AP Art History- Barron's Info on ALL images ~in progress~
Notre Dame de la Bella Vierre
"Our Lady of the Beautiful Window"- stained glass, Chartres Cathedral function: part of a lancet stained-glass window context and interpretation: Mary is crowned Queen of Heaven with the Christ Child in her lap. Seated as the throne of wisdom. Light as a manifestation of the divine, shades of color patterns play across the grey stone of the cathedral. Bands across the surface are typical of early Gothic stained glass. Undamaged by the fire of 1194, blue framing added when reset with framing angels on either side of the main scene.
San Vitale
brick, marble, stone, Ravenna, Italy form: eight-sided church, plain exterior, porch added later in Renaissance. Large windows for illuminating interior designs. Interior has thin columns and open arched spaces. Dematerialization of the mass of the structure. Combination of axial and central plans. Spolia: bricks taken from ruined Roman buildings reused here. function: Christian church, martyrium context and interpretation: mysterious space symbolically connects with the mystic elements of religion. Banker Julianus Argentarius financed the building of San Vitale.
Santa Sabina
brick, stone, and wooden roof. Rome, Italy form: three aisled basilica, no transept. Long, tall, broad nave, axial plan. Windows not made of glass but of selenite, a type of transparent and colorless gypsum/ Flat wooden roof: coffered ceiling, thin walls support light roof. function: early Christian parish church context and interpretation: spolia: tall slender column taken from the Temple of Juno in Rome, erected on this site, a statement about the triumph of Christianity over paganism. Bare exterior, sensitively decorated interior, representing the Christian whose exterior may be gross but whose interior soul is beautiful. As in the Jewish tradition, men and women stood separately, the men stood in the main aisle, the women in the side isles with a partial view. Built by Peter of Illyria.
Catacomb of Priscilla
form and function: catacombs beneath Rome have 4 million dead and extend for about 100 miles. Contains the tombs of seven popes and many early Christian martyrs. Priscilla catacomb has some 40,000 burials Context and interpretation: named for Priscilla, the donor of the land for her family's burial, the catacomb was then opened up to Christians. Orant figure: fresco over a tomb niche set over an arched wall (lunette) cemetery of a family vault. Central figure stands with arms outstretched in prayer. Figure is compact, dark, sets off from a light background; tense angular contours, emphatic gestures. Figure prays for salvation in heaven.
Votive figures
from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (Tel-Asmir), Iraq, gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone form: figures are of different heights, denoting hierarchy of scale, hands are folded in gesture of prayer, huge eyes in awe, spell bound, perhaps staring at the deity, men-bare chested, wearing belt and skirt, beard flow in ripple patterns, women- dress draped over one shoulder. Arms and feet cut away, pinkie in a spiral, chine a wedge shape, and ear a double volute function: some inscribed on back, "it offers prayers", other inscriptions tell the names of donors or gods. Figures represent mortals-placed in temple to pray before a sculpture of a god context and interpretation: gods and humans physically present their statues, none have been found in situ, but buried in groups under the temple floor
Lammasu from the Citadel of Sargon II
alabaster, Louvre, Paris form: human-headed animal guardian figures, winged, appears to have five legs- when seen from front seems to be standing at attention, when seen from side, the animal is walking forward. Carved from a single piece of stone function: meant to war off enemies both visible and invisible context and interpretation: Sargon II founded a capital at Khorsabad; the city was surrounded by a wall with seven gates. The protective spirits (guardians) were placed at either side of each gate, they also bore the weight of the arches above the gates
Doryphorus (Spear Bearer)
also known as Polykleitos, marble copy from bronze original form: blocky solidarity, closed stance, contrapposto, broad shoulder, thick torso, muscular body, idealized body, body is both tense and relaxed, left arm and right leg are relaxed, right arm and left leg are tense context and interpretation: Greek name- Doryphorus, represents Polykleito's ideal masculine figure, movement restrained, ideal Spartan body, warrior and athlete, hand once held a spear, averted gaze, he does not recognize the viewer's admiration, considered a canon for classical form, the general rule for beauty and form, contemplative gaze History: Roman copy of Greek original, found in Pompeii in a place for athletic training
the Code (stele) of Hammurabi
basalt, Louvre, Paris form: a stele meant to be placed in an important location function: below the main scene contains one of the earliest law codes ever written: symbolically shows a ruler's need to establish civic harmony in a civilized world, 300 law entries placed below he grouping, symbolically given from the god Shamash to Hammurabi, written in cuneiform context and interpretation: text in Akkadian language, read right to left and top to bottom in 51 columns, Sun god, Shamash, enthroned on a ziggurat, hands Hammurabi a robe, ring, and rod of kingship. Shamash is in frontal view and profile at the same time- headdress is in profile, rays (wings?) from behind his shoulder. Shamash's beard is fuller than Hammurabi;s, illustrating Shamash's greater wisdom. Shamash, judge of the sky and the earth, with tiara of four rows of horns, presents signs of royal power, the scepter and the ring, to Hammurabi. They stare at one another directly even though their shoulders are frontal, composite views. Hammurabi depicted with a speaking/greeting gesture. history: Hammurabi united Mesopotamia in his lifetime. Took Babylon from a small power to a dominant kingdom, at his death the empire dwindled.
Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine
bone, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico Materials: carved to represent a mammal's skull, bone sculpture from a camel-like animals, bone has been worked to create the imagine of a dog or wolf, one natural form used to take the shape of another, sacrum is the triangular bone at the base of a spine. Context and interpretation: Mesoamerican idea that a sacrum is a "second skull", the sacrum bone symbolizes the soul in some cultures, and for that reason it may have been chosen for this work. History: from Tequixquiac, Mexico, found in 1870
Markets of Trajan
brick and concrete, Rome form: Semicircular building held several levels of shops. Main space- groin vaulted, shops- barrel vaulted. function: multilevel mall, original market had 150 shops. materials: use of exposed brick indicates a more accepted view of the material, which was formerly thought of as being unsuited to grand public buildings.
Arena Chapel
brick, Padua, Italy context and interpretation: Arena Chapel was built over an ancient Roman arena; hence the name. Also called the Scrovegni Chapel after the name of the patron, Enrico Scrovegni. Built to expiate the sin of usury through which Scrovegni's father amassed a fortune. Some narrative scenes illustrate biblical episodes of ill-gotten gains. Life of Christ on one side of the chapel, the life of Mary on the other.
