AP Euro Midterm
Mercantilism is characterized by government efforts to build a strong, self-sufficient economy
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What did the Edict of Nantes do?
A document issued by Henry IV of France in 1598, granting liberty of conscience and public worship to Calvinists, which helped restore peace in France.
What was an indulgence?
A document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.
The primary cause of the English Glorious Revolution was
A fear of the establishment of Catholic absolutism by James II
Who was the Duke of Alva?
A firm believer in Calvinisim, he felt Phillip II's "pacification" of the Protestant faith as a ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents.
What was the Spanish Armada?A fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Weather and the English fleet defeated it.
A fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Weather and the English fleet defeated it.
What was the Council of Trent?
A general council, which met intermittently from 1545-1563 at Trent, an imperial city near Italy and called to reform the Church and try to secure reconciliation with Protestants.
What was the Pilgrimage of Grace?
A massive rebellion that proved to be the largest in English history, regarding a popular opposition in the north toward religious changes in England and the Anglican church.
What was the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis?
A treaty between France and Spain in 1559 which ended the long conflict known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars.
What was the Republic of Letters
A truly cosmopolitan set of networks stretching from western Europe to its colonies in the Americas, to Russia and eastern Europe, and along the routes of trade and empire to Africa and Asia through which the ENLIGHTENED THINKERS AND PHILOSOPHES COMMUNICATED AND SHARED IDEAS
When speaking "moral economy" historians are referring to
A vision of the world in which community needs predominate over competition and profit
In the Iberian Peninsula, what was the social position of African slaves? A) African slaves intermingled with the people they lived among and sometimes intermarried with them. B) African slaves were socially segregated as a lesser class lacking any rights. C) African slaves isolated themselves into tight-knit communities that sought to achieve independence from their masters. D) African slaves were kept in guarded, military-style barracks that limited their ability to move within society. E) African slaves were few in number and were treated as oddities brought out to be put on display.
A) African slaves intermingled with the people they lived among and sometimes intermarried with them.
Why did Elizabeth I have her cousin and heir Mary, Queen of Scots, executed? A) Mary became implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth. B) Elizabeth executed Mary to demonstrate the consequences of supporting Catholicism. C) Mary had married Philip II of Spain against Elizabeth's wishes. D) Elizabeth resented Mary's beauty and ability to dominate men. E) Mary had led Scottish troops against England in order to seize the throne.
A) Mary became implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth.
Why did a unified Italian state fail to develop in the fifteenth century? A) Political loyalty and feeling centered on a passionate attachment to the individual city-state. B) The papacy prevented any movement toward unification , fearing a treat to its political authority. C) France and the Holy Roman Empire had too many land claims in the region to permit any unification. D) Spain claimed all of southern Italy and threatened war on any power seeking to unify the peninsula. E) The Italians were too culturally and linguistically diverse to realistically contemplate unification.
A) Political loyalty and feeling centered on a passionate attachment to the individual city-state.
Which of the following best characterizes the Renaissance idea of virtú? A) The ability to shape the world around oneself according to one's will B) The expression of perfection in the life lived in balance and simplicity C) Moral goodness as set out in the Christian Scriptures D) The serenity achieved through contemplation and acceptance of life's hardships E) Moral goodness as expressed in nature and natural law
A) The ability to shape the world around oneself according to one's will
How did the Concordat of Bologna resolve the dispute between the French crown and the papacy over lay investiture? A) The papacy received the right to the first year's income of new bishops and abbots, and the French king retained the right to select French bishops and abbots. B) The papacy gained the right to maintain its own court system, and the French crown received all revenues from that court system. C) The papacy received the right to nominate bishops, while the French crown could veto the proposed candidates. D) The papacy received the right to veto candidates for offices nominated by the king, while the king received the first year's income from all religious offices E) The papacy gained the right to appoint bishops, while the king retained the right to tax church lands.
A) The papacy received the right to the first year's income of new bishops and abbots, and the French king retained the right to select French bishops and abbots.
A new religious order for women that emerged in the sixteenth century was the A) Ursuline Order. B) Society of Jesus. C) Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. D) Colloquy of Marburg. E) Evangelines.
A) Ursuline Order.
The Consistory was A) a body of laymen and pastors who led Geneva. B) the intellectual leaders of the Reformation. C) those individuals chosen for salvation. D) all Protestants. E) the elected ministers of the church.
A) a body of laymen and pastors who led Geneva.
The inquisitorial legal procedure differed from the accusatorial legal procedure in all of the following ways except A) an accuser could be sued if charges were not proven. B) a suspect would not be told the charges against him. C) people were more willing to make accusations since the authorities would bring the cases publicly. D) intense questioning of the suspect occurred. E) the subject could be tortured.
A) an accuser could be sued if charges were not proven.
Luther's ideas about Roman exploitation of Germany A) appealed to the national sentiment of German princes. B) were met with dismay by the ruling elite. C) led to administrative reform in the empire. D) found an audience only among the peasantry. E) are generally considered paranoid by modern historians.
A) appealed to the national sentiment of German princes.
The Star Chamber A) dealt with noble threats to royal power in England. B) was dominated by the great nobles of England. C) was the English equivalent of the Spanish Inquisition. D) dealt with the finances of the English government. E) was largely staffed by conversos.
A) dealt with noble threats to royal power in England.
According to the Dutch humanist Erasmus, the key to reform was... A) education. B) control of the papacy. C) a pious life. D) the concerted effort that only a strong state could afford. E) adherence to church dogma.
A) education.
The Colloquy of Marburg A) failed to resolve the differences among Protestants on the issue of the Eucharist. B) established the basic tenants of Catholic reform in opposition to the Protestant Reform movement. C) created the basic tenets of Calvinism that could then be adopted to specific national contexts. D) required all Protestants to adopt a common reformed liturgy and standards for clerical behavior. E) identified Luther's teachings as heretical and called for the elimination of all who embraced his ideas.
A) failed to resolve the differences among Protestants on the issue of the Eucharist.
In early Renaissance Italy, art A) manifested corporate power. B) was commissioned by nobles only. C) was seen as subversive by the church. D) did not depict living people. E) was produced for art's sake.
