AP European History Terms: Renaissance to Glasnost

Lettres de cachet

These were letters signed by the king during the Ancien regime. Any person could be arrested for any reason and imprisoned for an undetermined length of time. These were hated because innocent people could be imprisoned for no reason. The Bastille was rumored to be filled with people imprisoned by virtue of the lettres. The lettres had no way to be appealed in a court of law. The kings saw the lettres de cachet as a personal expression of justice, and since the king was an absolute ruler, these lettres existed above the courts. Due to the abuses of the lettres, they were a subject discussed numerous times in the Estates General (#14). Victims of the lettres de cachet included Jaques Necker (#3) and Voltaire.

Edict of Nantes

This is the 1598 *order issued by King Henry IV of France that established rights for the Huguenots.* The *goal of it was to create civil unity and finally end 45 years of religious warfare between the Huguenots and the Roman Catholics in France.* *Huguenots were given 150 fortified towns to worship in*. Unfortunately, *the ability to maintain fortified towns created a "state within a state," and the next king after Henry IV, Louis XIII, was determined to break Huguenot power.*

Treaty of Paris (1856)

This treaty *ended the Crimean War*. The *Black Sea was opened to everyone, and the Ottoman Empire was guaranteed its freedom*. But, the *war exposed the weaknesses of both Russia and the Ottomans*. The *Ottoman Empire became a tempting target for invasion*, while Russia, now led by *Czar Alexander II, recognized the need to industrialize Russia.*

Potatoes

This vegetable greatly *helped the diets of the poor throughout Europe. It has all the nutrition that many of Europe's green vegetables lack*. It balanced the poor and middle classes' diets, but the *rich tended to stay away from vegetables and exercise, and gout was a common affliction*. The potato *replaced grains for many peasants, and the crop was widespread in Ireland.* It was a nutritious *part of a balanced breakfast (and lunch and dinner) for peasants* in Europe.

Instrument of Government

This was *the constitution that created the Protectorate.* It *did require Cromwell to call Parliament into session at least every 3 years*, and *they had the sole power to raise taxes*. The Instrument *also gave all Christians except Roman Catholics the right to worship freely*. *Cromwell refused to follow it, making one wonder what had been accomplished by getting rid of Charles!*

Cottage Industry

This was a system in which the production of goods is at people's homes. Products and services were unable to be mass-produced under this system. The system was better for workers than the factory system because families worked together in the cottage when they wished to work for extra money, unlike the impersonal, regimented factory system that replaced it at the end of the 18th century in England.

Third Estate

The third estate, the commoners, was a mixture of a few rich members of the middle class, urban workers, artisans, and the mass of peasants. They numbered about 25 million people. Their representatives were forced to wear black and enter the meeting hall through a side door!

Skepticism

The thought that *nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt.* Bayle was a well-known skeptic, who thought that *when it came to religion, everyone should have open-minded toleration.*

Chernobyl

a *terrible nuclear power plant disaster in the USSR in 1986.*

(Johann Sebastian) Bach

a *well-known baroque musician*, he was an *organist and choirmaster in several Lutheran churches across Germany, though he composed both secular and religious music.* He is best remembered for his keyboard work. (Very funny, Mr. Carver.)

Estates General

a representative assembly of the three political estates in France. Each estate got one vote no matter what the population, which was grossly unfair to the Third Estate. Louis XVI called for the Estates General to convene in May of 1789, the first time the group had met in 175 years!

Six Acts of Parliament (1819)

in response to the Peterloo Massacre, these acts tried to eliminate large public meetings, take arms away from private individuals, weaken the liberal press, and speed up the conviction of those involved in troublemaking!

Enabling Act (1933)

the *Reichstag passed this act to give Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years*. This act *allowed Hitler to consolidate his power through legal means.*

Hungary, 1956

the *movement toward autonomy for Poland and de-Stalinization encouraged Hungarians to try to break from the USSR*. When *Premier Imre Nagy announced that Hungary was leaving the Warsaw Pact*, the camel's back broke! *Thousands of Hungarians died in a weeklong fight against the Red Army*. *Nagy was executed.*

Deism

the belief that God created the universe and left it to develop on its own. Deists call this God the "Prime Mover." This idea was not well received by the Church, as it says that prayer, for example, is useless because God isn't listening. For Deists, human beings can only know God via reason and the observation of nature, but not by revelation or supernatural manifestations (such as miracles) - phenomena which Deists regard with skepticism, if not outright hostility.

German Confederation

this replaced the Confederation of the Rhine. It included 38 states and the Austrian Emperor was made its president (a fact that created future tensions with Prussia).

Individualism

this stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and full development of one's capabilities and talents. The quest for individual glory was a central component of Renaissance humanism.

Brandenburg-Prussia

two *German states that were part of the Holy Roman Empire.* Before the 17th century, *B-P were very minor states.* Brandenburg contained the sandy, swampy land around Berlin, and Prussia was located between Poland and Russia. *Following the 30 Years War, B-P was united into the state of Prussia, which became a world power in less than a century.*

Sovereignty

when a *nation has complete control over its own affairs*. As it applies to absolutism, it means that the *monarch has complete control over the state.*

Gustave Flaubert

wrote *Madame Bovary*. *Portrayed the middle class as smug and hypocritical*. A realist literary figure.

Theological

*people explain the universe in terms of God or gods, demons, etc.*

Huguenots

*French Calvinists.*

Pizarro

A *Spanish conquistador*, he *conquered the Incan Empire and founded Lima* (modern day capital of Peru).

Tuileries

A royal palace in Paris. King Louis XVI and his family took shelter under the watchful eye of the Legislative Assembly (the government created by the Constitution of 1791).

Cosimo de Medici

(r. 1434-1464). He was the first of the Medici family dynasty to informally control Florentine politics. He patronized the arts, liberally spending his family's fortune on literature, painting, architecture, and sculpting. He described a painter as "divine," implying that the artist shared in the powers of God. The term divine is usually applied to Michelangelo. Uncharacteristically for the times, his policies favored the lower and middle classes, which made him immensely popular.

Giotto

A Florentine painter and architect, he was one of the first great Renaissance artists. He led the way to the use of realism through his depiction of the human body and face. His greatest works are The Death of St. Francis and The Last Judgment, both frescoes. He used chiaroscuro.

William Hogarth

(1697-1764) William Hogarth was a famous English painter, engraver, printmaker, pictorial satirist, and cartoonist. He is known as the founder of sequential art - using a train of images to tell a story (like graphic novels). His first significant work was a satirical engraving called Masquerades and Operas. The piece attacked contemporary taste and was critical of the art establishment in general.

Madame Geoffrin

(1699-1777) During this era, *people ran meeting places called "salons," many were females who held a sort of authority at public gatherings.* She *ran one of these salons, where a person could discuss philosophy.* At these meetings, *people would discuss their points of view on science, literature, philosophy, and other subjects enlightened upon at this time.* She is known as the *"unofficial godmother of the Encyclopedia."*

Leni Riefenstahl

(1902-2003). She was the *German filmmaker* who completed *The Triumph of the Will (1935)*, a *documentary of a Nazi rally at Nuremberg in 1934*. As a propaganda piece, it *showed German soldiers marching in perfect precision*, the *power of Hitler* as a speaker, and *crowds roaring their approval* of Nazi speeches.

Thomas Wolsey

(1475-1530) He was *King Henry VIII's chancellor and Archbishop of York.* *His downfall was his failure to secure the annulment for Henry's marriage to his first wife*, Catherine of Aragon, from Pope Clement VII. *He was arrested and died on his way to execution.*

Cesare Borgia

he was the son of Pope Alexander VI and one of Alex's mistresses. He reasserted papal authority in the lands controlled by the Papal States. He was the model ruler of Machiavelli's The Prince - ruthless and cunning.

Ghiberti

Best-known for his sculptures and metalworking, he first gained distinction when he won a competition in 1401 over Brunelleschi to complete the first set of bronze doors for the Baptistry, a great cathedral in Florence. These doors are known as the Gates of Paradise, and they depict scenes from the New Testament. The ten panels in the door took him 21 years to complete!

Joseph Lister

British surgeon who *discovered antiseptics*. *Mortality rates of those admitted to hospitals dropped from 50% to a mere 15% after his discoveries.* (HINT: Listerine)

Drogheda

Cromwell *earned the everlasting hatred of the Irish people in 1649, when he laid siege to the Irish city of Drogheda*. After the *city refused to surrender* (it had 20 foot walls and felt impregnable), *Cromwell led 3 charges against it, finally breaching the walls*. He *ordered his soldiers to show the defeated Irish no quarter, and 3500 were massacred*. The *governor was beaten to death by English soldiers with his own wooden leg!*

Rhineland

Despite the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact of 1925, *Germany marched into the Rhineland in March 1936*. The *French could have stopped Hitler; he ordered his men to retreat if France showed any resistance*. Catastrophically, they did not. This *convinced Hitler that the western democracies would not act to stop him.*

Signori

Despots, or one-man rulers. They competed with the communes for power, often winning in times of crisis when people felt a strongman would protect them from enemies.

Relationship of the church and state

Different religions saw this relationship differently: *1. The church should control and absorb the state (Catholic and Calvinist).* *2. The state controls the church (Lutheran and Anglican).* *3. The church is separated from the state (Anabaptist).*

Ludovico Sforza

Duke of Milan and best known for commissioning the Last Supper. He controlled Milan for 13 years, and supported the arts and culture.

The Great Fear

Following the Bastille incident and in response to the worsening grain shortage, fearful peasants armed themselves and, in some areas, attacked manor houses. Peasants stole food from the granaries, destroyed feudal records, and forced many nobles to emigrate. Peasants then divided up the lands. Fear of peasant revolt was a deciding factor in the Night of 4 August decision to abolish feudalism. Once that had been achieved, the revolution was essentially over for most peasants, since they had taken what they wanted. In fact, many of them became counter-revolutionaries who actively fought against the revolution.

French Imperialism

France controlled Much of *Africa*, including West Africa Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco in North Africa. They also developed colonies in French Equatorial Africa and in French West Africa, as well as Senegal, Guinea, and Ivory Coast on the West Coast. And, France controlled Madagascar and French Somaliland on the East Coast. In *Asia*, France controlled French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia).