Hagia Sophia
brick, ceramic, stone, mosaic, Istanbul form: exterior: plain and massive with little decoration. Interior: combination of centrally and axially planned church. Arcade decoration: walls and capitals are flat and thin and richly ornamented. Capitals diminish classical allusions, surfaces contain deeply cut acanthus leaves. Cornice unifies space. Large fields for mosaic decoration: at one time had four acres of gold mosaics on walls. Many windows punctuate wall spaces. function: Originally, Christian church, Hagia Sophia means "holy wisdom". Converted into a mosque in the fifteenth century, minarets added in the Islamic period. Converted into a museum in the early 20th century. context and interpretation: marble columns appropriated from Rome, Ephesus and other Greek sites. Patrons were Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora, who commissioned the work after the burning of the original building in the Nike Revolt.
Athenian Agora
Athens, Greece function: a plaza at the base of the Acropolis in Athens with commercial, civic, religious, and social buildings where ceremonies took place, setting for the Panathenaic Festival, ceremonies and parades to honor Athena, the Panathenaic Way cuts through the plaza from the northwestern to the southwestern corners. Context and interpretation: surrounding the plaza were important buildings, including: a bouleuterion-a chamber used by a council of 500 citizens, called a boule, who were chosen by lot to serve for one year. A tholos- a round structure manned by a group of senators 24 hours a day for emergency meetings; served at a dining hall where the prytaneis (executives) of the boule often met. Several stoas: a stoa is a covered walkway with columns on one side and a wall on the other
Terra Cotta Fragment
Lapita, from the Solomon islands, terra-cotta form: characteristic use of curved stamped patterns: dots, circles, hatching, may have come from use on tattoos, one of the oldest human faces in Oceanic art. materials: Lapita culture of the Solomon islands known for pottery, outlined forms: used a comb-like tool to stamp designs onto the clay known as dentate stamping
Great Hall of the Bulls
Lascaux Caves, pigment on rock, Dordogne, France form: bodies seen in profile, frontal or diagonal view of horns, eyes, and hooves, some seem to be pregnant, many overlapping figures, twisted perspective materials: natural products used to make paint (charcoal, iron ore, plants), walls were scraped to an even surface, paint colors were bound with animal fat, lamps lighted the interior of caves context and interpretation: animals placed deep inside caves, some hundred feet from the entrance, evidence still visible of scaffolding erected to get higher areas of the caves, negative hand prints- may be signatures, caves were not dwellings, as prehistorical people led migratory lives following herds of animals, some evidence exists that people did seek shelter at the mouths of caves history: discovered in 1940, opened to public after World War II, closed to public in 1963 because of damage from human contact, new replica opened adjacent. theories: a traditional view is that they were used to ensure a successful hunt, ancestral animal worship, or Shamanism: a religious based on the idea that the forces of nature can be contacted by intermediaries, called shamans, who go into trance-like stares to reach another state of consciousness.
White Temple and it's Ziggurat
Mud brick, Uruk, Iraq Form: Buttresses spaced across the surface to create a light and shadow pattern, tapers down so that rainwater washes off, entire form resembles a mountain; in contrast to vast flat terrain and man-made mountain, bent-axis plan: ascending the stairs requires angular changes of direction to reach the temple Function: temple on the top was small, set back, and removed from the populace; access reserved for royalty and clergy; only base of temple remains, temple interior contains a cella and smaller rooms meant for the deities to assemble before a select group of priests, on top of ziggurat is a terrace for outdoor rituals and a temple for indoor rituals. Materials: mud brick building on a colossal scale, whitewash used to disguise the mud appearance; hence the modern name: White Temple. Context and interpretation: large settlement of Uruk of 40,000, based on agriculture and specialized labor, deity was Anu, the god of the sky, the most important Sumerian deity, gods descend from the heavens to a high place on earth; hence the Sumerians built ziggurats as high places, four corners oriented to the compass
Greek Chapel
Named for two Greek inscriptions painted on the right niche. Three niches for sarcophagi. Decorated with paintings in the Pompeian style, sketchy painterly brushstrokes.
the Ambum Stone
Papua New Guinea, greywacke, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra form: composite human/animal figure; perhaps an anteater head and human body theories: masked human, anteater embryo in fetal position, anteaters thought of as significant because of their fat deposits, may have been a pestle or related to tool making, perhaps had a ritual purpose; considered sacred history: Stone Age work, artists used stone to carve stone, found in Ambum Valley in Papua, New Guinea
Alexander mosaic from the House of Faun, pompeii
Roman copy of 100 BC mosaic. form: crowded with nervous excitement, extremely complex interweaving of figures, spatial illusionism through foreshortening, chiaroscuro, reflection in shield. Use of tesserae. function: Roman floor mosaic, found in a house in Pompeii, based on an original Greek mural (?) painting. context and interpretation: Alexander, at left: young, brave, forthright, assured of success. He pierces the body of an enemy with his spear with his spear without so much as a glance at his victim. His widened eye is trained on Darius. Darius, in center right on chariot: horrified, weakly cedes the victory; his charioteer commands the horses to make their escape. Darius looks stunned as his brother Oxyanthres is stabbed, the brother portrayed here as sacrificing himself to save the king. The dying man's right hand is still gripping his weapon, as though he wished to pull it out of his body, but his body is already is already collapsing onto the bloody corpse of his black horse. theories: perhaps a copy of a mural made by Piloxenos of Eretria for King Cassander. Perhaps made by Helen of Egypt,one of the few female Greek artists whose name has come down to us.