A) manifested corporate power.
Luther viewed celibacy as A) opposed to human nature and God's commandments. B) the ideal act of spiritual devotion. C) required for all Lutheran pastors. D) a gift only the spiritually mature could enjoy. E) undermining efforts to expand population.
A) opposed to human nature and God's commandments.
The dissolution of the English monasteries A) resulted from Henry VIII's desire to confiscate their wealth. B) resulted in a more equitable distribution of land. C) deeply disturbed the English upper classes. D) was the result of rebellious activities by the monks. E) was reversed by Elizabeth I.
A) resulted from Henry VIII's desire to confiscate their wealth.
Italian humanists stressed the A) study of the classics for what they could reveal about human nature. B) study of the classics in order to understand the divine nature of God. C) absolute authority of classical texts. D) role of the church in the reform of society. E) study of Revelation for a clue to the date of the Second Coming.
A) study of the classics for what they could reveal about human nature.
The Reformation in England was primarily the result of A) the dynastic and romantic concerns of Henry VIII. B) the missionary activity of the Lollards. C) the terrible conditions then existing in the English churches. D) efforts by Luther and his followers. E) Elizabeth I's conversion to Presbyterianism.
A) the dynastic and romantic concerns of Henry VIII.
According to the text, Thomas More's Utopia was remarkable for its time because it asserted that A) the problems plaguing society could be solved by a beneficent government. B) North America would one day be the site of the greatest power in world history. C) Native Americans could be saved through conservations to Christianity. D) flaws in the divine nature were responsible for human corruption. E) human beings evolved from lower animals.
A) the problems plaguing society could be solved by a beneficent government.
As consumer habits changed, an aristocrat's greatest expense was usually his A) urban palace. B) military hardware and training. C) daughter's dowry. D) food. E) jewelry and clothing.
A) urban palace.
Italian balance-of-power diplomacy A) was designed to prevent a single Italian state from dominating the peninsula. B) successfully prevented foreign domination of Italy. C) was primarily concerned with controlling the papacy. D) was critical to the economic success of Italy. E) led to Venetian domination of the Italian
A) was designed to prevent a single Italian state from dominating the peninsula.
How did Charles V's reign end?
After being unable to unify his empire under one faith/religion (Catholicism), he gave up fighting and basically "retired" giving his power and land over to Phillip II, his son, and his brother, Ferdinand.
What is a benefice?
An office held by the clergy, where they performed spiritual responsibilities.
In the seventeenth century, why did rulers hesitate to crush rebellions?
Armies were expensive to deploy and rulers feared creating martyrs
How did the nature of armed forces change in the latter half of the seventeenth century?
Army officers became obedient to monarchs instead of serving their own interests
What was decided at the Colloquy of Marburg?
At the Colloquy of Marburg, they tried to unite the Protestants who viewed Luther's ideas and Zwingli's, but were unable to resolve the differences between the two Protestant views.
How did the Calvinists understand the idea of work or labor? A) Work was the consequence of sin entering the world; it marked the shame of humankind. B) Hard work, well done, was pleasing to God, and all work with a religious aspect was dignified. C) Work marked the duty to which God called the unlearned, freeing the superior minds to contemplation. D) Hard work was the duty of criminals and non-Christians so that Christians could pursue holiness. E) All were called to hard work in fields in order to keep them in contact with God's creation.
B) Hard work, well done, was pleasing to God, and all work with a religious aspect was dignified.
How did Pico dela Mirandola understand the uniqueness of humankind? A) As creatures in the age of God, humans were superior to the rest of creation, including the angels and other heavenly beings. B) Humans, lacking a fixed place, were the one part of the created part of the world that could freely choose to rise to the heavens or sink into the realm of animals. C) Lacking a specific role in God's creation, humans were actually below animals but had the potential for greatness denied to animals. D) Humans were established by God as just below the angels and given to rule over everything on earth. E) Humans were fundamentally the same as animals, distant from God and all things spiritual.
B) Humans, lacking a fixed place, were the one part of the created part of the world that could freely choose to rise to the heavens or sink into the realm of animals.
Why did the printing press find substantial success? A) Governments rejected pleas to censor publishing, realizing, that expanding knowledge would lead to more prosperous subjects. B) Increasing literacy and the opening of more schools and universities had created an expanding market for reading material. C) The technology was highly complex so that only a few presses came into operation, producing large profits for those printers. D) Printing presses primarily published secular works useful for professionals and merchants. E) Because the press could not print images, printers could work much more quickly than manuscript copyists, who had to wait for each image to be drawn.
B) Increasing literacy and the opening of more schools and universities had created an expanding market for reading material.
The Spanish conversos were A) American Indians who returned to Spain to demonstrate that they could and would embrace Christianity. B) Jewish Christians, some of whom held prominent positions in the state, church, and business. C) Albigensian heretics who had fled to Spain to avoid the Inquisition in France. D) Muslim converts to Christianity following the fall of Granada. E) small clans of Celts who had hidden away in the Pyrenees and still practiced traditional Celtic rituals.
B) Jewish Christians, some of whom held prominent positions in the state, church, and business.
How did Luther benefit from his appearance before the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms? A) Luther obtained permission to continue to call for reform as long as he remained loyal to papal authority. B) Luther gained a larger audience for his reform ideas, and others began to challenge the church's teachings and practices. C) Luther guaranteed the personal protection of the emperor for the rest of his life as long as he remained within imperial lands. D) Luther was granted permission to call for church reform of institutional corruption as long as he accepted official papal doctrine. E) Luther was granted permission to challenge church teachings as long as he remained submissive to the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor.
B) Luther gained a larger audience for his reform ideas, and others began to challenge the church's teachings and practices.
What aided Martin Luther as his call for reform emerged? A) Luther did not need political support and, therefore was able to develop his ideas without political interference. B) Luther understood the power of the new printing press and authorized the publication of his works. C) Luther led a unified reform movement that was able to coordinate its actions in several different territories and kingdoms. D) Luther's status as a nobleman brought him respect and legitimacy that he could use to defend his ideas. E) Luther's friendship with the pope offered him protection from his religious enemies during the crucial early years of the Reform movement.