German Revolution of 1918-1919

In late October 1918, the *Germans revolted against the Kaiser and he was forced to abdicate*. The *Social Democrats, the largest pre-war party, set up the Weimar Republic to rule Germany*, but they were *challenged by a group called the Spartacists.*

Popular Front

In the mid-1930s, *France was faced with Fascist pressures like every other nation during the Depression*. When rightist groups began to strongly influence the government, *leftist groups known as the Popular Front combined, including the Radical Socialists, United Socialists, and Communists*. *Leon Blum led the Popular Front*, and he *implemented the 40-hour work week, paid vacations, and nationalized the Bank of France*. The *Right's slogan was "Better Hitler than Blum." Blum's reforms were a failure*, and he was *forced out of power in 1937.*

John Wycliffe (John Wyclif)

(1329-1384) He was a 14th century *Englishman who felt that all church officials should be removed from politics.* He argued that the *ultimate religious authority is the Bible, not the Pope.* He also felt that people needed to *read the Bible for themselves, and he translated it into English (Wycliffe Bible)*. He said that *all practices not mentioned in the Bible must be stopped, including going on pilgrimages, praying to saints, indulgences, and transubstantiation.* His followers were called *Lollards*. Because he was in England, the Pope was unsuccessful in his attempts to have him killed. He's important because *his ideas spread all over England, making England ripe for Henry's break from the Church in the 1530s.*

Johann Tetzel

(1465-1519) He was a Dominican friar *authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences*. His slogan was, *"As soon as coin in the coffer rings, the soul in Purgatory springs."* So, if a person gave the Church money, he could be forgiven for his sins! It became so bad that *people could pay for sins they hadn't even committed yet!* And, *if enough money was paid, a person's dead relative could be elevated from Purgatory to Heaven!* His indulgence selling *greatly angered Martin Luther, prompting him to post the 95 Theses.*

Nicholas Copernicus, Heliocentric Theory

(1473-1543) He worked on *developing the theory that the stars and planets revolved around a fixed sun in a "perfect and divine" circular orbit.* His theory indicated that *stars were fixed in place*, and that the *universe was much larger than Aristotle had believed*. He waited until the year of his death (1543) to publish his written theory in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531) A *critic of the sale of indulgences, transubstantiation, purgatory, clerical celibacy, worship of saints, and fasting during Lent*, he was *headquartered in Zurich, Switzerland*. In Zurich, he *established a union of church and state, even requiring church attendance for all citizens*. He established the Reformed Church in Switzerland. Like Wycliffe and Erasmus, *he wanted to return the Church to its simple origins, so he removed all icons from the churches, smashed organs (the musical kind, not kidneys and livers), and ended any ceremony in Church not mentioned in the Bible*. *He encouraged open rebellion against the Catholics, unlike Luther who encouraged obedience*. In fact, he died after fighting the Catholics at the Battle of Kappel in 1531. He was quartered and burned!

Paracelsus

(1493-1541) He was a *Swiss alchemist and physician who criticized the belief of the Greek physician Galen that diseases were caused by an imbalance of bodily fluids*. He attacked the medical establishment of his time and offered a different way of thinking about pathology. To him, *diseases were specific entities that attacked particular parts of the body, and medicine should try to fight disease using substances made for that specific disease*. This approach *led to a new understanding of therapy and encouraged many people to use chemically based remedies for diseases*. He believed instead that *disease attacks the body from a source outside the body, though had no concept of germs and viruses*. He was way ahead of his time - it wasn't until the mid-19th century that scientists figured out the germ theory of disease!

Philip Melanchthon

(1497-1560). Known as the "Educator of Germany," he *led an educational reform movement, including schools for girls.*

Francis Xavier

(1506-1552) He was the *co-founder of the Jesuits* (along with Loyola). *He attempted to spread Catholicism to India, Japan, and China.*

Andreas Vesalius

(1514-1564) He was a Flemish anatomist, physician, as well as an author of one of the most important books in history on human anatomy, De Humani corporis fabrica, which translates to On the Structure of the Human Body. Vesalius is most commonly referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was the first to disprove Galen's work. As he grew more familiar with the human body, Vesalius began to notice that here and there, Galen had made mistakes. The human breastbone is made of three segments; Galen said seven. Galen claimed that the humerus (the upper arm bone) was the longest bone in the body, save only the femur; Vesalius saw that the tibia and fibula of the shin pushed the humerus to fourth. Over the centuries, anatomists sometimes had minor quibbles with Galen, but Vesalius began to suspect that there was something seriously wrong with his work. It turned out that Galen had never actually dissected a human body because Roman authorities had forbidden the practice of dissection!

The Babylonian Captivity

(1520) Luther attacked the traditional seven sacraments, replacing them with only two *(Baptism and Eucharist)*.

The Freedom of the Christian Man

(1520). Luther explained his views on *faith* (gotta have it!), *good works*, and the *supremacy of political authority over believers.*

Pope Paul III

(1534-1549). In the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, *he convened the Council of Trent in 1545.* He was a *significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family* (the Farnese).

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601) He was a Danish astronomer who, with money granted by the king of Denmark, *built the largest observatory to that date (Uraniborg)*. He observed the stars and planets without the aid of a telescope, and he provided copious amounts of data for future astronomers and scientists. He *discovered a new star (nova) in 1572, which blew holes in Aristotle's immutability of the universe theory*. In 1573, he *destroyed the theory of the celestial spheres with precision measurements that showed the heavens were not unchangeable as previously assumed by Aristotle and Ptolemy*. He was able to collect volumes of data on the heavens. His assistant was the famous mathematician Johannes Kepler.

Sir Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) He was an *English politician and writer* who stressed the *importance of experimental research, as opposed to the medieval practice of speculative theorizing*. He believed that *direct observation* was the way to discover scientific truth. He is often referred to as the *creator of empiricism*. In addition, he *popularized the scientific method.*

Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) He was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who *developed the experimental method (using controlled experiments to gather information)*. He *published Two New Sciences, in which he showed that a uniform force produced uniform acceleration.* Galileo also *developed the law of inertia*. Galileo *improved the structure of the telescope at the time*. He *discovered that Jupiter had four moons, disproving the theory that Jupiter was embedded in a perfect crystal sphere, as Aristotle had stated*. This *helped fuel the Copernican theory*. Galileo *published Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World in 1632, which defied the widely accepted views of Aristotle and Ptolemy*. He was imprisoned by the papal Inquisition under Pope Urban VIII, and threatened with torture. He *recanted his beliefs*, the coward! The *Church banned his books and he was forced to renounce his claims that supported the Copernican theory. His works were placed on the Index until the 19th century!*

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630) He was a *German scientist who believed that the universe was built on mathematical relationships*. He is *known for his three famous laws of planetary motion*. The first *1.* builds onto the Copernicus heliocentric theory and demonstrates that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular. The second law *2.* demonstrated that the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits - they move more rapidly when nearer to the sun. Third, *3.* Kepler showed that the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is related to its distance from the sun. His contributions to science were monumental, and his *laws are still true today*. He is thought to be one of the greatest scientists of the time, as he *used science and mathematics to prove what Copernicus could not*. Still, he *relied on Copernicus' theories and Brahe's observations to reach his conclusions.*

William Harvey

(1578-1657) He was the *first man to describe the systemic circulation of blood being pumped to the body by the heart in detail*. He served Charles I as a physician, and in return, King Charles gave him deer carcasses to dissect (Charles I was an active hunter). Many of his papers and records on his numerous dissections were lost when a mob against the king ransacked Harvey's home during the English Civil War.

Cornelius Vermuyden

(1595-1677) This man was a *Dutch engineer, initially employed by Charles I of England in 1626 to drain swamps in Yorkshire, England*. His *biggest accomplishment was draining the Fens, the low marshy lands in the east of England.*

Rene Descartes

(1596-1650) He saw that the *geometry of the planets had a perfect correlation to algebraic equations*. He *developed Cartesian Dualism, which stated that deductive reasoning should be used to determine scientific law* (a completely new form of thinking for the time.) His famous quote is, *"I think, therefore I am."* (Latin: "cogito, ergo sum." and French: "je pense, donc je suis.") If you *start from the basic point that you know you exist, you can actually prove the existence of God by applying reason and mathematics*. Like Montaigne, he *was a skeptic*. He *used mathematical forms to find solutions to problems*. He even *created what we now know as analytical geometry and the Cartesian plane (X, Y, Z) in order to find solutions to these problems*. He *wrote Discourse on Method*, expressing his belief that all thought had to follow the clear, orderly progression of scientific reasoning using the language of mathematics.

Evangelista Torricelli

(1608-1647) He was an Italian physicist and mathematician famous for inventing the barometer, and he gave the first scientific description of the cause of wind.

Thirty Years' War

(1618-1648) *was one of the most destructive conflicts ever*. Initially, the *war was fought largely as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, although disputes over the internal politics and balance of power within the Empire played a significant part*. The fight all *started after the Peace of Augsburg in 1555*. This agreement *allowed Lutheran and Catholic princes to determine the religion of their subjects.* It *did not, however, include Calvinists*. The *English, French, and the Dutch backed the Protestants in Germany*. *Spain and the Hapsburg Empire supported Catholic Germany*. The *war began after Calvinists demanded more freedom from the Catholic ruler*. *Know all of the following:* The fighting continued through four phases of the war; Bohemian (Defenestration of Prague, Battle of White Mountain), Danish (Denmark defends Northern German Protestants, HRE defeats Danish opposition, Calvinism outlawed and Lutherans required to return all Catholic property seized), Swedish (Sweden intervenes to help protect Protestants, Sweden's King, Adolphus dies in battle and ends their effectiveness, France provides aid to Sweden) Swedish/French (most destructive phase of the war, Catholic French want to destroy Hapsburg power so they side with the Protestants, Treaty of Westphalia happens, ending the war).

Blaise Pascal

(1623-1662) A French mathematician and physicist, he is credited with inventing an early calculator called the Pascaline at a young age. He discovered the basic principle of hydrostatics, Pascal's Law: In a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted without loss to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the container, which is why the atmospheric unit of pressure is named in honor of him. He also came up with Pascal's Wager, arguing that even if the existence of God could not be proven through reason, a rational person should wager that God exists because living life according to Christian principles can only be advantageous.