Forum of Trajan
Rome, Italy form: large central plaza flanked by stoa-like buildings on each side. Originally held an equestrian monument dedicated Trajan in the center. function: part of a complex that included the Basilica of Ulpia, the Markets of Trajan, and the Column of Trajan. context and interpretation: built with booty collected from Trajan's victory over the Dacians
Treasury of Petra, Jordan
Tomb named Al-Khazneh, "the Treasury" form: Nabataean concept and Roman features such as Corinthian columns. Monuments carved in traditional Nabataean rock-cut cliff walls. Lower story influenced by Greek and Roman temples but with unusual features- columns not proportionally spaced, pediment does not cover all columns, only central four, upper floor: broken pediment with a central tholos, combination of Roman and indigenous traditions. Greek, Egyptian, and Assyrian gods on the facade. function: in reality, it was a tomb, not a treasury as the name implies
Great Mosque of Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh)
brick, wood, plaster, ceramic tile, Isfahan Iran form: large central rectangular courtyard surrounded by a two-story arcade. Typical of Muslim architecture is to have one large arch flanked by two stories of smaller arches. The qibla iwan is the largest and most decorative; its size indicates the direction to Mecca. One iwan is an entry for a private space used by the sultan and his retinue; dome is adorned by tiles. Courtyard placed in the center of the mosque. Muqarnes: an ornamental and intricate vaulting placed on the underside of arches. function: Muslim mosque, each side of the courtyard has a centrally placed iwan, may be the first mosque to have this feature; iwans have different roles, reflected by their size and ornamentation. Mosques are integrated into the downtown area of the city. context and interpretation: iwan originally seen in palace architecture. Used here for the first time to emphasize the sanctuary. Mosque nestled in an urban center, many gates give access. Shared outside walls with other buildings.
Augustus of Primaporta
bronze original, Rome form: contrapposto, characteristic of works depicting Augustus is the part in the hair over the left eye and locks over the right. Heroic, grand, authoritative ruler, over life-size scale. Back not carved, meant to be placed against a wall. Oratorical purpose. function: found in the villa of Livia, Augustus's wife, may have been sculpted to honor him in his lifetime after his death. context and interpretation: idealized, not individualistic approach, confusion between God and man, barefoot and on sacred ground, numbers of gods participating in the return of the Roman standards, breastplate indicates he is warrior, judges' robe- civic ruler. Lance is not original, may have carried a sword in his left hand. Right hand is orator pose. Cupid on back of dolphin at the base.-naval victory over Mark Antony.
Seated Boxer
bronze, Rome form: older man, past his prime, looks defeated. Smashed nose, lips sunken in suggest broken teeth. Cauliflower ears, nude fighter, hands wrapped in leather bands. function: may have been a good luck charm for athletes, evidence of toes worn away from being touched. materials: rare surviving Hellenistic bronze. Blood, denoted in copper, drips from his face and onto his right arm and thigh. Copper used to highlight his lips and nipples, the straps on his leather gloves, and the wounds on his head. context and interpretation: may have been part of a group or perhaps a single sculpture, the head turned to face an unseen opponent. Found in Roman bath in Rome
Tlatilco female figurines
ceramic Form: style: flipper-like arms, huge thighs, pronounced hips, narrow waists, unclothed expect for jewelry, arms extending from body, many shapes and forms on Tlatilco pottery: male and female figures, genre scenes, ball-playing games, animals, imaginary creatures, female figures show elaborate details of hairstyles, clothing, and body ornaments. function: may have had shamanistic function Context and interpretation: many show deformities, including a female figure with two noses, two mouths, and three eyes, figures take on a full range of human representation, including hunchbacks, dwarfs, contorted acrobats, two headed women, and conjoined twins, theories that they show bifacial images, and therefore would show congenital defects, found in graves and may have had a funerary context history: Tlatilco, Mexico, noted for pottery
Apollo 11 Stones
charcoal on stone, State Museum of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia form: animals seen profile, typical of prehistoric painting materials: done in charcoal history: some of the world's oldest works of art, found in Wonderwerk Cave in Namibia, several stone fragments found, originally brought to the site from elsewhere, named after the Apollo 11 moon landing in 1969, the year the cave was discovered
Niobides Krater
clay, Louvre, Paris form: first time in vase painting that isocephalism (the tradition of depicting heads of figures on the same level) has been jettisoned, may have been the influence of wall paintings. Red-figure ware. function: ceremonial krater; practical kraters were used for mixing water and wine or storing liquids. context and interpretation: called the Niobides Krater because the killing of Niobe's children is depicted on one side: Niobe bragged about her fertility to the god Leto, who had only two children. Leto's two children, Apollo and Artemis, sought revenge by killing Niobe's fourteen. Niobe is punished by her hubris. On the other side of the vase, story is subject of scholarly debate. One theory is that it represents Hercules surrounded by heroes in arms and Athena. Another theory is that the war warriors of Marathon are depicted placing themselves under the protection of Hercules. history: found in Orveito, Italy.
Pantheon
concrete with stone facing, Rome form: Corinthian-capital porch in front of building. Facade has two pediments, one deeply recessed behind the other, difficult to see from the street. Interior contains slightly convex floor for water drainage. Square panels on floor and in coffers contrast with roundness of walls. Coffers may have been filled with rosette designs to stimulate stars. Cupola walls are enormously thick, 20 feet at base. Thickness of walls thinned at top, coffers take some weight pressure off walls. Oculus, 27 feet across, allows for air and sunlight, which moves across the interior, much like a spotlight. Height of building equals its width, building based on the circle, a hemisphere. Walls have seven niches for statues of the gods. Triumph of concrete construction. Was brilliantly decorated. function: traditional interpretation, built as a Roman temple dedicated to all the gods. Recent interpretation: may have been dedicated to a select group of gods and the divine Julius Caesar and/or used for court rituals. context and interpretation: inscription, "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, having been consul three times, built it." Originally had a large atrium before it, originally built on a high podium, modern Rome has risen it up.
Temple of Petra, Jordan
cut rock, Jordan context and interpretation: Petra was central city of the Nabateans, a nomadic people, until Roman occupation in 106 AD. City built along a caravan route. Buried their dead in the tombs cut out of the sandstone cliffs. Five hundred royal tombs in the rock, but no human remains found-burial practices are unknown, tombs are small. City is half built, half carved out of rock. City is protected by a narrow canyon entrance.
Tutankhamun's tomb (innermost coffin)
gold, enamel, semiprecious stones, Egyptian Museum, Cairo form: gold coffin containing the body of a pharaoh. Smooth, idealized features on the mask of the boy king. Holds a crook and flail, symbols of Osiris. function: mummified body of King Tutankhamun buried with 143 objects, on his head, neck, and abdomen, and limbs- gold mask placed over his head. Context and interpretation: when Akhenaton died, two pharaohs ruled briefly, and then his two son Tutankhamun reigned for ten years, from age 9 to 19. Tutankhamun's parents were siblings and his wife was his half-sister (perhaps physically handicapped due to this) history: famous tomb discovered by Howard Carter in 1922.