B) Luther understood the power of the new printing press and authorized the publication of his works.
What were Lutheran and Calvinist attitudes toward secular rulers? A) Lutherans and Calvinists believed that secular rulers must be obeyed and respected no matter what their religious beliefs. B) Lutherans taught respect for authority while Calvinists encouraged opposition to political authorities who were considered ungodly. C) Lutherans taught opposition to ungodly leaders while Calvinists taught obedience to all secular authorities. D) Lutherans and Calvinists believed that secular leaders who violated the laws of nature must be opposed, while all others must be obeyed. E) Lutherans and Calvinists believed that all secular leaders who were ungodly must be opposed.
B) Lutherans taught respect for authority while Calvinists encouraged opposition to political authorities who were considered ungodly.
How did the closing of the monasteries and convents affect upper-class women? A) Upper-class women were freed from the numerous restraints of convent life. B) Marriage became virtually the only occupation for upper-class women. C) Upper-class women were able to participate in art and literature, which were denied to them in the convent. D) Families were forced to take over the care and support of women who had no productive role. E) Upper-class women were able to take administrative abilities developed in the monasteries into the royal courts and bureaucracies.
B) Marriage became virtually the only occupation for upper-class women.
Why did Protestants allow the dissolution of marriages in divorce? A) Protestants believed that individuals were responsible for their own salvation. and therefore should be allowed the choice to stay in a marriage or not. B) Protestants viewed marriage as a contract for mutual support, and married partners who failed to provide support endangered their souls and the entire community. C) Protestants believed that the "priesthood of all believers" required that all be treated equally before the law to make decisions about their marriages. D) Protestants viewed marriage as a temporary arrangement in this world that had no significance for the afterlife. E) Protestants believed the right to divorce in marriage was the equivalent of the idea of spiritual free will.
B) Protestants viewed marriage as a contract for mutual support, and married partners who failed to provide support endangered their souls and the entire community.
Which of the following BEST characterizes Girolamo Savonarola? A) Savonarola came to power in Florence as a general suppressing a popular revolt but lost authority when the merchants rejected his efforts to restrict their wealth. B) Savonarola came to power in Florence denouncing vice and corruption, but as people tired of his moral denunciations, he lost authority. C) Savonarola was appointed ruler in Florence by the pope but lost authority when he challenged papal interference in Florence's baking industry. D) Savonarola was appointed chief administrator in Florence by ruling oligarchs but lost power when he failed to defeat the French invasion. E) Savonarola came to power as signori but lost authority when criticism of his extravagant, luxurious lifestyle led the oligarchs and the papacy to oust him.
B) Savonarola came to power in Florence denouncing vice and corruption, but as people tired of his moral denunciations, he lost authority.
What new type of anti-Semitism emerged in fifteenth-century Spain? A) Status as a Jew was defined as a cultural rather than biological or Christian, so that it could only be removed by being raised in a non-Jewish culture. B) Status as a Jew was defined as inherent the blood, so Jews could never be true Christians. C) Status as a Jew was defined as the result of religious choice, so status, could change Christians. D) Status as a Jew was defined as political, so status could change if a Jew separated himself from the political authority of Jewish community leaders. E) Status as a Jew was defined as intellectual, so status could change if a Jew dedicated himself to learning and adopting the Christian scholastic tradition.
B) Status as a Jew was defined as inherent the blood, so Jews could never be true Christians.
How widespread was the influence of the Inquisition? A) The Inquisition was filled with internal rivalries and conflicts that prevented it from effectively working outside of a few famous cases. B) The Inquisition effectively destroyed heresy within the Papal States but had little influence elsewhere. C) The Inquisition had considerable success in all Catholic lands where political leaders supported it. D) The Inquisition became a powerful and effective force throughout Catholic lands. E) The Inquisition's success at rooting out heresy was so effective that many Protestant leaders invited it to work in Protestant lands.
B) The Inquisition effectively destroyed heresy within the Papal States but had little influence elsewhere.
What was the importance of "fate" to Machiavelli's analysis in The Prince? A) Fate marked the sheer random movement of nature and people that was beyond the ability of any ruler to control. B) The most skilled and prepared ruler could not fully escape the operations of fate that might cause a prince to lose his realm. C) The idea of fate was but a metaphor for the favor that God randomly bestows on some rulers and denies to others. D) The skilled ruler can overcome the operations of fate if he is willing to abandon all moral limitations and scruples. E) Fate was the poor justification that deposed rulers used to explain their failure to properly hold and use power.
B) The most skilled and prepared ruler could not fully escape the operations of fate that might cause a prince to lose his realm.
Charles VII of France expanded his authority through all of the following EXCEPT A) expelling nobles' militias and troops. B) eliminating nobles' militias and troops. C) increasing the influence of lawyers and bankers on the royal council. D) instituting new taxes. E) establishing regular companies of cavalry and archers.
B) eliminating nobles' militias and troops.
The Tudor Henry VII of England won broad, popular support by A) reforming the church. B) promoting peace and social order at the local level. C) restricting the wages of the working classes. D) lowering taxes and subsidizing the wool industry E) appointing a few great lords as his closest advisers.
B) promoting peace and social order at the local level.
Which two sacraments did Protestants believe in?
Baptism and the Eucharist (were the two sacraments Protestants believed in). (Ref: p. 412, 3rd paragraph @ end)
The men elected to represent the third estate at the estates general were primarily
Bourgeoisie
The treaty of Cateu-Cambresis ended the conflict known as the A) War of the Roses. B) Hundred Year's War. C) Habsburg-Valois Wars. D) Thirty Years' War. E) War of the Spanish Succession.
C) Habsburg-Valois Wars.
Why did John Calvin reject the idea of human free will? A) Human free will would undermine the idea of human sinfulness. B) Human free will would eliminate the idea of the divine right of kings. C) Human free will would detract from the sovereignty of God. D) Human free will would undermine the need for the crucifixion of Christ. E) Human free will would detract from the authority of the church.
C) Human free will would detract from the sovereignty of God.
