex and that connotation is definitely present here the messy and chaotic state of the instrument mimics the chaotic state of the newlyweds' marriage the paintings of saints in the room left background of the painting provides commentary on the immorality of the couple's actions meant to be contrasted with the tacky, newly-purchased knickknacks on the mantlepiece behind the couple made to show the disparities between their lifestyle and the classical lifestyle they've been prepped to live by the classical sculpture with a broken nose on the mantlepiece the broken nature of the piece shows that's it's not valued as highly as other objects symbolizes the couple's lack of interest in classical ideals and values as well as impotence the painting of cupid in ruins expresses the idea that in strategic, money-based marriages, love itself is defeated and destroyed painting in the back room partly covered up by a curtain the only thing visible is a barefoot eludes to the fact that the painting is a nude TXT-The Tête à Tête is the second work in a set of six distinct (but interrelated) paintings that together, in a chronological order, form a coherent, meaningful (and silly!) narrative. Altogether this work is known as "Marriage à la Mode." The general plot revolves around the monetarily-motivated marriage of the daughter of a merchant (AKA the future Viscountess Squanderfield) to the son of a well-known family (AKA Viscount Squanderfield). It tells their tale from the day their marriage contract is drawn up to the day Viscountess Squanderfield dies. Ultimately, it aims to depict the (literally) fatal consequences of marriages not based on love. Set in the mid-18th century (at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution) as shown in the clothing throughout the work. At this time, a middle class that wanted to buy art emerged and art became more accessible (especially through prints!). Thus, the aristocracy lost some power to the merchant class. William Hogarth capitalized upon this truth and created Marriage à la Mode directly for the enjoyment and consumption of the new middle class.

8. Stonehenge

Wiltshire, UK. Neolithic Europe. c. 2500-1600 B.C.E. Sandstone. FORM- made mainly of bluestone which is very durable most of the rocks are mined from a quarry hundreds of miles away post-and-lintel construction monolithic stones arranged in a circle CONT- concentric circles of huge stones--lintel stones (the ones sitting on top) are carved to create the curved lines of a circle originally made of 30 trilithons the trilithons (a stone laying horizontally across two vertical stones) increase in height, which "pull" a viewer visually into the interior of the structure the stones stay upright because they were placed in huge pits that were dug into the ground archeologists are using technology that looks underground to find that Stonehenge was actually much more expansive than what we see now FUNC- there is evidence that in the second stage of construction in particular, Stonehenge was used as a burial site (all burials were males, aged 20-50--could speak to who held power in society) to be buried at Stonehenge would have been a mark of elite status the horseshoe of trilithons frames mark both the midsummer's solstice and the midwinter's sunset, which are the longest and shortest days of the year could signify a divine connection to solar and lunar calendars, the importance of the movement of the sun/seasons to the people of the society that built Stonehenge TXT- found in the Salisbury Plain in England first phase of construction started around 3100 BCE (this would be concurrent with the first dynasties of Ancient Egypt) construction was continued intermittently for the next 500 years building the structure would require precise planning and massive amounts of labor, which speaks to a higher level of sophistication in the society that built it than historians previously thought possible they had to move the stones, which weigh from 2-4 pounds, not only from the quarry site 250 miles away but also use some kind of machinery to get the lintel stones on top of the post stones long-term communal effort (may speak to a hierarchical society) understanding of astronomy understanding of basic architecture--stones were carved out so that they would fit with each other and create a geometrically correct circle

#7 Jade Cong

c. 2500 B.C.E., Liangzhu culture, 3.4 x 12.7 cm, China FORM- Made from jade; engravings are very precise; engravings are sanded; jade is hard to create things out of so people needed lots of time to create this; shows how important culture believed congs were; some bas relief some high relief; some short and some tall FUNC- show power / wealth; protect in after life / telling one what happens after death; found in graves but no writing so unknown; carvings convey language (?) precise lines; connection to nature animals / monsters / humans carved into it CONT- square hollow tube; lines and circles form human / animal / monster face on each corner; represent dead ancestors / deities (?); engravings are very precise / uniform / intentional; rectangle / external part = earth; circle / internal part = heavens of the sky / sun TXT- The culture this cong is from developed at the Yangzi delta; had sophisticated neolithic culture; delta is a place with crops; people settle down and farm; no hunt and gather; people grew lots of rice - no worries about food; have more free time for leisure etc.