Robert Boyle

(1627-1691) He was an English philosopher and chemist, *known today for developing Boyle's Law, which is still used in modern chemistry*. Boyle's Law *states that the volume of a given amount of gas varies inversely with its pressure at a constant temperature*. Boyle *gave credence to empiricism and carried out numerous experiments in his lifetime*. Boyle *published The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, in which he expressed the theory that matter consisted of atoms, that there were additional elements besides the classic four (earth, fire, air, and water), and emphasized the importance of empiricism.*

Christiaan Huygens

(1629-1695) A *scientist of the Dutch Golden Age*, he is known for developing a principle named after him, which *explains the propagation of light*. He *discovered the rings and a moon of Saturn*, and *contributed to the discovery of centrifugal force* and the *development of the laws of percussion*. He also *invented the pendulum clock*. Huygens was a *Protestant* and *attempted to move back into France* before his death in 1665, but was *prevented from doing so by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.*

John Locke

(1632-1704) John Locke was an English philosopher who developed the idea of republicanism. Basing his ideal government on the government of Athens, Locke said that people were born with the right to rule themselves, so it was only obvious that they should use this right. Locke believed that people consented to give power to the government (social contract) and that the purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of the people (life, liberty and property). Locke believed that the people should elect officials to represent them and the officials would make decisions of behalf of the people. Locke's work The Second Treatise of Civil Government discussed his theory of government and was the work used as a model for the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Isaac Newton

(1642-1727) He was an *English scientific genius and alchemist*. In his book, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (*Principia*), he *was able to explain, using the astronomy of Copernicus, Brahe's observations, Kepler's laws, and the physics of Galileo, the motion and mechanics of the universe.* It is called the *law of universal gravitation*, and he is also *known for his laws of motion, such as every action has an equal or opposite reaction.* He *discovered gravity and also invented calculus as a form of mathematics.* Most intellectuals consider him to be the greatest scientist in history, despite the few errors he made.

Gottfried Leibnitz

(1646-1715) A German philosopher and mathematician, he also *studied a variety of subjects including history, diplomacy and physics*. He is *known for inventing differential and integral calculus, completely separate from that of Isaac Newton*. He *invented a machine that could multiply and divide in 1672*. His *notation was far superior to Newton's, including the integral sign and derivative notation, and is still used today.*

Pierre Bayle

(1647-1706) He was a famous *French skeptic*. He *despised Louis XIV* and found refuge in the Netherlands. He was a *Huguenot, writer and French Enlightenment figure.* His seminal work was the Historical and Critical Dictionary, a biographical, theological and philosophical encyclopedia. He was a fideist, meaning he *believed that reason and faith were contradictory but faith was superior*. He believed that *reason could not be applied to theology because the nature of God is incomprehensible to man*. He believed *logical contradictions within theology only proved God's incomprehensible nature.* Despite these beliefs, he *advocated for religious toleration in his works.*

John Law

(1671-1729) John Law was an economist from Scotland. Law believed that national wealth depended on trade. He sought to reform the monetary system in Scotland by promoting a central bank to manufacture money as banknotes rather than having gold and silver (specie). His plan of reform was written in his work, Money and Trade Considered. He was appointed the Controller General of Finances of France under King Louis XV to try out his new plan. In 1716, Law began his reforms in France when he founded the Banque Générale, a private bank authorized to issue bank notes. Unfortunately for him, the bank printed too much paper money, causing inflation. The bank crashed when it could not back up the bills with specie. Law was forced to flee from France and died in poverty in Venice.

Charles Townshend

(1674-1738) He was *one of the pioneers of English agricultural improvement*. Townshend *learned of clover and turnips, and used them in the sandy soils of his large estates in eastern England*. He *drained and manured his fields, and he sowed his crops in regular rotation without fallowing.* His fields produced larger crops, and all of England picked up on the techniques.

Jethro Tull

(1674-1741) He was an *English agricultural innovator. He adopted a critical attitude toward accepted ideas about farming and tried to develop better methods through empirical research*. He believed that *using horses was important for plowing and was better to use than oxen*. He *advocated the sowing of seeds with drilling equipment rather than scattering by hand*. *Drilling spread the seeds equally through the soil*. His *invention was called the seed drill*. *Selective breeding of certain livestock was also an improvement from the old way*. So, his contributions were the *seed drill, selective breeding of livestock*, and Aqualung, a concept album that differentiates between religion and God.

Baron de Montesquieu

(1689-1755) He was a French philosopher who *wrote The Persian Letters*, which was a *satirical novel supposedly written by Persian travelers, who see European customs in unique ways and thereby cleverly criticize existing practices and beliefs.* He also believed that *no single political system could serve every different country* (Americans should read this!). He *also wrote The Spirit of the Laws, proposing separation of powers and checks and balances.* He also *believed that different forms of government worked for different countries depending on the size, population, economic system, and social and religious traditions* of the country.

Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire)

(1694-1778) He was a French writer, historian and philosopher who is famous for his humor and for his position on civil liberties. His ideas include freedom of religion, free trade, and the separation of church and state. Voltaire was a talented writer who produced works in multiple literary forms, this included plays, poetry, novels, essays, historical and other scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets!!! His most famous work is Candide, which attacked unthinking optimism about the human condition. He was also a leading proponent of deism and of Enlightened absolutism.

Madame du Châtelet

(1706-1749) She was *passionate about science in a time when it was not a priority to educate women*. She was a *follower of Newton and translated his Principia into French*. She also shared a very *close relationship with Voltaire* and had a huge influence on him. Voltaire said that she was *"a great man whose only fault was being a woman."* She believed that *women could succeed, given equal education to that of a man's, saying, "I would reform an abuse which cuts off, so to speak, half of the human race. I would make women participate in all the rights of humankind, and above all in those of intellect."*

Flight to Varennes

(1791) *Louis XVI, Marie-Antoinette, and their children and closest servants fled Paris in secret, hoping to reach the Luxembourg border and to join the Austrian troops there*. Unfortunately for the King, *the royal party made it only as far as the small town of Varennes*. A man called *Drouet, who was a local postmaster, recognized them from the King's portrait on a coin*. *Louis was brought back to Paris. Surrounded by the National Guard* as they passed through the streets of the capitol, the *people watched the royal family with silence and hostility*. The King had left a proclamation behind explaining his rejection of the Revolution's "complete anarchy." He was not executed... not yet.

War of the Second Coalition

(1798-1802). This was the second attempt by the European monarchs, led by Austria and Russia, to contain or eliminate Revolutionary France. The war happened at the same time of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, and though Russia had a few major victories in the beginning, Russia eventually left the Coalition. France was victorious in the war, and the treaties of Luneville and of Amiens officially ended the Second Coalition.

Carlsbad Decrees

(1819). Issued by Metternich, these laws made student organizations illegal (including fraternities!), censored the press, and eliminated free speech on campus.

Friedrich Nietzsche

(1844-1900). He was a late-19th century thinker who *challenged the belief in progress and the rational mind*. He believed that *Western civilization was in decline because of the overemphasis on rational thinking at the expense of emotion and passion*. He believed that *Christian humility weakened mankind - it was a "slave morality,"* glorifying weakness and mediocrity. He believed that *"God is dead" - modern Christians, who lacked passion and creativity, murdered him.* He believed that a *few supermen would separate themselves from the masses and become heroes and leaders*. His ideas had a *powerful impact on German militarism and Nazism.*

Crimean War

(1854-56). *Nicholas wanted to solve the Eastern Question and defeat the Ottoman Empire*, which by then was known as the "Sick Man of Europe" because of its decline. A. Britain and France did not want Russia to gain control over the entire Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Piedmont joined with them. B. *France, Britain, Piedmont, and the Ottoman Empire v. Russia!* The fighting took place primarily on the Crimean Peninsula, just north of the Black Sea in the south of Russia. C. Newspapers shocked people with the *first photos of a war in history and with accounts of horrible battles and terrible conditions.* D. The *greatest battle was at Sevastopol*, where the Russians kept their Black Sea fleet. After a *yearlong siege, the city was taken and Russia lost the Crimean War.*

Henri Bergson

(1859-1941). A French philosopher, he believed that *immediate experience and intuition* are at least *as significant as rationalism and science* for understanding reality.

Marie Curie

(1867-1934). She and her husband Pierre *discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight*. She was the *first woman to win the Nobel Prize, and the only person to win it in multiple sciences* (physics and chemistry). She *discovered two elements* (polonium and radium). She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark! Needless to say, she *died of complications brought on by radiation poisoning*! Even to this day, her papers and her cookbook are too radioactive to handle!

Marcel Proust

(1871-1922). The French *author of Remembrance of Things Past*, published in *seven parts between 1913 and 1927*. He, like other authors of the time, *focused on the complexity and irrationality of the human mind*. The *4,300-page work includes 2,000 characters*.

Ernest Rutherford

(1871-1937). He showed that the *atom could be split*. Along with Einstein, his *ideas led to the development of the atomic bomb* (with a little help from Oppenheimer!).

Paul Valéry

(1871-1945). Considered a polymath, he was a French poet, essayist, and philosopher. During the 1919, he *wrote a letter entitled Crisis of the Mind*. In the letter, he *wrote of the anxiety and distress of post-WWI Europe.*

Guglielmo Marconi

(1874-1937). He *invented the radio.*

Dual Alliance

(1879) - *Germany and Austria-Hungary*. This *alliance would remain unbroken throughout the Great War*. It also *drove the Russians towards an alliance with France* (The Russians were deeply distrustful of Austria) Still, as a testament to *Bismarck*'s genius, he was able to *sucker Russia back into the alliance in 1881, when the 3 Emperor's League was re-signed*. Unfortunately for Germany, after *Bismarck's resignation in 1890 Kaiser William II didn't renew the treaty*. That blew the last chance to keep Russia on Germany's side.

Albert Einstein

(1879-1955). *Theory of relativity*. Maybe the greatest scientist in human history. He understood that *Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field*. Well, yeah, obviously!

Oswald Spengler

(1880-1936). He was a *German schoolteacher* who *wrote The Decline of the West* in 1918, saying that *every culture experiences a life cycle of growth and decline*. He believed that *Western civilization was heading towards death at the hands of the "yellow race." *

Pablo Picasso

(1881-1973). He *created cubism*, which is characterized by *sharply angled, overlapping planes and the use of simple geometric forms.*

Triple Alliance

(1882) - *Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy*. *Italian conservatives* were more *attracted to authoritarian states* like *Germany and Austria* than they were to democratic ones like Britain and France.

Virginia Woolf

(1882-1941). An *English author* during the interwar years, she is *noted for feminism and anti-fascism.*

James Joyce

(1882-1941). He was an *Irish author* who *wrote Ulysses and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man*. Modern Library ranks *Ulysses the #1 novel* of the 20th century and *A Portrait as #3*. *Ulysses* has *18 chapters*, each *written in a different literary style*, each chapter *covering roughly one hour of the day*, beginning around 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning. Because of its *stream of consciousness style* and *lack of conventional grammar*, most modern readers find it *indecipherable*!