The merchants of Florence established dominance over what aspect of the papacy's activities? A) The papal system of trade to the Crusader states B) The papal system of tax collection on church lands C) The papal banking system D) The provisioning of papal troops throughout Italy E) The papal selling of indulgences
C) The papal banking system
How did the Tudor kings, with the exception of Henry VIII, weaken aristocratic influence? A) They refused to appoint members of the high aristocracy to the royal council. B) They adopted major clerical reforms that undermined the political power of the church and hierarchy. C) They avoided major wars that would require money from Parliament. D) They required all nobles to assign their noble militias to royal control. E) They centralized all tax collection into the royal bureaucracy.
C) They avoided major wars that would require money from Parliament.
One of the central components of the Italian Renaissance was A) Christian humility. B) a concern for the improvement of society in general. C) a glorification of individual genius. D) the attempt to use art to educate the urban masses. E) rejection of spiritual authority.
C) a glorification of individual genius.
The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre led to A) the end of Protestant power in France. B) new efforts to bring civil order to France. C) a lengthy civil war. D) an international peace conference. E) a new spirit of cooperation between Protestants and Catholics.
C) a lengthy civil war.
The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella Castile A) permitted the monarchs to undermine the provincial elite by unifying the two states into a single, unified kingdom. B) unified all of the Iberian peninsula. C) created a dynastic union but did not unify the separate kingdoms into a single state. D) undermined the claims of the Holy Roman Emperor to be the defender of he Church
C) created a dynastic union but did not unify the separate kingdoms into a single state.
The most important factor in the emergence of the Italian Renaissance was the A) decline of religious feeling. B) political disunity of Italy. C) great commercial revival in Italy. D) creation of powerful, centralized monarchies. E) French patronage of Italian artists.
C) great commercial revival in Italy.
The Pilgrimage of Grace attested to A) the continued strength of Catholicism in southern Europe. B) the popularity of John Calvin. C) popular opposition, in northern England, to Henry VIII's reformation. D) popular support of Luther in his conflict with the pope. E) the piety of Teresa of Avila.
C) popular opposition, in northern England, to Henry VIII's reformation.
The leaders of the Catholic Church A) ignored the Renaissance. B) attempted to crush the secularism of the Renaissance. C) readily adopted the Renaissance spirit, especially when it came to art. D) used Renaissance ideals to promote moral reform. E) came to believe that the Renaissance had caused the Reformation.
C) readily adopted the Renaissance spirit, especially when it came to art.
Francesco Petrarch believed that A) a new era would dawn as writers stripped Christianity of the classical Roman influences that had polluted the church's teachings. B) the writers of ancient Greece had reached a perfection in literature and philosophy that the writers of ancient Rome had corrupted. C) the recovery of classical texts would bring about a new golden age of intellectual achievement. D) the barbarian invaders had brought a new vigorous energy to Western culture that needed to be integrated into the classical tradition. E) education should center on the study of the Bible combined with meditation and reflection.
C) the recovery of classical texts would bring about a new golden age of intellectual achievement.
In religious affairs, Elizabeth I of England followed a policy that A) supported the efforts of the Puritans. B) emphasized personal and public religious conformity. C) was a middle course between Catholic and Protestant extremes. D) favored Catholics over Protestants. E) imported Scottish Presbyterianism into England.
C) was a middle course between Catholic and Protestant extremes.
In terms of gender relations, Renaissance humanists argued that A) men and women were equals in intellectual pursuits. B) the status of women had improved since the Middle Ages. C) women's sphere of activity was private and domestic. D) women should have equal opportunity in marital and extramarital sexual relations. E) women lacked immortal souls.
C) women's sphere of activity was private and domestic.
The Institutes of the Christian Religion
Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism.
The Baroque style flourished in the context of the
Catholic Reformation
What were the results of the results of the Habsburg-Valois wars?
Catholics and Protestants became divided during the time when the French were fighting with the Holy Roman Empire in Italy, and as a result the Catholic church and the unification of the empire/country was impossible for Charles V, who ended up signing the Peace of Augsburg, enabling either Protestant or Catholic faiths and religions to be practiced. He then gave up his land and power to his son and brother.
Why did the English government arrive at a crisis situation by 1690?
Charles I attempted to govern without Parliament and financed his government by emergency taxes
Northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms of their own religious traditions
Christian humanists
What was Zwingli's belief about salvation?
Christian life rested on the Scriptures and the sole basis of religious truth and the pure words of God. He, like Luther, agreed that God initiates salvation.
In Eastern Europe between 1500-1650, the growth of commercial agriculture was accompanied by the
Consolidation of serfdom
Political power in the Dutch Republic was
Controlled by an oligarchy of wealthy merchants
Louis XIV supported all of the following except
Cooperation with the Estates general
Colbert's contributions to the economy of France included all of the following except
Creating a national bank
Which of the following BEST identifies the term "race" in the Renaissance? A) Groupings of people based on skin color B) Groupings of people based on noble lineage C) Groupings of people based on geographic origins D) Groupings of people based on ethnic, national, or religious factors E) Groupings of people based on linguistic families
D) Groupings of people based on ethnic, national, or religious factors
How did the printing press provide a framework to challenge provincial sentiments? A) The printing press served to reestablish the idea of a unified Christendom. B) Provincial towns sought to limit and control the spread of printing, undermining their legitimacy as promoters of the general good. C) In order to establish legitimacy, printers published primarily in Latin, serving to reinforce a sense of a unified Western culture. D) Individuals widely separated by geography could read the same material and form a common identity that competed with local loyalties. E) Central governments ordered printing presses established in all local communities in order to establish a national network of printing.
D) Individuals widely separated by geography could read the same material and form a common identity that competed with local loyalties.
Why was women's work less valued and less compensated than men's work? A) The traditional work associated with women was unskilled and, therefore, more widely performed. B) Women were largely secluded in their homes; therefore, their work was seen as strictly domestic and not worthy of compensation. C) Women did not seek to organize in guilds so that they could better influence wages and prices for their work. D) It was understood that a woman was either married or to be married and, therefore, not responsible for supporting a family. E) Women's work was viewed as work that affected the body, such as clothing and food preparation; therefore, it was associated with fleshly sinfulness.
D) It was understood that a woman was either married or to be married and, therefore, not responsible for supporting a family.