The Ka'aba
granite masonry, covered with silk curtain, gold and silver thread, Mecca, Saudi Arabia function: Mecca is the spiritual center of Islam. A large mosque surrounds the Kaaba. context and interpretation: Kaaba said to have been built by Ibraham and Ishamel for God, cube-like in shape, covered by textile, cloth called the Kisaw, changed annually. Existing structure encases the black stone in the eartern corner, the only part of the original structure by Ibraham that survives. Has been repaired and reconstructed many times since Muhammad's time. Destination for those making the hajj, a spiritual pilgrimage to Mecca, pilgrims circumambulate the Kaaba counterclockwise seven times.
Palette of King Narmer
greywacke, Egyptian Museum, Cairo form: hierarchy of scale, figures stand on ground line, narrative, schematic lines delineate Narmer's muscle structure-forearm, veins and thigh muscles, are represented by straight lines, the kneecaps by half circles. Hieroglyphs explain and add to the meaning. function: palette used to prepare eye makeup for the blinding sun, although this palette was probably commemorative context and interpretation: relief sculpture depicting King Narmer uniting upper and lower Egypt. Depicted four times at the top register is Hathor, a god as a cow with a woman's face, or Bat, a sky goddess who has the power to see the past and the future. On front: Narmer, largest figure, wears the cobra crown of Lower Egypt and is reviewing the beheaded bodies of the enemy. The bodies are seen from above, the heads carefully placed between their legs. Narmer is preceded by by four standard bearers and a priest, his foot washer or sandal bearer follows. In the center mythical animals with elongated necks are harnessed, possibly symbolizing unification, at bottom is a bull knocking over his enemies. On back: the falcon is Horus, god of Egypt, who triumphs over Narmer's foes; Horus holds a rope around a man's head and a papyrus plants, symbols of lower Egypt. Narmer has a symbol of strength, the bull's tail, at his waist. wearing a bowling pin shaped crown as king of united Egypt, beating down an enemy (refers to smiting pose seen in Egyptian predynastic works). A servant behind Narmer holds his sandals as he stands barefoot on he sacred ground as divine king. Defeated Egyptians lie beneath his feet. Theories: represents the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under one ruler. Unification is expressed as a concept or goal to be achieved. May represent a balance of order and chaos. May reference the journey of the sun god
King Menkaura and his Queen
greywacke, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston form: two figures attached to a block stone, and and legs cut free. Traces of red paint exist on Menkaura's face and black paint on queen's wig. Figures seem to stride forward but simultaneously are anchored to the stone behind; it is unusual for the female figure to be striding with the male. Figures stare out into space (the afterlife?) function: receptacle for the ka of the pharaoh and his queen. Wife's simple and affectionate gesture, ad/or meant to symbolize her presentation of the king to the gods. materials: extremely hard stone used, symbolizes the permanence of the pharaoh's presence and his strength on earth. context and interpretation: Menkaura's powerful physique and stride symbolizes his kingship as does his garb, nemes on the head and an artificial beard and a kilt with a tab. Original location in the temple of Menkaura's pyramid complex at Gizeh. Society's view of women is expressed in the ankle-length tightly draped gown covering the queen's body, men and women of the same height indicated equality theory: maybe the woman is his mother
Jade cong
jade, Zhejiang Institute of Archaeology, Hangzhou form: circular hole placed within a square, abstract designs, main decoration is a face pattern, perhaps of spirits or deities, some have a haunting mask design in each of the four corners-with a bar-shaped mouth, raised oval eyes, sunken round pupils, and two bands that might indicate a headdress-that resembles the motif seen on Liangzhu jewelry. Materials and context: jades appear in burials of people of high rank, placed in burials around bodies, some are broken, some show signs of intentional burning, jade religious objects of various sizes found in tombs, interred with the dead in elaborate rituals, Chinese linked jade with virtues: durability, subtlety, beauty, may of the earliest and most carefully finished examples (the result of months of laborious shaping by hand) are comparatively compact, their rounded shapes suggest the form evolved from bracelets history: made in the Neolithic era in China
Chartres Cathedral
later additions, limestone and stained glass Chartres, France form: the first church to have flying buttresses as part of the original design. Earlier churches retrofitted flying buttresses after the building was constructed. The tall vertical nature of the interior pulls the viewer's eyes up to the ceiling and symbolically to heaven; rib vaulting increases the ceiling's vertical thrust. Lancets and spires to the verticality of the building. The dark, mysterious interior increases the spiritual feeling. Stained glass enlivens the interior surfaces pf the church. The facade contains a gallery of Old Testament figures above a rose window. function: Christian church dedicated to Mary, a Marian shrine. Mary's tunic, worn at Jesus's birth, is the most sacred relic, its escape from a fire in 1194 was seen as a signal to rebuild the cathedral. context and interpretation: started in 1145, fire in 1194 forced reconstruction of everything except the facade. Right spire-1160, left spire- late Gothic, a style for elaborate and decorative. Importance of church reflected in the speed of construction-27 years. Enlarged chevet accommodated elaborate church ceremonies.
Acropolis (Athens)
limestone, Athens (not found in Barrens)- built for the goddess Athena. Houses the Parthenon and many other temples and statues.
Akhenation, Nefertiti and thee daughters
limestone, Egyptian Museum, Berlin form: Akhenation holds eldest daughter (left) ready to be kissed. Nefertiti holds daughter (right) with another daughter on her shoulder. State religion shift indicated by an evolving style in Egyptian art: smoother, curved surfaces, low-hanging bellies, slack jaws, thin arms, epicene bodies, heavy-lidded eyes. function: domestic environment new in Egyptian art, panel is from an altar in a home. Context and interpretation: Akhenation abandoned Thebes and created a new capital named after him. State religion changed by Akhenaton from Amun to Aton, symbolized by the sun-disk with a cobra. At the end of sun's rays, ankhs (an ankh is the Egyptian symbol of life) point to the king and queen). Akhenaton and Nefertiti having a private relationship with their new god, Aton.