Franz Kafka

(1883-1924). He was a *Czech author who wrote in German*. His most famous works are The *Metamorphosis* (1915), *The Trial* (1925) and *The Castle* (1926). *Strongly influenced by existentialism, he portrayed helpless individuals crushed by inexplicably hostile forces*. My kind of author!

Ludwig Wittgenstein

(1889-1951). An Austrian philosopher who moved to England, he *wrote Essay on Logical Philosophy* in 1922. He argued that *philosophy needed to be purged of all issues that couldn't be tested by scientific experimentation and mathematical logic* (like the *existence of God*). Logical positivists were especially inspired by the theory of relativity.

George Orwell

(1903-1950). He *wrote 1984*. He wrote of a *future totalitarian state that controlled every aspect of people's lives through technology* that could *watch people at all times and in all places.*

First Moroccan Crisis

(1905) - *Several European powers claimed that they had interests in Morocco*, but *France clearly dominated by 1905*. Still, *Germany did not want to give up its interests there*. In 1905, while visiting the colony, *the Kaiser attempted to convince the Moroccans to be independent of France*! Needless to say, this didn't go over well with France! The *Kaiser was convinced that none of France's allies would do anything to support France*, since *Russia was busy fighting Japan* and *Britain had been in splendid isolation for so long*. An international conference, the *Algeciras Conference*, was *called to resolve the crisis in 1906*. *Britain and Russia both sided with France*, and only *Austria sided with Germany*. Germany was humiliated. *After this event, British and French generals began to secretly draw up plans for combined warfare against Germany.*

Jean-Paul Sartre

(1905-1980). He was a French philosopher and leading existentialist. He believed that *people find meaning in life through their actions and in taking responsibility for their behavior.*

Second Moroccan Crisis

(1911) - The *Algeciras Conference* gave *France primary trading rights in Morocco*, but it did *not give it political control*. However the *French were determined to make Morocco a protectorate*. When the French did this, the *Germans demanded compensation*. They *sent a gunboat, the Panther, to Morocco* supposedly *to protect German interests*, but *really to demand that the French give Germany the entire French Congo in return for German recognition* of a French protectorate in Morocco. *France refused*. After war nearly broke out, the *Germans agreed to recognize French Morocco in return for 100,000 sq. miles of the French Congo*. War was barely averted.

First Balkan War

(1912-13). The *Balkan League was a group of nations determined to completely free the Balkans from Ottoman rule* (Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece). The *war broke out when Austria stepped in and set up an independent Albania*, even though the Balkan League had made it public that *Serbia would get territory from Albania and Russia had agreed*. Once again, this incident *created a lot of tension between Russia and Serbia against Austria.*

Second Balkan War

(1913). *Serbia and Bulgaria argued over control of Macedonia*. *Bulgaria was defeated* by all the other Balkan powers. *Serbia and Greece gained control over Macedonia*, and *Bulgaria lost territory to Romania*. *Serbia wanted Albania, but once again was thwarted by Austria.*

Nuremberg Laws

(1935) These laws *ended Jewish citizenship* in Germany, *outlawed "interracial" marriage* between Jews and Germans, and *made sex between the "races" a crime.*

Poznan Riots

(1956). In *Poland*, *workers rose up in a rebellion* so massive that the *army was called in to put it down*. This *caused Polish commies to push for independence from the USSR.*

Limited Test Ban Treaty

(1963) It *banned all nuclear tests above ground. It was signed by the US, USSR, and Britain.*

Kristallnacht

(Crystal Night) In late 1938, mobs of people *destroyed Jewish shops, burned their homes and synagogues, and killed several people*. It is also called the *"Night of the Broken Glass"* because of the *broken shop windows.* *Jews were moved to concentration camps* in increasing numbers following these events.

Paul Gauguin - Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?

(D'où Venons Nous / Que Sommes Nous / Où Allons Nous)

Spartacist Revolt

(Jan. 1919). *Led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht*, the Spartacist League was the *Marxist revolutionary movement in Germany during WWI*. After the war, they *formed the KPD, the German Communist Party.* The revolt was *crushed by the Social Democrats, and Luxemburg and Liebknecht were both executed* (Luxemburg was beaten to death with rifle butts and her corpse thrown in a river)!

July Revolution

(also known as the Revolution of 1830). July 26, 1830 - the French must be hot tempered in July! It was a three-day revolution, occurring almost entirely in Paris. It was not very violent because Charles was completely unprepared. The King was forced to abdicate the throne after the French people barricaded the streets of Paris with overturned carts and wagons, preventing French troops from moving freely around the city. Charles was replaced with Louis Philippe, who was welcomed as the "Citizen King" after he appeared publicly with Lafayette, draped in the tricolore! Many liberals wanted a republic instead of another king, but they did not dare to force it to happen, as they feared Metternich and the Holy Alliance would not allow it. Metternich himself was scared the revolution would spread - "When France sneezes, Europe catches cold" - Metternich.

Sans-culottes

(meaning, 'without [upper class styled] pants' in french) They were the *common people of Paris*, and were named this because they didn't wear upper class pants (culottes). They were the *working people, the shop owners, the tradespeople, the artisans, and the (early) factory workers.*

Francis I

(r. 1515-1547). A *French king*. Francis continued the *policies of centralization* and was a great *patron of Renaissance art*, but spent more money than he raised. He *employed Leonardo da Vinci and Cellini, began the art collection for the Louvre, and funded the construction of lavish palaces such as Fontainebleau*, which had a fountain that gushed wine! His *military endeavors usually wound up in failure*, but he did succeed in capturing Milan. His *main rivals were Henry VIII and Charles V, and he was allied with Suleiman the Magnificent in the Franco-Ottoman Alliance*. During the Habsburg-Valois Wars, *Francis sold public offices and signed the Concordat of Bologna* (1516) to raise money because the wars had been so costly. The *Concordat recognized the supremacy of the papacy in return for the right of the King to appoint French bishops.* He also *funded explorers to the New World such as Verrazano and Cartier, and encouraged the settlement of Canada.* Francis I was a *devout Catholic, but was initially tolerant of the Protestants.* However, after the *Affair of the Placards (when a Protestant placed an anti-Catholic poster on the King's door!), he persecuted them and killed thousands, thereby beginning the French Wars of Religion.*

Henry II (France)

(r. 1547-1559) *Francis I's son*, he *continued many of his father's policies*. He *burned Huguenots at the stake or cut out their tongues for uttering heresies*. He was *married to Catherine de Medici* at the age of 14. In foreign affairs, he *concluded 60-years of warfare, mostly fought in Italy, against England, the HRE, Florence, and Spain in 1559 when he signed the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis*. He *died by being hit in the head by a lance at the marriage festivities* between his daughter and Philip II of Spain.

Francis II

(r. 1559-1560) The *eldest of the three weak sons of Henry II.* He *married Mary Queen of Scots* at the age of 14, but *died at 16 of an ear infection!*

Charles IX

(r. 1560-1574) Only *ten when he succeeded the throne, he was heavily influenced by his mother.* He and his mother were *best known for the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (Aug. 24, 1572)*, when *thousands of Huguenots were massacred during the wedding celebration of Charles' sister, Margaret, and Henry of Bourbon (Henry of Navarre)*. Fighting broke out after the wedding choreographer refused to include the chicken dance as part of the reception. (Very funny, Mr. Carver.)

Henry III

(r. 1574-1589) *crowned the king of France following the death of his brother, Charles IX*. He soon *signed an agreement granting many rights to the Protestants in France*. This *prompted Henry I, Duke of Guise, who was a devout Catholic, to form the Catholic League*. Many of the *Protestants' new rights were renounced later on by Henry III due to pressure from the Catholic League*. In 1588, he *had Henry I, Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Guise, assassinated, infuriating many French Catholics*. In 1589, *on the day before Henry III planned a siege to reclaim Paris, a fanatical friar assassinated him*. Because he had no heirs, *he was the last of the Valois family to rule*. Henry was very intelligent, cultivated, and erratic. He split much of his attention between his bisexual needs and frantic acts of repentance. *He showed an interest in marrying Elizabeth I, but it didn't work out and he called her a "putain!" (Note: putain is the french word for a sl-t or a wh-re. You're welcome.)*. He spent almost all of his reign fighting Huguenots and fighting rivals for his throne, including Henry of Guise and Henry of Navarre. *He was assassinated in 1589, allowing Henry of Navarre to seize the throne.*

Henry IV

(r. 1589-1610). He was the *King of France who ended the French Wars of Religion* (a.k.a. French Civil Wars) that lasted during most of the 16th century. Though he *came to the throne as a Huguenot*, he realized that *since over 90% of his subjects were Catholic, he needed to convert to Catholicism.* He famously *said, "Paris is worth a Mass,"* meaning that the *throne of France was important enough for him to give up his Protestant beliefs.* His conversion ended the wars, and he *guaranteed religious freedom to the Huguenots in the Edict of Nantes* (see #10) in 1598. Henry worked hard to revitalize France. *He and his finance minister, the Duke of Sully, balanced the budget in only three years* (after 35 years of war)! The *two men reduced taxes on the poor and raised them on the other classes.* Sully *restructured the tax system, revived trade, and built highways and bridges.* Henry IV also *sought to reduce the power of the nobles over the regional courts (known as parlements).* Henry is *sometimes known as Henry of Navarre and Henry the Great, and was probably the best-loved leader in French history.* Unfortunately, a crazed Catholic stabbed him to death in 1610.