Which of the following best describes Martin Luther's doctrine of salvation? A) Salvation came through faith in God and works that demonstrated faith. B) Salvation came through the performance of the Holy Sacraments. C) Salvation came through God's predestined selection of those he chose to save. D) Salvation came through faith alone as a free gift of God's grace. E) Salvation came through priestly intercession with God on behalf of the sinner.
D) Salvation came through faith alone as a free gift of God's grace.
Which of the following BEST characterizes the intersection of the hierarchies of wealth and orders in the Renaissance? A) The nobility retained its status by blocking the newly wealthy from political positions and from marriage into the nobility. B) The newly wealthy used their resources to establish new forms of social prestige that the nobility could not copy and which discredited the nobility as social leaders. C) The newly wealthy rejected the claims of the nobility to moral superiority of landed wealth. D) The nobility retained its status by taking in and integrating the new social elite of wealth. E) The nobility embraced the innovations of the newly wealthy and abandoned the ineffective limitations of traditional conceptions of honor.
D) The nobility retained its status by taking in and integrating the new social elite of wealth.
Why did most ordinary Poles oppose the Lutheran reform movement? A) They were exempt from most church taxes. B) They saw the Catholic Church as a counterweight to the power of the Polish monarchy. C) They believed themselves specially selected by God to preserve the Catholic faith. D) They held strong anti-German feelings. E) They opposed the idea of the priesthood of all believers.
D) They held strong anti-German feelings.
As a result of the Peace of Augsburg, the people of Germany A) remained Catholics. B) were able to practice the religion of their choice. C) converted to Lutheranism. D) became either Lutheran or Catholic, depending on the preference of their prince. E) threw off the papal yoke.
D) became either Lutheran or Catholic, depending on the preference of their prince.
The Edict of Nantes A) permitted French Huguenots to worship wherever they wished as long as they continued to pay taxes to the Catholic church. B) ordered all French Huguenots to convert to Catholicism or leave France. C) required all Catholic priests in France to swear an oath of loyalty to the king. D) granted French Huguenots the right to worship in 150 towns. E) permitted each French nobleman to determine the religion for his territory.
D) granted French Huguenots the right to worship in 150 towns.
According to Machiavelli, government should be judged on whether it A) provided the necessary public services. B) was based on Christian morality. C) protected the liberty of its citizens. D) provided order, security, and safety of the populace. E) improved the economy.
D) provided order, security, and safety of the populace.
In the early sixteenth century, anticlericalism focused primarily on all of the following EXCEPT A) the immorality of priests who were drunkards and neglected the rule of celibacy. B) the ignorance of priests who were barely literate and merely mumbled the Mass in memorized latin. C) the pluralism of clerics who held several different church offices and collected their revenues. D) the heresy of priests who preached messages contrary to church doctrine. E) the absenteeism of clerics who seldom visited the regions or religious houses under their authority.
D) the heresy of priests who preached messages contrary to church doctrine.
The subjugation of the Italian peninsula by outside invaders was A) the product of the invaders' overwhelming superiority. B) the result of the economic collapse of Italy. C) inevitable. D) the result of the Italians' failure to coordinate a common defense. E) the result of a papal invitation to the French king to intervene.
D) the result of the Italians' failure to coordinate a common defense.
The overriding goal of the Catholic religious orders established in the sixteenth century was A) institutional reform. B) reconciliation with Protestantism. C) to combat heresy and Protestantism. D) to uplift the moral condition of both clergy and laity. E) conversion of Asians and Africans.
D) to uplift the moral condition of both clergy and laity.
Jean Racine's plays
Demonstrated classical qualities of discipline, balance, and restraint
Which of the following would have been least likely to approve of Joseph II's policies
Denis Diderot
Galileo was placed on trial four heresy owing to the publication of
Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World
Characterize the reign of Mary Tudor.
During Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary)'s reign England witnessed a sharp move back to Catholicism. Mary Tudor married Phillip II of Spain (her cousin) and executed hundreds of Protestants--alienating her subjects.
How did the choice to embrace or reject the Reform movement occur in a territory or region in the Holy Roman Empire? A) Individual parishes selected their leaders, who would decide whether to reform the parish. B) Local religious councils determined whether or not to embrace reform. C) Individual priests decided whether or not to embrace the Reform movement and introduce new doctrines and practices. D) Individual Christians responded to the call for reform and then required local religious officials to adopt the Reform movement. E) The political leader(s) of the territory or region determined whether to introduce reforms.
E) The political leader(s) of the territory or region determined whether to introduce reforms.
What was the fate of most people brought before the Inquisition and accused of witchcraft? A) They were found guilty and executed. B) They were found innocent and exonerated of any wrongdoing. C) They were found guilty and their property seized. D) They were found guilty and sold into slavery. E) They were sent home with a warning and ordered to do penance.
E) They were sent home with a warning and ordered to do penance.
In addition to reforming the church, what was the other goal of the Council of Trent? A) To eliminate the Bohemian church. B) To reinforce the power of monarchs. C) To recognize bishops as completely independent of secular rulers. D) To expand noble authority as counterweight to monarchs. E) To secure reconciliation with the Protestants.
E) To secure reconciliation with the Protestants.
The Calvinist doctrine of predestination led to a A) mood of fatalism among Calvin's followers. B) withdrawal from the world of business and politics. C) mass exodus from the city of Geneva. D) fashion for astrology. E) confidence among Calvinists in their own salvation.
E) confidence among Calvinists in their own salvation.
France supported the Protestant princes of Germany in order to A) spread Protestantism. B) prevent English influence from increasing in Germany. C) contain Protestantism east of the Rhine. D) facilitate the Turkish attack on the Habsburgs. E) prevent Charles V from increasing his power.
E) prevent Charles V from increasing his power.
The northern Italian communes took all of the following forms EXCEPT A) some cities were sworn associations of free men who sought political and economic independence from local nobles. B) some cities were ruled by military leaders who had established order following popular uprisings. C) some cities were established as republican governments by the common people through armed revolts. D) some cities were ruled by signori who kept communal institutions in place but left them no actual power. E) some cities were under authority of the papacy, which ruled them as personal lands of the pope
E) some cities were under authority of the papacy, which ruled them as personal lands of the pope
In Hungary, Lutheranism was A) embraced by the high nobility as attacking their clerical rivals. B) destroyed by Turks when they seized control of the realm. C) rejected by nearly all people as a heresy of the hated Germans. D) widely adopted as a symbols of anti-Habsburg sentiment. E) spread by Hungarian students who had studied at the University of Wittenberg.