The Great Pyramids of Giza
limestone, Giza Eqypt Form: huge pile of limestone with minimal interior for the deceased; a pharaoh is buried within each pyramid, each pyramid has a funerary complex adjacent connected by a formal pathway used for carrying the dead pharaoh's body to the pyramid to be interred, each pyramid had an enjoining mortuary temple used for worship. Function: giant monuments to the dead pharaohs: Menkaura, Khufu, and Khafre Context and interpretation: shape may have been influenced by a sacred stone relic, called a benben, which is shaped like a scared stone found at Heliopolis was the center of the sun gold cult, each side of the pyramids is oriented toward toward a point on the compass, a fact pointing to an association with the stars and the sun
Great Sphinx
limestone, Giza, Eqypt Form: carved in situ from a huge rock; colossal scale, body of a lion, head of pharoah and/or god, originally brightly painted to stand out in the desert Function: the Sphinx seems to be protecting the pyramids behind it, although this theory has been debated Context and interpretation: very generalized features, although some say it may be a portrait of Khafre, cats are royal animals in ancient Eqypt, probably because they saved the grain supply from mice History: head of the Sphinx is badly mauled in the Middle Ages, fragment of the Sphnix's beard is in the British Museum
Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes (Palace of Persepolis)
limestone, mud bricks, Persepolis, Iran form: built on artificial terraces, as is most Mesopotamian architecture. Columns have bell shaped base that is an inverted lotus blossom, the capitals are bulls or lions. Everything seems to have been built to dwarf the viewer. Function: built not so much as a complex of palaces, but rather as a seat for spectacular receptions and festivals. One enters the complex through gigantic gates depicting lamassu figures. Above the gates is an inscription, the Gates of All Nations, which proudly announces this complex as the seat of a great empire. Audience hall had 36 columns, covered by a wooden roof, held thousands of people,was used for the king's receptions, had stairways adorned with reliefs of the New Year's festival and a procession of representatives of 23 subject nations. Hypostyle hall, derived from Egypt, is an indication of one of the many cultures that inspired the complex. materials: mud brick with stone facing context and interpretation: relief sculptures depict delegations from all parts of the empire bringing gift to be stored in the local treasury; Darius selected this central location in Persia to ensure protection of the treasury. Carved onto the stairs are the immortals, the king's guard, who were so called because they always numbered 10,000; originally painted and adorned with metal accessories, some covered in gold leaf. Stairs have central relief of the king enthroned with attendants, the crown prince behind him, an dignitaries bowing before him. Orderly and harmonious world symbolized by static processions. history: built by Darius I and Xerxes I, destroyed by Alexander the Great, perhaps as an act of revenge for the destruction of the Acropolis in Athens. Many cultural influences contributed to the building of this site.
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon
marble form: altar is on an elevated platform at the top of a dramatic flight of stairs. A frieze 7.5 feet high and more than 400 feet long wraps around monument. Ionic column frame monument. function: altar dedicated to Zeus and Athena. context and interpretation: conscious effort to be in dialogue with the Panathenatic frieze on the Parthenon. Parallels made between the Pergamon victories over the barbarians in a recent war, Alexander the Great's defeat of the Persians, and the gods' defeat of the giants in mythology.
Athena at Pergamon Altar
marble form: deeply carved figures overlap one another, masterful handling of spatial illusion. Dramatic intensity of figures and movement, heroic musculature. function: gigantomachy on the of the Pergamon Altar illustrates the victories of the goddess Athena, who is worshipped at the altar. context and interpretation: describes the battle between the gods and the giants, the giants, depicted as helpless, are dragged up the stairs to worship the gods. The gods' victory over the giants offers a parallel to Alexander the Great's defeat of the Persians. Athena grabs Alkyoneos by the hair and drags him up the stairs to worship Zeus. Nike, on right, crowns Athena in victory. Gaia, earth goddess, looks on in horror and pleads for the fate of her sons, the giants
Winged Victory (Nike) of Samothrace
marble form: dramatic twist and contrapposto of the torso, monumental figure, wet drapery look imitates the water playing on the wet body, illusion of wind on the body. function: meant to sit on a fountain representing a figurehead on a boat, the fountain would splash water around the figure. context and interpretation: probably made to commemorate a naval victory in 191 BC, Nike-goddess of victory. Her missing right arm may have raised a victory crown or held an open hand in greeting-perhaps she was landing on the prow of a ship. The boat at the base is an ancient battleship with oar boxes and traces of a ram. history: found in 1863 in situ on Samothrace. Reassembled in the Louvre Museum, in Paris, and placed at the top of a grand staircase.
Peplos Kore from the Acropolis
marble and paint, Acropolis Museum, Athens form: hand emerges into viewer's space, breaks out of the mold of static Archaic statues, indented wrist, breasts revealed beneath drapery, rounded and naturalistic face, much of the encaustic paint still remains, animating the face and the hair. Context and interpretation: so-called because she is named for the peplos, traditionally thought to be one of the four garments she is wearing. Broken hand fitted in the socket and probably held an attribute, she may have been a goddess. theory: recent theory proposes that she is the goddess Artemis, the figure now missing arrows and a bow in her hand.
Anavysos Kouros (Kouros Boy)
marble and paint, Athens form: not a real portrait but a general representation of the dead. Emulates stance of Egyptian sculpture but is nude. Arms and legs largely cut free from stone. Rigidly frontal. Freestanding and able to move, in contrast many Egyptian works are reliefs or are attached to stone. Hair is knotted and falls i neatly braided rows down the back. Some paint survives, which would have given the sculpture greater life. "Archaic smile" meant to enliven the sculpture. function: grave marker, replacing the huge vases of the Geometric period. Sponsored by an aristocratic family. Content and interpretation: named after a young military hero, Kroisos, inscription at base identifies him
Column of Trajan
marble, Rome form: a 625 foot narrative cycle (128 feet high) wrapped around the column tells the story of Trajan's defeat of the Dacians, this is the earliest example of this kind of structure. Crowded composure. Low relief, few shadows to cloud what must have been very difficult to object to view in its entirety. function: visitors who entered the column were meant to wander up the interior spiral staircase to the viewing platform at the top where a heroic statue of the emperor was place (since replaced with a sculpture of Saint Peter). Burial chamber of Trajan whose ashes were placed in a room at the base. context and interpretation: stood in Trajan's form, 150 episodes, 2,500 figures, 23 registers, continuous narrative. Scholarly debate over the way it was meant to be viewed. View would impress visitor with Trajan's accomplishments, including his forum and markets.