Louis XIV

(r. 1643-1715). His reign of 72 years is the longest in European history. From 1643-1661, he *ruled under Mazarin.* *After Mazarin, Louis ruled by himself with no minister.* He is so important to history that the *2nd half of the 17th century is called the "Age of Louis XIV." Because all the events in France and Europe seemed to revolve around him, he was called the "Sun King."* It was said, "When Louis XIV sneezed, Europe caught cold!" He *believed in divine right monarchy - he was chosen by God to rule.* He *believed that he was France and France was he - "L'etat, c'est moi"* (I am the state) is a famous quote by Louis XIV. He *loved being King and worked very hard at ruling.* It is said that he was "every inch a King." He *used secret police and the intendant system to control the nobility, and used letters de cachet (orders to imprison or exile someone without trial).* He *reduced many of the nobles to the role of servants at his awesome palace of Versailles* (see #17). Louis is best *known for his quest for glory - La Gloire - which resulted in almost constant warfare during his reign.* Though Louis was a great king, *his rule ultimately bankrupted the nation and laid the foundations for problems that would culminate in the French Revolution in 1789.*

Ivan III

(ruled 1462-1505). A *great prince of Moscow*, he *greatly increased the amount of territory under his control during his reign*. For the *first 18 years of his reign, he served the khan, but considered himself khan after that*. He ruled with *absolute power over his subjects.*

Ivan IV

(ruled 1533-84). *Better known as Ivan the Terrible*, he had a *childhood similar to Louis XIV*. After his *mother was poisoned when he was 8* (which he ever after blamed on the boyars), *Ivan endured mistreatment at the hands of the boyars until he came of age at 16*. He *became the first czar* (meaning "Caesar") *of Russia*. As a child, Ivan *enjoyed throwing cats and dogs off the Kremlin*, so his sanity has been questioned! The *early part of his reign was characterized by reform* - he *revised the law code*, created the *first Russian standing army*, and *established the Zemsky Sobor* (Russian Parliament made up of three classes - nobles, clergy, and merchants and townspeople). Ivan also *opened up the White Sea and its port of Arkhangelsk (Archangel) to the English Muscovy Company of traders* (unfortunately, the port was frozen for most of the year!) He *seized lands from the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan* to the east, and *had St. Basil's Cathedral constructed in Moscow to commemorate the seizure of Kazan* (Supposedly, he thought that the building was so beautiful that he had the architects blinded so they couldn't create anything as beautiful again). This is most likely an urban legend, though. *Also, Ivan restricted the movement of the peasants* (see #57). Overall, he was a *pretty good leader during the first part of his reign*. In 1553, *Ivan fell gravely ill and nearly died, and his wife Anastasia Romanova did die of mercury poisoning*. Ivan *suspected the boyars* of killing her. While sick, *Ivan had asked the boyars to swear allegiance to his son, and many of them refused!* They didn't think Ivan would recover! *Ivan went on to commit mass murders of people from all classes of society, wiping out many of the boyars and seizing their lands*. He then *created the oprichnina, a section of about 1/3 of Russia to be ruled directly by Ivan* (no noble landowners). This *land was policed by the oprichnik, a private army loyal to the czar.* The *oprichnik dressed all in black, bore the insignia of a dog's head and broom, and rode black horses to inspire terror*. They *tortured and murdered thousands of innocent people*. The oprichnik were the *forerunners of the Gestapo and KGB of the 20th century*. The czar *used the oprichnik to destroy the boyars*, and it is also a sign of his paranoia and probable insanity. In 1581, *Ivan beat his pregnant daughter-in-law for wearing revealing clothing severely enough to cause her to miscarry*. *His son, Ivan, confronted his father and the two engaged in a heated argument, ending when Ivan IV beat his son over the head with his staff, killing him*. Ivan was grief-stricken, and his health declined rapidly. *In 1584, he died, most likely poisoned by his advisor Boris Godunov, leaving the throne to his mentally retarded son, Feodor (Theodore)*. Historians believe that *Ivan had attempted to rape Godunov's sister (and Feodor's wife) three days earlier, but Godunov walked in on them. Knowing that he was marked for death, Godunov killed Ivan*. *Feodor delighted in traveling around Russia to ring the church bells, so he is also called Feodor the Bellringer.*

James I

(ruled 1603-25). He *followed Queen Elizabeth I to the throne of England*. James faced a number of problems right from the start: *1.* He followed Elizabeth, the best-loved monarch in English history and probably the shrewdest in handling Parliament. James lacked her tact or ability to make Parliament feel more important than they actually were. *2.* He was Scottish. Since Liz died without an heir (she was the "Virgin Queen," after all!), James, her cousin, assumed the throne. The Scottish Parliament, which James had dealt with for years, was a weak institution that did not limit the King's power. The English Parliament was much more assertive. *3.* He believed in divine right monarchy. In his very first meeting with Parliament, James said, "The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for Kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth and sit upon God's throne, but even by God Himself they are called gods. As to dispute what God may do is blasphemy, so it is sedition in subjects to dispute what a King may do in height of his power. I will not be content that my power be disputed upon." Whoa! Unfortunately for James, the House of Lords and the House of Commons held the power of the purse - they controlled the raising of revenue, and if the King wanted money he had to ask them for it. *4.* Puritans accused James of being too Catholic. James was a Protestant, but the Anglican Church (Church of England) still had a lot of similarities with Catholicism. The Puritans wanted to purify the Anglican Church of all its Catholic beliefs. The King told them "no bishop, no king," meaning that if the church was weakened, then so would be the monarchy. This refusal to fix the church of its Catholic ways made the Puritans extremists. On the other hand, James treated the Catholics very harshly. He wanted to rid England of Catholics. This action led to a plot by Catholics to try to kill the King, known as the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James did have a few accomplishments: *1.* He presided at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604, which authorized the writing of the King James Version of the Bible. *2.* He made peace with the Spanish (although many despised him for this and made worse the belief among Protestants that he was too friendly with Catholics), and he tried to promote religious peace in Europe by marrying his daughter off to Frederick V of the German states. *3.* He avoided warfare in the Thirty Years War - the most destructive war of the 17th century.

Charles I

(ruled 1625-49). He was the *son of James I*, and had even *less political tact than his father*. He was the *only ruler in English history to be executed*. While *intelligent*, Charles had the *reputation of being deceitful, dishonest, and treacherous*. Just like his father, Charles *faced religious dissent from both sides - Catholics and Puritans*. He also *claimed divine right* like his dad. Foolishly, he *wasted money on a failed military expedition to Spain*. To pay for his mistake, Charles *required the wealthy to cover his expenses*. When *several members of Parliament refused to pay, they were jailed*. In 1628, *Parliament forced Charles to sign the Petition of Rights*, which *forbade the King* from: *1.* Levying taxes without the Parliament's consent. *2.* Proclaiming martial law in peacetime. *3.* Imprisoning anyone without a specific charge. *4.* Quartering troops in the home of private citizens. Charles *signed the Petition to get the money, and then dismissed Parliament*. He *ruled without them for the next 11 years*. To raise money, *Charles collected ship money - money collected from coastal towns for their defense*. He even *charged landlocked towns the ship tax!* Not popular! In *1640, Charles needed money to put down a rebellion in Scotland*, and he was *forced to call Parliament into session. The Parliament, called the Short Parliament because it lasted only 3 weeks, agreed to give Charles the money he needed if he agreed dismiss Archbishop Laud (see #39) and meet some of their other grievances.* Charles *refused and dismissed the Short Parliament.* Immediately *afterward, the Scots invaded northern England.* Charles, *desperate, called another Parliament into session to raise money*. *This Parliament was the Long Parliament* (see #40). When *Parliament impeached Laud and the Earl of Strafford, abolished the King's Court of Star Chamber, and passed the Grand Remonstrance (see #41), the English Civil War broke out.*

Frederick William, the Great Elector

(ruled 1640-88). *One of the 7 Electors in the Holy Roman Empire, the Great Elector used the devastation of the 30 Years War to weaken the power of the representative assemblies (Estates) of Brandenburg-Prussia.* FW *made it his ultimate goal to unite the several separate parts of his lands (Prussia, Brandenburg, Mark, Cleve, and Ravensburg) into one nation.* He *forced the Estates to accept his seizure of the right to tax without their permission.* By keeping people in a constant fear of invasion and war and multiplying the size of the army by ten(!), FW *became an absolutist and welded the separate lands of Brandenburg-Prussia into one state (Prussia).*

Peter the Great

(ruled 1682-1725). He was *responsible for trying to make Russia a part of Europe after centuries of domination by the Mongols*. Peter's *efforts to Westernize Russia included introducing his country to Western ideas in science, education, military training, and industry.* His *motive was to increase Russia's military power*. A giant in Russian history, he stood at 6'7", Peter towers above most other Russian leaders in significance. He *led 250 Russian officials and nobles to a tour of Western capitals, working with his hands to learn how to do various jobs*. Peter *wanted to bring those skills back to Russia*, and he also *invited western artisans (skilled workers) to Russia*. Upon Peter's return to Russia, he *launched a war against Sweden known as The Great Northern War* (1700-21). At that time, *Sweden controlled territory in northern Germany, Finland, and Estonia*. They had even had a colony in America! *Peter expected to win easily, since Sweden had a young, inexperienced King, Charles XII* (see #89 and 90). He was wrong. *To meet the unexpected difficulty with Sweden, Peter made some reforms*: *1.* All nobles were required to serve in either the military or the government for life. *2.* Schools and universities were created to provide skilled technicians. *3.* All nobles were required to attend school away from home for 5 years. *4.* Nobles and commoners alike had to start at the bottom when entering the military - some commoners made it all the way through the 14 ranks because the requirement for advancement was ability, not social rank. *5.* Peasant boys were recruited into the army for life. *6.* Taxes on the peasants were tripled. *7.* Serfs were ordered to work in factories and mines. Peter was very similar to Louis XIV in the sense that he was an absolute monarch and that he spent his country's money like a drunken sailor on war and palaces.

James II

(ruled 1685-88). He, the *brother of Charles II*, confirmed the fears of the English people when he *almost immediately appointed Catholics to high positions in his government*. When his *actions were challenged, the courts, which had been chosen by him, sided with the King*. This *reminded many people of Charles I and the Court of Star Chamber*. James *decided to try to gain support by issuing a declaration guaranteeing religious freedom*. Bishops refused to read it, and the *English people were in an uproar*. The *people did not revolt, however, because the King was old, and his heir, Mary, was Protestant*. Miraculously, the *65-year old James and his 29-year old wife had a son (James) in 1688, which meant that the throne would be passed on to a Catholic. That was the last straw for Parliament!*

Charles XII

(ruled 1697-1718). The *King of Sweden*, he *assumed the throne at the age of 18*. Upon assuming the throne, *Charles faced war from Russia, Poland, Saxony (a state in the Holy Roman Empire), and Denmark*. The *resulting war was called the Great Northern War*, and it *consumed the entirety of Charles' reign.*

Frederick William I

(ruled 1713-1740). The *"Soldier-King,"* he *greatly strengthened the Prussian army and made it the strongest in Europe for its size.* He *turned his nation into a giant boot camp* - the *highest virtue in Prussia was obeying orders without question*, whether it was your parents, teachers, or other authority figures. He *demanded unswerving obedience, and it was he who rid Prussia of the Estates once and for all.* He also had *complete control over the Junkers by forcing them to serve in the military as officers.* During his rule, *Prussia was known as the "Sparta of the North."* Oh, and Frederick loved tall soldiers! "The most beautiful girl or woman in the world would be a matter of indifference to me, but tall soldiers - they are my weakness." (;

French phase

*(also called the Swedish-French Phase, and International Phase)*. The *fourth and final phase of the 30 Years' War*, it lasted from *1635-1648*. *King Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu of France thought the Habsburgs were too powerful*. *France allied with the Swedes to fight the Habsburgs in the German states and Spain*. The *Spanish counter-attacked and invaded French territories*. Many *years of fighting back and forth occurred between France and Spain, continuing even after the conclusion of the 30 Years' War, and lasting until 1659.*

Results of the Industrial Revolution

*1.* Increased production and availability of manufactured goods. *2.* Urban overcrowding and a population explosion. Slums developed. Horrible living conditions, with 8-10 people sharing one room being common. Cities increased in population by as much as 70% per decade! *3.* It led to a lot of thinking about the treatment of workers and the causes of poverty.