E) spread by Hungarian students who had studied at the University of Wittenberg.
Castiglione's manual on gentlemanly conduct A) focused on ridding oneself of vermin. B) suggested that early choice of a profession was crucial in becoming a gentleman. C) asserted that real men need not learn French. D) insisted that the real gentleman show Christian humility and kindness toward the downtrodden. E) suggested that gentleman cultivate their abilities in a variety of fields, from athletics to music to art to mathematics.
E) suggested that gentleman cultivate their abilities in a variety of fields, from athletics to music to art to mathematics.
Luther believed that the church consisted of A) the entire body of clergy. B) the elect. C) all those who supported his views. D) the saints and Christ, not human beings. E) the entire community of Christian believers.
E) the entire community of Christian believers.
Martin Luther's first response to the Peasants' War was A) a call to the nobles to crush the peasants. B) to undertake penance for the peasants' sins. C) a call for peasants and nobles to unite in a crusade against the Turks. D) a call for the confiscation of Catholic nobles' estates. E) to side with the peasants.
E) to side with the peasants.
All of the following inhibited women's success as painters in the Renaissance EXCEPT A) women were not allowed to study the male nude. B) women could not work in public where the fresco technique was done. C) women were not permitted to join groups of male artists for informal practice. D) women were not permitted to attend artistic academies. E) women were not permitted to take up painting until after they were married.
E) women were not permitted to take up painting until after they were married.
Mercantilist theory postulated that
Economic activity should be regulated by and for the state
What was Ivan IV's law regarding trade and manufacturing in Russia?
Economic restrictions and lack of security in property checked the growth of a Russian middle class
What group of people found Protestantism appealing?
Educated people, many humanists, scholars, political leaders, and later even peasants with the general anticlericalism of the time
In return for financial support, what did Charles II of England secretly promise Louis XIV of France?
English laws against Catholics would be eased and England gradually re-Catholicized
How did Enlightenment thinkers differ from those of the Middle Ages and Renaissance
Enlightenment thinkers believed that their era had surpassed antiquity which demonstrated the possibility of human progress
Why was France unable to manage its debt in the eighteenth century, even though that debt was much smaller, relative to its population, than the debt of either Great Britain or Holland
France lacked a central bank and currency.
Huguenots
French Calvinists
Who were the Huguenots?
French Calvinists
What was the economic effect of Napoleon's Continental System
French artisans and the middle class suffered, for they were economically damaged by the blockade of Great Britain.
Explain Luther's work with political authorities.
He (and Zwingli) knew that all individuals, religious leaders, and political authorities would have to accept their Protestant ideas. Luther lived in a territory (Wittenberg) where he worked closely with political authorities (German princes), viewing them as fully justified in asserting control over the church in their territories. They were the reformers that would reeducate the territory's clergy, sponsor public sermons, and confiscate church property, etc.
What was Voltaire's attitude toward government
He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for in a government
How did Frederick William the Great Elector of Prussia persuade the Junker nobility to accept taxation without consent in order to fund an army?
He confirmed the Junkers privileges, including their authority over the serfs
How did Frederick William I, King of Prussia, sustain agricultural production while dramatically expanding the size of his army?
He ordered all Prussian men to undergo military training after which they could return home and serve as army reservists
How did Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud create conflict in Britain in the 1630s?
He sought to impose the Anglican BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER on Presbyterian Scotland
Why did Henry VIII break from the Catholic Church?
Henry VIII wanted an annulment with Catherine of Aragon, a devout Catholic and daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, because they failed to produce any male heirs, but the Catholic Church refused, so Henry VIII broke away from the church (creating the Anglican church, he also had six wives)
What was the consequence of Rakoczy's rebellion for Habsburg rule?
Hungary was never fully integrated into a centralized, absolute Habsburg state
The actions of previous Austrian rulers towards Protestants as described in the passage as a result of which of the following
Increased monarchical control over religion as a result of religious changes inspired by the Reformation
How did the reaction of kings and nobles in continental Europe toward the French Revolution change over the revolution's first two years
Initially pleased by the Revolution's weakening of France, they came to feel threatened by its increasingly radical message
What change within the Jewish community accompanied the Haskalah Enlightenment
Interactions between Jewish and Christians increased, and rabbinic controls diminished
What is the Peace of Augsburg?
It ended the religious war in Germany for many decades and created peace in the empire, but left a divided church and faiths with Protestants and Catholics across the Roman Empire.
Which of the following is the correct order of the Stuart dynasty?
James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II
Who was Denis Diderot's co-editor of the Encyclopedia
Jean le Rond d'Alembert
What were the basic theological arguments of John Calvin?
John Calvin's basic cornerstone of theology was his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and total weakness of humanity.
The passage was likely inspired by the political ideas of
John Locke
Which of the following would most likely support the principles underlying the above passage
John Locke
How did the Peace of Westphalia mark a turning point in European history?
Large scale armed conflicts over religious faith came to an end
How did the Treaty of Utrecht resolve the problems of succession to the Spanish throne?
Louis XIV of France's grandson, Phillip, was placed on the French throne with the agreement that the French and Spanish thrones would never be united
How did Luther respond to the German Peasants' War?
Luther initially sided with the peasants, blasting the lords for robbing their subjects of fake salvation, but after the rebellion of peasants and the great massacres and fights and the number who died, his support dwindled. He felt that the rebellion would ruin civil society and would hurt very many, with which he tried to prevent, denouncing the peasants instead with his pen and words.
What happened at the Diet of Worms?
Luther was called by Roman Emperor Charles V and a council, to recant his works in front of Charles V and nobility.
How did famines affect the European population in the 17th century?