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus
marble, Rome form: extremely crowded surface with figures piled atop each other, horror vacui, figures lack individuality. function: interment of the dead, rich carving suggests a wealthy patron with a military background context and interpretation: confusion of battle is suggested by congested composition. Roman army trounces bearded and defeated barbarians. Romans battling 'barbaric" Goths in the late Imperial period. Youthful Roman general appears center top with no weapons, the only Roman with no helmet, indicating that he is invincible and needs no protection. Rome at war throughout the third century. So called because in the seventeenth century it was in Cardinal Ludovisi's collection in Rome
Head (bust) of a Roman Patrician
marble, Rome form: extremely realistic face, called a veristic portrait. function: funerary context, funerary altars adorned with portraits busts or reliefs and cinerary urns. Tradition of wax portrait masks in funeral processions of the upper class to commemorate their history. Portraits housed in family shrines honoring deceased relatives. context and interpretation: Realism of the portrayal shows influence of Greek Hellenistic art and late Etruscan art. Bulldog like tenacity of features, overhanging flesh, deep crevices in face. Full of experience and wisdom-traits Roman patricians would have desired. Features may have been exaggerated by artist to enhance adherence to Roman Republican virtues. Busts are mostly of men, often depicted as elderly.
Temple of Minerva
mud brick or tufa and wood, Veii, Italy form: little architecture survives, this model is drawn from descriptions by Vitruvius, a Roman architect of the first century. Temple raised on a podium, defined visible entrance. Deep porch places doorways away from the steps. function: temple dedicated to the goddess Minerva, the Etruscan equivalent to the Greek Athena materials: temple made of mud bricks and wood, perishable materials. context and interpretation: steps in front direct attention to the deep porch; entrances emphasized. Influenced of Greek architecture in the columns and pediments; columns are unfluted, made of wood, not marble as in Greece. Three doors represent three gods, interior divided into three spaces. Etruscan variation of Greek capitals, called Tuscan order
Seated Scribe
painted limestone, Louvre, Paris form: not a pharoah, sagging chest and realistic body rather than idealistic features reserved for a pharaoh. Contrasts with the ideally portrayed pharaoh, color still remains on the sculpture. function: created for a tomb at Saqqara as a provision for the ka. context and interpretation: amazingly lifelike but not a portrait-rather a conventional image of a scribe, inlaid crystal eyes. Attentive expression, thin angular face, in readiness for the words the pharaoh might dictate. Hold papyrus in his lap, his writing instrument (now gone) was in his hands, ready to write.
Grave Stele of Hegeso
painted marble, Athens form: classical period of Greek art, jewelry painted in, not visible, use of contrapposto in the standing figure, architectural framework. function: grave marker, in Geometric and Archaic periods, Greeks used krater, kouroi to mark graves-in the classical period, stelae were used. context and interpretation: commemorates the death of Hegeso, inscription identifies her and her father. Erected in Dipylon cemetery in Athens. Genre scene: Hegeso examines a piece of jewelry from a jewelry box handed to he by a standing servant, may represent her dowry. Standing figure has a lower social station, seen int the fact that it is before a seated figure. Attributed to the sculptor Kallimachos.
Last Judgment of Hu-nefer
painted papyrus scroll form: narrative on a uniform register (read right to left) function: illustration from the Book of the Dead, an Egyptian book of spells and charms that acted as a guide for the deceased to make his or her way to eternal life. context and interpretation: the jackel-headed god of embalming, Anubis, leads the deceased into a hall, where his soul is being weighed against a feather. If the sins weigh more than a feather, he will be condemned. The hippopotamus/lion figure, Ammit, between the scales will eat the heart of an evil soul. The god Thoth, who has the head of a bird, is the stenographer writing down these events in the hieroglyphs that he invented. Osiris, god of the underworld, enthroned on the right, will subject the deceased to a day of judgment.
Good Shepard
restrained portrait of Christ as a Good Shepard, a pastoral motif in ancient art going back to the Greeks. Symbolism of the Good Shepard: rescues individual sinners in his flock who stray. Stories of the life of the Old Testament prophet Jonah often appear in the lunettes; Jonah's regurgitation from the mouth of a big fish is seen as prefiguring Christ's resurrection. Parallels between Old and New Testament stories feature prominently in Early Christian art; Christians see this as a fulfillment of the Hebrew scripture, shows Christian interest in adapting aspects of the Hebrew scripture in their own context.
The Temple of Amun-Ra, including the Hypostyle Hall
sandstone and mud brick, near Luxor, Egypt form: axial plan, huge columns, tightly packed together, admit little light into the sanctuary, tallest columns have papyrus capitals; a clerestory allows some light and air into the darkest parts of the temple, hypostyle halls, columns elaborately painted, columns carved into sunken relief, lower columns have bud capitals, massive lintels link the columns together, massive walls enclose complex, enter complex through massive sloped pylon gateway into a peristyle courtyard, then through a hypostyle hall, and then into the sanctuary, where few are allowed. function: Egyptian temple for worship of Amun-Re, God housed in the darkest complex Context and interpretation: adjacent is an artificial sacred lake-a symbol of the sacred waters of the world that existed before time, the complex was built near this lake over time; symbolically, it arose from the waters the way civilization did, theory that the temple represents the beginning of the world: pylons are the horizon, floor rises to the sanctuary of the god, temple roof is the sky, columns represent plants of the Nile: lotus, papyrus, palm, etc. History: built by succeeding generations of pharaohs over a great expanse of time.
Anthropomorphic stele
sandstone, Pergamon Museum, Berlin Form: belted robe from which hangs a double-bladed knife or sword, Anthropomorphic: resembling human form but not in itself human function: religious or burial purpose, perhaps as a grave marker Context and interpretation: one of the earliest known works of art from Arabia, found in an area that had bad extensive ancient trade routes.