Women's suffrage

*1918, women in Britain over 30 won the right to vote;* *1928, the age was reduced to 21.*

Five Year Plans

*1928-1932.* *Stalin abandoned the NEP and controlled every aspect of industrial and agricultural production.* The government decided who would produce how much of every item. The Plan called for *collectivization of farms*. The *farms would be cooperatively worked* - peasants would work together on the *same land* with the *same equipment*. *Private property, and therefore the kulak class, was eliminated*. Anyone resisting collectivization was either executed or exiled to Siberia. *In resistance, peasants slaughtered the livestock, leading to the famine of 1932*. About *10 million people died*. So, *in agriculture, the Five Year Plan failed*. However, in *industry, it was a spectacular success*. In a speech to factory managers in February 1931, *Stalin stated that Russia was "fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or they will crush us."* *Coal and iron production* both *quadrupled* their output, *electric power production increased* and *1500 new industrial plants were built*. Russia became a leading industrial power during the Great Depression. They were one of the few countries advancing economically during the 1930s. The *people of Russia did not benefit*, though, as *few consumer goods were made*. Clothes, for example, only came in basic drab colors.

Ukrainian famine

*1932-1933*. Stalin believed that *Ukrainians = closet capitalists and enemies of socialism*. So, he *set very high quotas for agricultural production* - quotas they could not hope to meet. As a result, *6 million people died of starvation.*

Second Five Year Plan

*1933-1937*. The *USSR = a world leader in steel production*, and *built many iron and steel mills east of the Ural Mountains*. This was a good thing for them to do, as WWII proved when Germany invaded Russia.

Dresden

*200,000 civilians were killed by Allied bombings in this German city, many burned by incendiary bombs.*

Quintessence

*A fifth essence*, heavenly bodies constantly moved in circular orbits at a uniform rate of speed because this was an inherent property of the perfect material of which they were supposedly made, called this. According to ancient and medieval science, this (aka *aether, œther, or ether*) is the *material that fills the region of the Universe above the terrestrial sphere.*

General Georges Boulanger

*A lot of Frenchmen still wanted a more powerful executive.* They felt that the *president of the Republic was weak and corrupt.* Many wanted General Georges Boulanger, a *famous military leader* (he must have almost won a battle!), *to become an authoritarian leader like Napoleon III had been during the Second Empire.* Fortunately for democracy, *Boulanger left the country in 1889 and killed himself over his mistress' grave in 1891!* Boulanger was a *hero of the far right in France*, his *followers played a major role in the Dreyfus Affair*, and many historians perceive *his following as the beginning of the fascist movement.*

Temple of Reason

*A temple, during the French Revolution, used for the new religion of the Cult of Reason*. The *sans-culottes and very radical members of the Jacobin Club followed this atheistic religion.* After Robespierre took dictatorial power in early 1794, he *had nearly all of the leaders of the Cult of Reason guillotined.*

Paris Commune

*After French humiliation in the Franco-Prussian War, elections were held and conservatives and monarchists were elected to the National Assembly.* Paris explodes in anger! *Paris overthrew the 3rd republic in Paris (the 3rd Republic still governed the rest of France) and replaced it* with the *first socialist government in history *- *the Paris Commune*. Though this *government only lasted two months, it passed some measures, which included:* *1.* the separation of church and state, *2.* the right of women to vote, *3.* the right of employees to take over and run an enterprise if it were deserted by its owner, who was to receive compensation. The *Paris Commune didn't last long because the National Assembly of the 3rd Republic, led by Adolph Thiers, sent the French army into Paris in May 1871.* The *Commune was brutally crushed.* The French Army *used summary executions and shot anyone they suspected of being a Communard on sight*. *20,000 people were killed in one week* in street fighting. *Martial law was declared in Paris for 5 years!*

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

*After emerging victorious from the War of the Three Kings (Henrys) and converting to Catholicism, Henry of Navarre became the king of France.* Soon after he gained power in 1589, *Henry IV declared the Edict of Nantes (1598), granting some rights and 150 fortified towns to Huguenots.* During his reign, he *brought relative peace to the kingdom and became one of the most popular French kings in history.* He *regulated the economy, promoted agricultural development, funded public works, encouraged education, started reforestation programs, balanced the budget in only three years, and promoted the arts.* Henry IV *also funded the expeditions of several explorers and the settlement of Port Royal and Québec in Canada.* *He was assassinated in 1610*. (Interesting fact: In 1793, revolutionaries sacked his grave and the head of his body went missing! It was not found until 2010, in the attic of a retired tax collector. A series of tests proved that it was, in fact, the head of Henry IV, and it was reunited with his body in 2011 after a national Mass. His 8-year-old son, Louis XIII, followed him to the throne.)

Robot

*After the Battle of the White Mountain*, the Bohemian *peasants became virtual slaves.* *This was between 3 and 6 days of unpaid labor per week that peasants had to perform for their lords.*

Time of Troubles

*After the death of Feodor in 1598, his brother-in-law Boris Godunov became czar*. From 1598-1605, *Boris led Russia very well*. He *increased trade with the English, had peaceful relations with neighbors, and even invited Western scholars into his realm to try to modernize the country*. His *leadership was challenged by Cossacks* (see #82) *and by boyars who supported the youngest child of Ivan IV, Dmitri*. *When Godunov died, Russia was plunged into complete chaos; Cossacks invaded from the south, Sweden and Poland occupied Moscow, and relatives of the czar killed each other*. The *event ended in 1613 with the election of Michael Romanov as czar.*

English Bill of Rights

*Agreed to as a condition of ruling by Mary and William*, it *included* the following: *1.* Only Parliament can impose taxes. *2.* Laws can be made only with the consent of Parliament. *3.* A standing army (permanent army) can be maintained only with consent of Parliament. *4.* The people have the right of petition. *5.* The people have the right of free speech. *6.* The people have the right to bear arms. *7.* People have the right to due process of law, trial by peers, and reasonable bail. *8.* Parliament is to be freely elected and dissolved only by its consent.

Empiricism

*All knowledge is obtained from sense-experience, and people should use extensive experimental research to prove theories*. Sir Francis Bacon developed this school of thought. Bacon maintained that *empiricism would yield useful knowledge, and ultimately contribute to the power of nations.*

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

*Also known as the Nazi-Soviet Pact*, it was signed between the *USSR and Germany on August 24, 1939*. They *put aside their ideological differences in order to split Poland* between them.

Price Revolution

*Another factor in the decline of Spain* was the *tremendous inflation (rise in prices) brought on by the huge influx of gold and silver from the colonies.* The inflation *made Spanish goods very expensive*, and Spanish *products could no longer compete on the world market.*

Expressionism/Postimpressionism

*Art movement characterized by form instead of light. It replaced Impressionism.*

Battle of Britain

*Aug-Nov. 1940 and May-June 1941.* The *Luftwaffe tried to bomb Britain into submission, destroying 1/3 of all the homes in Britain*. But, the British are made of sterner stuff! "We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; *we shall never surrender." - Winston Churchill*. Oh yeah!

Public Health Movement

*Beginning in the 1840s, cities began to clean up. The first sewer systems were built in the 1860s.*

Bismarck's War on Socialism

*Bismarck accused the socialists of plotting to kill the Emperor*. He *introduced a law to ban all socialist meetings and publications*. But, the Social Democratic Party still met in secret, and in 1884 they managed to *win 24 seats to the Reichstag*. So, Bismarck tried a new strategy - to *steal the best socialist ideas and make them part of his own program*! He thought he could *steal socialist support by securing legislation that was popular with the people*. With his support, the Reichstag passed: *1.* Sickness Insurance Law (1883), which provided financial support to workers who missed work due to illness. *2.* Accident Insurance Law (1884), which provided medical insurance for people hurt at work. *3.* Old Age Insurance Law (1889), which protected retirees with a pension. *Germany became the first nation in the world to provide welfare for its working people.* However, all of *these things did nothing to reduce public support for the socialists*. In 1890, so many socialists were elected that Bismarck was unable to get rid of them.

German Imperialism

*Bismarck had little interest in imperial expansion, believing that the newly united Germany should focus on domestic affairs*. However, he was forced to give way when *powerful interest groups believed that colonies could provide economic benefits*. Germany grabbed *Togoland and the Cameroons on the West Coast, as well as German Southwest Africa*. In the East, Germany controlled *German East Africa (today Tanzania).*

Falklands War (1982)

*Britain controlled the Falkland Islands, 450 miles off the coast of Argentina.* The *Argentines landed on the islands to end British control, but the British navy was sent to fight!* After a two-month war, *Britain retained control.*

Amritsar Massacre

*British soldiers killed 400 and wounded 1,200 unarmed protesters in 1919.* Indian resistance continued through the 1920s and 1930s.

Plombieres Agreement (1858)

*Cavour met secretly with Napoleon III at a French resort known as Plombieres*. *Napoleon III agreed to help Piedmont if a war broke out with Austria* and *France would get Nice and Savoy*. To start a war with Austria, *Cavour wrote articles in Il Risorgimento* (The Resurrection), his newspaper, *supporting anti-Austrian groups in N. Italy, leading to a declaration of war from Austria.* *Napoleon III sent 120,000 soldiers to help Piedmont.* The war lasted from April to July, 1859. At first, Piedmont did great, but *Napoleon III, sickened by the horrors of war (and worried about opposition from the Pope), withdrew from the fighting.* *Napoleon called an armistice (cease-fire) with Franz Joseph of Austria, without bothering to inform Cavour.* *Piedmont got to keep Lombardy*, which it had won during the war, but *Cavour was really upset!* Austria still maintained control of Venice. However, *Cavour had already won, though he didn't realize it. Bloodless revolutions and plebiscites took place across Italy.* The people wanted to be part of Piedmont! *Parma, Tuscany, Modena, and Romagna all joined Piedmont in 1860.* Now ½ of Italy was controlled by Piedmont.