Malnutrition made people susceptible to deadly disease, which reduce the population significantly
Who wrote a vindication of the rights of men and a vindication of the rights of women then later founding a text of the feminist movement
Mary Wollstonecraft
Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate is best described as a
Military dictatorshop
What occurred during the Hundred Days
Napoleon returned from exile to rule France briefly
Which of the following trends is best supported by the passage
Natural rights philosophy inspired a challenge to absolutism
a term applied to Jews and Muslims who accepted Christianity; in many cases they included Christians whose families had converted centuries earlier
New Christians
Louis XIV selected councilor a from the
Newly enobled or upper middle class
Which of the following groups of people would have most likely lived at Versailles?
Nobility
What was one of the social consequences of Peter the Great's bureaucratic system?
People of non-noble origin were able to rise to high positions
What Pope authorized the sale of a special Saint Peter's indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome?
Pope Leo X (authorized the sale of a special Saint Peter's indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome).
Typically, French classicism
Presented subject matters associated with the Greco-Roman past
French foreign policy under Richelieu focused primarily on the
Prevention of the Habsburgs from unifying the territories surrounding France
The Edict of Nantes was intended to
Promote religious and civil peace
Which of the following is the religious response to Nicolas Copernicus's hypothesis
Protestants rejected Copernicus's idea that the earth moved, while the Catholic Church largely overlook his theory until declaring the hypothesis false in the seventeenth century
Which powers participated in the partitioning of Poland in the late eighteenth century
Prussia, Russia, and Austria
Who was Mary, Queen of Scots?
Queen of the Scots, Mary was Elizabeth's cousin, a Catholic, next in line to the English throne, and targeted to overthrow Elizabeth I, which is why she was eventually executed when implicated in a plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth.
For Protestants, religious authority came from?
Religious authority came from the Bible alone.
a French word meaning "rebirth," first used by art historian
Renaissance
Many English Protestants feared that James II would
Restore the Roman Catholic Church
Soft pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits are all characteristics of the style known as
Rococo
What was Luther's belief about salvation?
Salvation came through faith, a free gift of God's grace.
What mistaken belief did the Count-Duke of Olivares hold that brought disaster to Spain?
Spain must return to the imperial tradition of the 16th century in order to solve it's economic and political difficulties
Although Smith wrote the Wealth of Nations in the late eighteenth century, which of the following countries would have been most likely to embrace Smith's economic philosophy throughout most of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Spain or Netherlands?????
What was the Book of Common Prayer?
The Book of Common Prayer was published during Edward VI's reign in England and was written by Thomas Cranmer regarding the order of all services and prayers in the Church of England.
Which of the following were William and Mary required to accept before taking the throne?
The English Bill of Rights
What caused the life-and-death political struggle between the Girondists and the Mountain
The Girondists' more moderate policies ???
The final collapse of Spain as a great military power was symbolized by the defeat at the Battle of Rocroi and resulting Treaty of
The Pyrenees
Within the Ottoman government, who staffed the top level's of the bureaucracy?
The Sultans slave corp
Protestants held that church is a...?
The church is a spiritual priesthood of all believers, an invisible fellowship not fixed in any place or person.
Why did the Directory continue French wars of conquest begun by early revolutionary governments
The directory understood that big, victorious armies kept men employed.
What two fundamental principles of the French Revolution were incorporated into the Napoleonic Code
The equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property
Who was Charles V?
The heir to a vast and incredibly diverse collection of states and people each governed in a different manner, but held only together by the Roman Empire and the emperor, Charles V himself.
What elements of the Catholic Church are retained by the Anglican Church?
The hierarchical elements, elaborate services, special robes, great monasteries, etc. were elements kept by the Anglican Church from the Catholic Church, although it was more Protestant by definition.
The attack on the Bastille had what political effect
The king's plans to reassert his authority were forestalled, permitting the national assembly to continue its work
What were the 95 Theses about?
The power of indulgences, their harm to faith and teaching.
The English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes held that
The power of the monarch was absolute and prevented the civil war
What happened at the Diet of Speyer in 1529?
The princes "protested" the decision of the Catholic majority. (Ref: p. 412, 2nd paragraph @ middle)
How did the printing press contribute to the Protestant Reformation?
The printing press made quick copies and distributions of the 95 Theses, spreading Protestantism quicker than it would have before, especially to the educated.
Which of the following best characterizes the English Revolution of 1688?
The revolution did not constitute a democratic revolution since sovereignty was placed in the Parliament, which only represented the upper classes
The guiding force behind Cardinal Richelieu's domestic policies was
The subordination of all groups and institutions to the monarchy
How did Luther and Zwingli view a priest or nun's vow of celibacy?
They both believed CELIBACY went AGAINST human nature and God's commandments, and that MARRIAGE BROUGHT spiritual advantages so it was ideal for all humans.
How did the Princes of Moscow seek to legalize their authority as rulers of an independent state?
They modeled their rule on the Mongol Khans
What is a politique?
Those rulers who sacrificed religious principles to political necessity of country, finding a "happy medium" of sorts between religions (Catholic and Protestant)
What was the Augsburg Confession?
When the Lutherans developed a statement of faith at the Imperial Diet in 1530 at Augsburg, basically confessing their faith and causing a war between the Protestants and Catholics, and more specifically Charles V, who launched a war against them (at first was successful, but his support dwindled leading him to sign the Peace of Augsburg).
Locke's views on government would most likely have been supported by
William of Orange III of the Netherlands
What group of people were usually accused of being witches?
Women because they were viewed as weaker, easily giving.
Why was there a rise in Witch trails in the 16th and 17th centuries?
Women who were viewed as maker and easily giving in to an offer by the Devil, were often perceived as What group of people were usually accused of being witches.witches, ultimate heretics, enemies of God. With the Reformation came a rise in the witchcraft trials which began before the Reformation and was specifically common in the 1560s.There was also a general nen.
Did Charles V control the Netherlands?
Yes, he was able to limit their Protestant impact since he had grown up there and had influence over the Netherlands, but when power was transferred to his son Phillip II, Protestant ideas began to spread rapidly.
How did Peter the Great's Westernizing reforms affect the process of marriage?