Stonehenge
sandstone, Wiltshire, England form: post and lintel building, lintels grooved into place by the mortise and tenon system of construction, large megaliths in center are over 20 feet tall and form a horseshoe surrounding a central flat stone, ring of megaliths, originally all united by lintels, surrounds central horseshoe, hundreds of smaller stones of unknown purpose placed around the monument, context and interpretation: some stones weigh more than 50 tons, size of stone reflects intended permanence of structure, some stones imported from over 150 miles away, an indication that the stones must have ad a special or sacred significance history: perhaps took a thousand years to build, gradually redeveloped by succeeding generations theories: generally thought to be oriented toward sunrise at the summer solstice (Longest day of the year) an sunset at the winter solstice, may also predict eclipses, a kind of observatory, new theories posits that Stonehenge was the center of ceremonies concerning death and burial, elites males buried here. Alternate theory suggests it was a site used for healing the sick
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
sandstone, near Luxor, Egypt form: three colonnaded terraces with two ramps, visually coordinated with the natural setting, long horizontals and verticals of the terraces and the colonnades repeat the patterns of the cliffs behind; patterns of dark and light in the colonnade are reflected in the cliffs, terraces were originally planted as gardens with exotic trees function: Hatshepsut declared that she built the temple as "a garden for my father Amun" (Hatshepsut claimed to have been of divine birth, sired by the god Amun), was only used for special religious events; lacks subsidiary buildings for storing offerings, the accommodation of priests, temple administration, workshops, and other function-structures, for reasons of cultic purity, the royal burial could not be in the temple, the royal tomb was located in the mountain behind the temple and reached by way the Valley of the Kings. Context and Interpretation: first time the achievements of a woman are celebrated in art history, Hatsheput's body is interred elsewhere, temple aligned with the winter solstice, when light enters the farthest section of the interior, perhaps designed by Senenmut, a high ranking official in the Hatshepsut's court
Colosseum (Flavian Ampitheater)
stone and concrete, Rome form: accommodated 50,000 spectators. Concrete core, brick casing, travertine facing. 76 entrances and exits circle the facade. Interplay of barrel vaults, groin vaults, arches. Facade has engaged columns: first story Tuscan, second floor Ionic, third floor Corinthian, top floor flattened Corinthian, each thought of as lighter than the order before. Above squared windows at top level are small brackets meant to hold flagstaffs, these staffs are the anchors for a retractable canvas roof, called a velarium, used to protect the crowd on hot days. function: meant for wild and dangerous spectacles-gladiator combat, animal hunts, naval battles, but not, as tradition suggests, religious persecution. context and interpretation: real name is the Flavian Amphitheater, name Colosseum comes from a colossal statue of Nero that used to be adjacent. Illustrates what popular entertainment was like for ancient Romans. Much of the marble was pulled off in the middle ages.
House of the Vettii
stone and fresco, Pompeii Italy form: narrow entrance sandwiched between several shops. Large reception area called the atrium, which is open to the sky and has a catch basin called an impluvium in the center, cubicula radiate around the atrium. Peristyle garden in rear with fountain, statuary, and more cubicula, that is the private area of the house. Axial symmetry of the house- someone entering the house can see through to the peristyle garden in the rear. Exterior of house lacks windows, interior lighting comes from the atrium and the peristyle. function: Roman private citizen house found at Pompeii Context and interpretation two brothers owned the house, both were freedmen who made their money as merchants.
Dome of the Rock
stone masonry and wood roof decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminium and bronze dome, Jerusalem form: Domed wooden octagon. Influenced by centrally planned buildings. Columns from Roman monuments. function: pilgrimage site for the faithful context and interpretation: sacred rock where Abraham nearly sacrificed Isaac, Muhammad ascended into heaven (as described in the Qur'an), the Temple of Jerusalem was located. Meant to rival the Christian church of The Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, although it was inspired by its domed rotunda. Arabic calligraphy on mosaic urges Muslims to embrace Allah as one god and indicates that the Christian notion of the Holy Trinity is an aspect of polytheism. Oldest surviving Qur'an verses: first use of Qur'an verses in architecture, one of the oldest Muslim buildings.
The Temple of Angkor Wat (including sculptural decoration)
stone masonry, sandstone, Cambodia form: main pyramid is surrounded by four corner towers, temple-mountain. Corbelled gallery roofs; influenced by Indian use of corbelled vaulting. Horror vacui of sculptural reliefs. Sculpture in rhythmic dance poses; repetition of shapes. Entire complex made of stone, most surfaces carved and decorated. function: dedicated to Vishnu; most sculptures represent Vishnu's incarnations. May have been intended to serve as the king's mausoleum. Hindu temples functioned primarily as the home of the god, at which congregants worshipped. context and interpretation: capital of medieval Cambodia, built by II. Complex built by successive kings, who installed various deities in the complex. Complex has a mixed Buddhist/Hindu character. Kings often identified themselves with the gods they installed. Mountain-like towers symbolize the five peaks of Mount Meru, a sacred mountain said to be the center of the spiritual and physical universe in both Buddhism and Hinduism
Church of Sainte-Foy
stone, Conques, France form: Church built to handle the large numbers of pilgrims, wide transepts, large ambulatory with radiating chapels. Massive heavy interior walls, unadorned. No clerestory, light provided by windows over the side aisles and galleries. Barrel vaults in nave, reinforced by transverse arches. Cross-like ground plan, called a Latin cross. function: church built along the pilgrimage road to the Santiago de Compostela. Radiating chapels housed relics of saints.
Great Mosque of Cordoba
stone, Cordoba, Spain form: double-arched columns, brilliantly articulated in alternating bands of color. Light and airy interior. Horseshoe shaped arches derived from the Visigoths of Spain. Hypostyle mosque, no central focus, no congregational worship. function: Muslim mosque, built on the site of a church, after Christian reconquest center of mosque was used for a church. Original wooden ceiling replaced by vaulting after Spanish reconquest. context and interpretation: columns are spolia from ancient Roman structures. Complex dome over mihrab with elaborate squinches, inspired by Byzantine architecture. Relatively short columns made ceilings low, doubling of arches enhances interior space, perhaps influenced by the Roman aqueduct in Merida, Spain. Kufic calligraphy on walls. Original patron: Abd al-Rahman
Taj Mahal
stone, marble, precious and semi-precious stones, Agra, India form: symmetrical harmony of design. Typical Islamic feature of one large arch flanked by two smaller arches. Square plan with chamfered corners. Onion-shaped dome rises gracefully from the facade. Small kiosks around dome lessen severity. Intricate floral and geometric inlays. Minarets act like a picture frame, directing the eye of the viewer and sheltering the monument. Texts from the Qur'an cover surface. Function: built as the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan's wife, the shah was interred next to her after his death. Grounds represent a vast funerary garden, the gardens found in heaven in the Islamic tradition. context and interpretation: translated to mean "crown palace". Named Mumtaz, deceased wife of Shah Jahan, who died while giving birth to her fourteenth child. Once formed part of a larger ensemble of buildings. Taj Mahal reflected in the Charbagh garden (garden that is rectangular and based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in the Qur'an) theory: may have been built to salute the grandeur of the Shah Jahan and his royal kingdom, as much to honor his wife's memory.