The Restoration of 1660

*Charles II (ruled 1660-85) assumed the throne of England in 1660, ending the Protectorate and re-establishing the monarchy*. He had *much greater political skill and was much more personable than his father and grandfather*. The *English Civil War had solved nothing - the religious question and the sovereignty question still had not been answered*. Charles *dealt with the second issue by vowing to get along with Parliament, and he accepted Parliament's right to levy taxes and agreed to call Parliament into regular sessions*. Unfortunately, *Parliament did not grant Charles II enough money, so he entered into the secret Treaty of Dover with Louis XIV of France*. *In exchange for money, Charles agreed to try to re-Catholicize England, fight the Dutch, and personally convert to Catholicism*. When the English people found out, they weren't happy. They went into hysterics! *This all tied in with the first problem*, the religious problem. *Charles was more concerned with his love life than religion (he had 13 mistresses that historians know of by name and lots of anonymous ones), but Parliament passed laws restricting Catholicism* (see #47).

Mines Act of 1842

*Children under 10 and women could no longer be employed to work underground. (Britain)*

Baroque cities

*Cities built during the 17th* century that included the following features: *1.* *broad avenues to allow soldiers to quickly move around the city to quell disturbances*. They were usually *lined with expensive shops.* The avenues, interestingly, *led to lots of deaths, as nobles drove at breakneck (literally!) speeds*. *2. imposing government buildings to impress visitors*. The buildings were *covered with ornate sculptures*. *3.* *mathematical layout* - the city was *geometrically-organized*, with the avenues like *spokes on a wheel with the hub at the palace.*

Georges Clemenceau

*Clemenceau wanted to make sure that Germany would never threaten France again*. He *wanted Alsace-Lorraine and huge reparations from the Central Powers to make them pay to rebuild northern France*, where most of the war was fought. *1.3 million Frenchmen were killed in the war*, and *half of the men between the ages of 18 and 32 had died*. France seemed a nation of crippled veterans, widows, and hundreds of thousands of orphaned children. They were *not likely to go along with Woodrow Wilson's "peace without victory!"*

Margaret Thatcher

*Conservative Prime Minister of Britain from 1979-1990.* She was a *true conservative - cut taxes, less government intervention, smaller government bureaucracy, reduced welfare programs, reduced spending on health, education, and housing.* Her *inability to do anything about unemployment* cost her the party leadership in 1990, when John Major assumed control.

Committee of Public Safety

*Created in April 1793 by the National Convention, it formed the executive branch of government in France during the Reign of Terror*, and was *set up to oversee the defense of the new Republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellions.* It was *responsible for trials and executions of many high-profile people, but actually killed more peasants than any other class*. It *created drafts to enlarge France's armies*, which made France's army around 1,500,000 soldiers. With the end of the Reign of Terror, the *Committee was abolished in 1795. Its leaders were Danton and Robespierre.*

Suez Crisis (1956)

*Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, owned by France and Britain, in 1956.* *France and Britain invaded*, leading to worldwide condemnation. The *US was angry because we weren't consulted*, and because we were actively *pursuing better relations with the Arabs*. The *USSR called the attack "capitalist imperialism" and threatened a "rocket attack."* The *French and British withdrew.*

Elizabethan Settlement

*Elizabeth made it clear that England's church was separate from the Catholic Church in Rome*. At the same time, *she decided which practices of the Catholic Church she would adopt, as she had appointed herself the leader of the Church of England like her father had*. She *chose to allow her people to practice what they wanted in private, but they needed to outwardly conform to the Anglican faith*. This *allowed her to avoid the religious warfare that afflicted much of the rest of Europe.*

Casablanca Conference (1943)

*FDR and Churchill agreed to demand unconditional surrender of Japan, Germany, and Italy.* They also agreed to *open a second front through Sicily.*

Antonio Salazar

*Fascist leader of Portugal during the 1930s.*

Gustave Courbet

*First great Realist.* Plain, *ordinary subjects*. Most famous work - The *Stone Breakers*, which showed workers breaking stones!

The Chartist Movement

*Following the Reform Bill of 1832, people began agitating for the right to vote for all men.* In *1838*, a group of *workers drew up the People's Charter, thereby beginning the Chartist Movement*. It *demanded: 1. *Universal manhood suffrage* 2. The *secret ballot* 3. The *abolition of property requirements to hold an office* in the House of Commons 4. The *creation of equal electoral districts* (members of the Commons should represent approximately the same number of people) 5. *Annual elections for the Commons*. *Parliament ignored the People's Charter*, as the middle class was not willing to give up power.

Catholic League

*Formed in the Holy Roman Empire with the purpose of defending the Catholic religion and to counter the Protestant Union*, it helped *exacerbate tensions in the HRE between the religions, helping to lead to the Thirty Years' War*. The *Jesuits, who were quite uncompromising in their quest to halt Protestantism, dominated the Catholic League.*

42 Articles of Religion

*Forty-two brief statements about the basic beliefs of the Anglican Church under King Edward VI.* These beliefs were *more Protestant* than those of the Six Articles, as Edward's reign was more Protestant than Henry's.

Raymond Poincaré

*French Premier during the 1910s and 1920s*, he *provided capable leadership of France following WWI*. The *country rebounded quickly* from the War and became the *strongest European nation during the 1920s*. He *forced reparations on Germany, invading the Ruhr in 1923*. After *Stresemann called off passive resistance in the Ruhr, he withdrew French troops*. His *willingness to negotiate with Stresemann led to the Dawes Plan* in 1924. He also *"saved the franc" by raising taxes and slashing spending, restoring confidence in the French economy* in 1926.

Raymond Poincaré

*French Premier during the 1910s and 1920s*, he provided *capable leadership of France following WWI.* The country rebounded quickly from the War and became the *strongest European nation during the 1920s*. He *forced reparations on Germany*, *invading the Ruhr in 1923.*

Maginot Line

*French defensive wall of fortifications that was flanked by the Germans in WWII.*

Jean Martinet

*French drillmaster*. He was known for *demanding absolute, unquestioning obedience from the soldiers*.

The Assassination

*Gavrilo Princip* of the Serbian nationalist group, the *Black Hand*, *murdered the Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia*. The Serbian response to the assassinations of Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie confirmed Austrian suspicions - *Serb newspapers virtually celebrated their deaths!* The *assassination occurred on June 28, 1914. WWI began exactly one month later.*

Luftwaffe

*German air force*. They *famously fought the British Royal Air Force.*

Anglo-German Tensions

*Germany became a serious rival to Britain in manufacturing and trade during the 1880s*. Though the Industrial Revolution had started in Britain, *German industries were more modern and efficient*. This allowed for *better, cheaper products*, which in turn *allowed for further German industrial expansion*. Britain felt a little threatened by this competition. *Britain was also concerned when William II decided to build a bigger navy than Britain's* during the 1890s. The British reacted by insisting that their navy be twice as large as the next two most powerful countries combined! *Arms race*! And when you've got the guns, you are more likely to use them. *William II wanted a bigger navy because this was an age of nationalism*, when having the *most weapons was a matter of national prestige and a measure of power*. Also, William was a man with an incredible inferiority complex after being raised by a detached father in a militaristic society. Having the biggest gun was very important to him!

The Three Emperor's League

*Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia*. The 3 emperors (*William I, Francis Joseph, and Alexander II*) pledged to consult each other to *maintain the peace*. However, *Russia and Austria were uneasy allies - both had interests in the Balkans while the Ottoman Empire slowly died*. The 3 Emperor's League *failed in the late 1870s* because of this friction.

Louis XV

*Great grandson of Louis XIV, he became King of France in 1715, and remained king until his death in 1774*. He *aligned himself with Prussia during the War of Austrian Succession*. In the Seven Years' War, he instead *aligned with Russia and Austria to fight against Great Britain and Prussia.* This, however, wasn't the only war going on for France. *In the American colonies, France was allied with the Native Americans to fight off the British.* The *British defeated France in both Europe and America, and France lost its North American possessions.* Louis, unlike some of the other monarchs of this time period, *was not enlightened*. He *used secret police, arrested and imprisoned people without informing them of the charges* (lettre de cachet), *and suppressed Enlightenment literature, including the Encyclopedia.* After decades of war and extravagance, *Louis died in his palace in Versailles, leaving France broke and weak.* He would be succeeded by his mediocre grandson Louis XVI.

Nicholas Poussin

*Greatest French classicist painter.* His *most famous painting is Rape of the Sabine Women.*

Edward VI (r. 1547-1553)

*He came to the English crown at the young age of 9 years following the death of his father, Henry VIII.* Since Edward was too young, the *Regency Council (council made up of 16 trusted men) ruled England*. *Edward's uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, led the Council*. During Edward's reign, *Protestantism was established for the first time in England* (it was technically Protestant under Henry VIII, but it really was so only in the sense that the Pope was no longer head of the Church, divorce was allowed, and the monasteries were dissolved). *Reforms included the abolition of clerical celibacy, and holding the services in English*. The *architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his Book of Common Prayer.* *Edward fell ill* in 1553, just 6 years after his reign began. He *proclaimed his heir to be Lady Jane Grey, Edward's Protestant cousin, to keep his Catholic sister, Mary, from ruling*. However, *she only lasted for nine days because Mary Tudor, Edward's half sister, took the crown and executed Lady Jane Grey.*

Martin Luther

*He was a German theologian. He felt he was not worthy of salvation, and that salvation was earned by faith in God, not by performing good works. He was angered by the immoral behavior of the Catholic clergy, and especially by the sale of indulgences used to repay loans and build a new cathedral. On October 31, 1517, he nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg, a medieval way of indicating that an issue should be debated. He was excommunicated (deprived of being part of the church) by Pope Leo X and called to the Diet of Worms in 1521 by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (who saw himself as a defender of the Church). He was declared a heretic and banished from the Empire, but his protector Frederick III of Saxony hid him. While in Saxony, Luther translated the Bible into German and organized a new religion, known as Lutheranism. His ideas spread like wildfire because of the printing press and anti-Rome feeling amongst many Germans.*

War of the Three Henrys

*Henry III arranged the assassination of Henry, Duke of Guise.* Mere months *later, Henry III was assassinated himself by a fanatic Catholic friar*, and *Henry of Navarre, now Henry IV, became the new king of France*. *His rule, however, was vehemently opposed by the still Guise-controlled Catholic League, who claimed that Henry IV's uncle, a Catholic, should be king*. Their *opposition forced Henry IV to reclaim France by waging a military campaign.* He was *able to recapture most major cities, but not Paris*. *Henry IV finally gained full power of France by converting to Catholicism, saying, "Paris is worth a Mass," allowing him to retake Paris.*

Anglicanism

*Henry VIII wanted a divorce from his queen, Catherine, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, in order to marry Anne Boleyn*. However, *Pope Clement VII refused Henry's annulment*. But, *Archbishop Thomas Cranmer engineered the divorce. As a result, the English church broke with Rome, as Henry used Parliament to legalize the Reformation*. *Henry dissolved the monasteries and confiscated their lands because he was in need of more money*. *Many of the traditional Catholic practices, like confession and Mass, were kept.*

Anschluss

*Hitler annexed Austria in 1938*. The excuse was that *Germany needed lebensraum (living space) and that Austria was mostly German anyway*. Most Austrians were delighted!