Young men and women were required to attend parties together and could freely choose their own spouse
penance
a Christian sacrament in which a member of the Church confesses sins to a priest and is given absolution; "indulgences undermined the sacrament... competing with the preaching of the Gospel and downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life" --Luther; voluntary self-punishment inflicted as an outward expression of repentance for having done wrong
indulgence
a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.
transubstantiation
a dogma held by Catholicism, by the consecrating words of the priest during the Mass, the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ.
Catherine the Great of Russia came to power in 1762 through
a military coup
purgatory
a place where souls on their way to Heaven went to make further amends for their earthly sins.
In the passage (Second Treatise of Civil Government) Locke seems to be arguing in favor of
a social contract
In the wake of the Great Fear in the summer of 1789 the national assembly restored order by
abolishing all of the old noble and church privileges
In Historical and Critical Dictionary by Pierre Bayle demonstrated that
all knowledge can be questioned and doubted
In historical and critical dictionary Pierre Bayle demonstrated that
all knowledge can be questioned and doubted
The idea of the public sphere that emerged during the Enlightenment refers to
an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues
The ideas expressed in the passage best illustrated which of the following Enlightenment beliefs
beliefs that promoted the idea of natural rights
Madame du Châtelet, Voltaire's longtime companion
believed that women's limited contribution to science was the result of unequal education
The national assembly that ruled France from 1789 to 1791 passed laws that
broadened Women's rights to seek divorce and inherit property
According to its editor, the fundamental goal of the Encyclopedia was to
change the general way of thinking
sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles
communes
condottieri
condottieri
magnificent household and palaces where signori and other rulers lived, conducted business, and supported the arts
courts
debate among writers and thinkers of the Renaissance about women's qualities and proper role in society
debate about women
Edict of a document issued by Henry IV of France in 1598, granting liberty of conscience and of public worship to Calvinists.
edict of Nantes
Francis Bacon formalized the research methods of Tycho Brahe and Galileo into a theory of reasoning known as
empiricism
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen guaranteed
equality before the law
Which of the following places the governments of the French revolution in the correct chronological order
estates general, national assembly, legislative assembly, national convention, directory, consulate
The legal definition of the composition of the pre-revolutionary third estate included
everyone who was not a noble or member of the clergy
The discipline of natural philosophy focused on
fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe
Which of the following would most likely have approved of Locke's views in the passage
gentry
In his essay Concerning Human Understanding John Locke claimed that
human development is determined by education and society
a program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature
humanism
In the 1780s, over 50 percent of France's annual budget was expended on
interest payments on the debt
iconoclasm
is the destruction of religious icons and other images or monuments for religious or political motives, refers to aggressive statements or actions against any well-established status quo (i.e. in the Netherlands: Calvinist men and women break stained-glass windows, remove statues, and carry off devotional altarpieces, many mobs
How did the National Assembly respond to the hopes and expectations of Saint Domingue social groups
it frustrated the hopes of all the different social groups
How did Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation bring the Scientific Revolution to maturity
it synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system
Jesuits
members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith.
According to Olympe de Gourges
men and women should be equal in the eyes of the law
politiques
moderates of both religious faiths who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse.
Smith's discussion of the "invisible hand" is most closely associated with the idea of
natural law
Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) was the first book published in Great Britain to
openly advocate full political equality for woman
anticlericalism
opposition to clergy
financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works or in specific styles
patronage
A striking feature of salons was that
philosophes, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled
the clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice (or office) at the same time and enjoying the income from each
pluralism
disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power
popolo
Johannes Kepler believed that the elliptical orbit of planets
produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies
To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria
reduced nobles power over their serfs
In the summer of 1789, the National Assembly was driven toward more radical action by
revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris.
Who forced the king and the royal family to abandon Versailles and return to Paris
several thousand Parisian women
The concept of the reading revolution refers to the
shift from reading religious texts aloud as a family to reading diverse texts individually
government by one-man rule in Italian cities such as Milan
signori
The Enlightened policies of Frederick the Great included
simplifying Prussia's laws
How did the Concordat resolve the crisis over Catholicism in France in the Napoleonic era
the Catholic Church gained the right to practice religion freely while the French state gained greater control over the nomination of the Church officers and Church activities
The passage (Wealth of Nations) can best be understood within the context of
the Enlightenment
The views of Locke can best be understood within the context of
the Glorious Revolution
Which book by the Baron de Montesquieu is considered the first major work in the French Enlightenment
the Persian Letter
Union of Utrecht
the alliance of seven northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands.
The ideas in the (Spirit of the Laws) directly influenced
the development of constitutionalism
Spanish Armada
the fleet sent by Phillip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Weather and the English fleet defeated it.
Rousseau's concept of the general will asserts that
the general will is not necessarily the will of the majority
What was the core concept of the Enlightenment
the methods of natural science should be used to examine all aspects of life
Holy Office
the official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy.
Catherine the Great's goal of domestic reform never came to fruition, owing to
the rebellion led by Emelian Pugachev in 1773
predestination
the teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose not the merit of works.
Abbe Sieyes considered the third estate
the true strength of the French nation
The most influential aspect of Rene Descartes' theories of nature was that
the universe functioned in a mechanistic fashion
As the Jacobins gained power, what was their reaction to the women's political activity
they banned all women's political activity, which they believed to be disorderly and a distraction from women's proper domestic duties.
Why did members of the National Convention turn against Robespierre on the ninth of Thermidor
they believed that Robespierre might soon have them arrested and executed
Which of the following best describes the sans culottes
they consisted of the working class people of Paris
How did the governments respond to the new science
they established academies of science to support and sometimes direct scientific research
How did the delegates to the Legislative Assembly that convened in Oct. 1791 differ from the delegates to the Estates General/National Assembly
they were younger and less cautious, many joined political clubs.
What was the primary goal of Galileo's experimental method
to discover what actually occurred in nature rather than to speculate or what should occur
What was the goal of the committee of public safety
to use dictatorial powers to respond to threats to France from without and within
the quality of being able to shape the world according to one's will
virtu
In the 18th century many liberal thinkers believe that representative institutions could defend the liberty and interests of the people, what did this mean in terms of political reality
voting for representatives would be restricted to men of property
Joseph II's conversion of peasant labor obligations to cash payments
was opposed by both nobles and peasants