Churning of the Ocean Milk
story from Hindu religion. Churning of the Ocean of Stars to obtain Amrite, the nectar of immortal life. Both the gods (the devas) and the devils (asuras) churn the ocean to guarantee themselves immortality. To churn the ocean, they used the Serpent King, Vasuki. A bas-relief at Angkor Wat depicts devas and asuras churning the Ocean of Milk. Vishnu wraps a serpent around Mount Mandara, the mountain rotates around the sea and churns it.
Beaker with Ibex motifs
terra-cotta, Louvre, Paris form: frieze of stylized aquatic birds on top, below stylized running dogs with long narrow bodies, oversized horns, abstract, stylized motif materials: probably made on a potter's wheel, a technological advance, thin pottery walls. Context and interpretation: in the middle of the horns is a clan symbol of family ownership, perhaps the image identifies the deceased as belonging to a particular group or family. history: found near burial site but not with human remains, found with hundreds of baskets, bowls, and metallic items, made in Susa, in southwestern Iran
Statue of Apollo from the Temple of Veii
terra-cotta, Rome form: figure has spirit, strides quickly forward. Archaic Greek smile. Meant to be seen from below. Tightly fitted garment. Hair in knots, dangles down around shoulders. function: stood on roof of the temple. One of four large figurines that once stood on the temple of Veii. materials: masterpiece of terra-cotta casting context and interpretation: may have been carved by Vulcan of Veii, the most famous Etruscan sculptor o the age
Sarcophagus of the Spouses
terra-cotta, Rome form: full-length portraits. Great concentration on the upper bodies, less on the legs. Bodies make an unnatural L-shape with the legs. Broad shoulders, knotted hair, simple anatomical details function: sarcophagus of a married couple, whose ashes were placed inside. context and interpretation: both once held objects in their hands, perhaps an eggs to symbolize life after death; other theories suggest the woman is holding a bottle of perfume or a pomegranate. Depicts ancient tradition of reclining while eating in which men and women ate together, unlike in ancient Greece. Symbiotic relationship: man has a protective arm around the woman; the woman feeds the man, reflects the high standing women had in Etruscan society. The couple reclines against wineskins that act as cushions; the wineskins allude to the ceremony of sharing wine at funerary rituals. Made in four separate pieces and joined together.
Tomb of the Triclinium
tufa and fresco, Tarquinia, Italy. form: ancient convention of men painted in darker colors than women. Polychrome checkerboard pattern on ceiling; circles may symbolize time. function: painted tomb in an Etruscan necropolis. context and interpretation: banqueting couples recline while eating in the ancient manner. Perhaps a funeral banquet is intended, but the emotions are of celebration. Dancing figures play musical instruments in festive celebration of the dead. Trees spring up between the main figures,and shrubbery grows beneath the reclining couches-perhaps suggesting a rural setting. Named after a triclinium, an ancient Roman dining table, which appears in the fresco.
Borobudur Temple
volcanic stone masonry, Java, Indonesia form: this massive Buddhist monument contains 504 life-size Buddhas, 1,460 narrative relief sculptures on 1,300 panels 8,200 feet long, 1,5000 stupas, and 1 million carved blocks of stone. Six identical square terraces are placed one atop of the other, like steps; three smaller circular terraces are placed on top. Seventy-two openwork Buddhas, each with a preaching mudra. On top, an enclosed stupa. Rubble faced with volcanic stone. Pyramidal in form, aligned with the four cardinal points of the compass. function: place of pilgrimage complex and interpretation: Meant to be circumambulated on each terrace, six concentric square terraces topped by three circular tiers with a great stupa at the summit. Iconographically complex and intricate; many levels of meaning, may reflect Buddhist cosmology. Lower stories represent the world of desire and negative impulses; middle areas represent the world of forms, people have to control these negative impulses, the top story is the world of formulas, where the physical world and worldly desire are expunged.
Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Sufi Shaikh to Kings
watercolor, gold and ink on paper form: surrounded by a halo of the sun and moon, Jahangir is the source of all light. Seated on an hourglass throne; sands of time run out; Jahangir is near the end. Artist in lower left corner, symbolically signs his name on the footstool beneath Jahangir. The artist, a Hindu, holds a miniature with two horses and an elephant-perhaps gifts from his patron. James I of England in lower left corner- less important than Jahangir as his position implies, portrait based on diplomatic gift probably by artist John de Critz, given by ambassador Sir Thomas Roe. Ottoman sultan (not a real person). Sufi Sheik is handed a book by Jahangir, or maybe the other way around. Jahangir wears a pearl- shows his devotion to 11th century saint context and interpretation: Jahangir wanted to be recorded about him. Sought to bring together things from many different lands.
Alhambra
whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding, Granada, Spain form: light, airy interiors, fortress-like exterior. Contains palaces, garden, water pool, fountains, courtyards. Small, low-bubbling fountains in each room provide cool temperatures in the summer. Inspired by Charbagh gardens from Persia. Function: Palace of Nasrid sultans of southern Spain. Built on a hill overlooking the city of Granada. Contains: Court of the Lions and Hall of the Sisters.
Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs
wood inlayed with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone, Iraq form: figures have broad frontal shoulders and their body in profile, emphasized eyes, eyebrows, and ears, organized in registers (figures stand on ground lines), reads from bottom to the top. context and interpretation: two sides, war side and peace side. May have been two halves of a narrative, early example of historical narrative. War side: Sumerian king, half a head taller than the others, has descended from his chariot to inspect captive brought before him, some of whom are debased by their nakedness, in lowest register chariots advance over the dead. Peace side: food brought in procession to the banquet, musician plays a lyre, ruler wears a kilt made of tufts of wool, larger than the others, may have been a victory celebration after a battle. found in a tomb at the royal cemetery at Ur, reflects extensive trading network: lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, shells from Persian Gulf, red limestone from India theories: perhaps used as part of soundbox for a musical instrument, modern name "standard"- from the belief that it was once placed on a pole and carried in a procession. The two scenes may illustrate the dual nature of an ideal Sumerian ruler: the victorious general and the father of his people, who promotes general welfare