Joseph Goebbels

*Hitler's propaganda minister*. He is infamous for saying, *"When I hear the word 'culture,' I reach for my gun."* Like in the Soviet Union, *all forms of art came under the control of the state and were employed to glorify the state.* Life became very *anti-intellectual.*

October Manifesto of 1905

*Hoping to stop the Revolution, Czar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto of 1905*. This: 1. Promised a constitutional monarchy. 2. Gave the people civil liberties. 3. Established a Duma, an elected parliament. The Revolution subsided as a result of the October Manifesto, and by the spring of 1906, the czar recovered his confidence. He issued the Fundamental Laws, which: 1. Restricted the powers of the Duma to make it more of an advisory board. 2. Allowed the tsar to keep control of financial affairs and foreign policy. 3. Gave the czar authority to dismiss the Duma whenever he wished. 4. Gave the czar power to legislate by decree when the Duma was not in session.

Mussolini

*Italian fascist* who gained control of Italy by *1922*. His title was *Il Duce*, the Leader.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

*John Calvin's book*. The cornerstone of his theology was *before the infinite power of God, men and women are as insignificant as grains of sand.*

Potsdam Conference

*July 1945. Churchill, Stalin, and Truman met in Potsdam, Germany.* *1.* They agreed to keep the four zones of Germany economically unified. *2.* No reparations, but allowed the Soviets to take what they wanted from East Germany (we couldn't stop them anyway, even if we wanted to, without war). *3.* The Big Three still expected to work together in Europe; they agreed to a joint Allied Control Commission to supervise the occupation of Germany. So, no Cold War, yet. *10 days into the conference, Churchill's Conservatives were defeated at home, and Labour's Clement Attlee replaced him.*

Berlin Crisis (1961)

*Khrushchev tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin*, but *failed*. So, the *East Germans built the Wall*, which didn't fall *until 1989.*

Henry VIII

*King of England from 1509 to 1547, this English king began the English Reformation by breaking with the Catholic Church because of the Pope's refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon*, his first wife. The new *Church of England (Anglican Church) was similar in practice except that divorce was allowed, monasteries dissolved, and the king was the head of the church instead of the pope.* Henry exercised the right of divorce four more times during his reign!

Quinto

*Known as the "King's fifth," it was a 20% tax by the Spanish monarchy on all gold and silver mined in the New World.* It was a *major source of revenue for the Spanish crown.*

Common Land

*Lands that were shared by everyone, they were open meadows for hay and natural pasture.* These lands were *set aside primarily for the draft horses and oxen necessary in the fields, but open to the cows and pigs of the village community as well*. Boston Common, believe it or not, was once a cow pasture!

Free French

*Led by Charles de Gaulle*, this group was an *anti-Fascist French government in exile* (in Britain).

Gunpowder Plot

*Led by Guy Fawkes*, the plot was *organized by Catholics to blow up both houses of Parliament while the King delivered his address to them.* The *conspirators smuggled 1800 pounds of gunpowder in 36 barrels into the basement of Westminster Palace, but the plot was discovered*. He was *hanged, drawn, and quartered for treason*. This *Day is still celebrated in British areas of the world today on November 5, where kids burn "guys" (dummies) in effigy!*

Death of Lenin

*Lenin started having strokes in 1922 and died in 1924*. His body was embalmed and placed on public display in Petrograd, which was then renamed Leningrad (it is St. Petersburg again, today). The body is still on display today! The *NEP had created divisions between his followers, and they competed for power even before he died*. The two main contenders for the Soviet leadership were *Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin*. *Trotsky:* long-range planning, an end to the NEP, mechanized agriculture, rural cooperatives, and worldwide revolution. *Stalin:* power.

Lloyd George

*Lloyd George was more flexible*. *Britain had not suffered the physical damage France did*. Still, Britain had *lost many men in the fighting*, and they *weren't just willing to forgive and forget*. In fact, *popular cries of the time were "Hang the Emperor!" and "Squeeze the German lemon until the pip squeaks!"* George was smart enough to realize, though, that *Germany would have to be allowed to rebuild its strength, as he feared a Communist revolution in Germany could take place if conditions didn't improve.*

LaRochelle and Peace of Alais

*Louis XIII looked at the existence of a separate religious faith in France as a challenge to his authority, especially after Huguenot towns met in LaRochelle in 1620 at their General Assembly.* They *divided France up into 8 "circles" and appointed for each of them a chief administrator and a council to levy taxes and raise troops.* The *King saw this as a direct challenge to his authority; he called it a "state within a state." In 1625, Richelieu personally supervised the 14-month siege of the walled city of LaRochelle, and forced it to surrender.* The *Peace of Alais, signed in 1629, ended Huguenot political and military independence.* All of the *fortified castles were torn down.* However, Richelieu did honor the terms of the Edict of Nantes, with his Edict of Grace. *Huguenots were allowed to keep their positions in the army, navy, and civil service. They were allowed to keep their property, and free exercise of religion continued.* Many historians feel that this *generous treatment by Richelieu (which was heavily criticized by Catholics who wanted to exterminate the Huguenots) led to greater commerce and industry, as the Huguenots were skilled in those areas.* tl;dr: LaRochelle was raided because the Huguenot towns pretty much decided to be"states-within-the-state", and the town was sieged by Louis, resulting in the Peace of Alais, which only removed the ability for Huguenot towns to become fortified.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

*Louis XIV's finance minister* until 1683, Colbert was a *financial genius.* He *wanted to make France self-sufficient*, and worked hard to accomplish that goal. Colbert *subscribed to the economic theory of mercantilism* (see #20), and he *insisted that France export as much as possible and import nothing.* Sounds like China! *To accomplish this, Colbert gave money to industries in France to help them grow and be able to compete with foreign companies.* The *Gobelin tapestry industry, cloth, firearms, and many other industries benefited.* *Colbert regulated industry to ensure quality products by setting up an inspection system.* He *even encouraged skilled immigrants to move to France.* The famous *Canal des Deux Mers was completed during Louis' reign, and roads and bridges were improved all over the country.* He *abolished internal tariffs* (taxes as a product moved from one province to another), since they made French goods too expensive to buy. Colbert also *created a merchant marine to carry French goods all over the world, and worked to increase the emphasis on colonies.* He *sponsored the voyages of LaSalle and Marquette and Joliet, and sent 4,000 peasants to Canada.* He was very successful in improving France's trade - *France was #1 in the world in industrial productivity by the time of his death.* Unfortunately, much of his work was for naught, as *Louis spent the extra revenue on war and on Versailles.*

Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu

*Louis was almost the opposite of his father - weak physically and mentally*. He *suffered numerous ailments, but did survive his doctors' attempts to help him* (he was bled 47 times, had 215 enemas, and took 212 drugs - in one year!). He was *strongly Catholic*, and *never read books other than prayer books.* Louis *pushed his mother aside in 1617 by forcing her into retirement.* Even though he had been declared of age in 1614, his mom kept him from running the government. *Realizing his weakness, Louis in 1624, appointed Cardinal Richelieu as his chief advisor.* From then on, *Richelieu really governed France, not the King.* *Richelieu had two goals for France:* 1. To *make the King supreme* in France. To meet this goal, *Richelieu set up a spy system and imprisoned or executed nobles who defied the King, and their castles were destroyed.* He *also began the intendant system* (see #7) and *crushed the Huguenots* (see #11). And, he further *weakened the nobles by raising taxes without the permission of the Estates General* (a legislature composed of nobles). 2. To make France the supreme power in Europe. *Richelieu involved France in the Thirty Years War, a war in the German states) to weaken the power of the Habsburg family.* *Richelieu believed that the German states must be kept weak else they threaten France* (he was right)! Ironically, even though *Richelieu was doing everything he could inside France to crush the Huguenots, he sided with the German and Swedish Protestants fighting against the Catholic Habsburgs in the 30 Years' War.* His *policies made France the #1 power in Europe, but drained the royal treasury.* Some of the officials hadn't been paid in four years! When Richelieu died in 1642 and Louis XIII in 1643, *they left France a more centralized, militarily powerful nation, yet they also left it a financial wreck.* *Taxes were high, upsetting the peasants, and the nobles were anxious to get their authority back.*

Domestication of the nobility?

*Many historians have traditionally argued that Louis XIV had complete control over the nobility*, reducing them to little more than servants who argued amongst themselves over who would have the privilege of holding the King's candle as he prepared for bed. Recent *research, though, suggests that Louis was able to get the nobles to cooperate, but he did not completely control them.*

Mary Queen of Scots

*Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots was the Queen of Scotland* from 1542 to 1567. She was *married to Francis II, King of France*. She *claimed that the English throne should pass to her instead of Elizabeth because Elizabeth was illegitimate*. Her *claim was also based on her being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister, Margaret.* Many *Englishmen supported her because of her Catholicism*. Queen *Elizabeth had her beheaded in 1587* (it took two blows and some sawing of sinew!) for plotting to assassinate her.

Revolutions of 1848

*Mazzini led the revolution in Sicily in 1848*. He *forced the Sicilian king to accept a constitution*. *Revolts broke out all over Italy*. Fighting against Austria began, and was supported by all of the major Italian city-states. *Piedmont-Sardinia*, which I will refer to as Piedmont henceforth, a northern city-state, *led the rebellion against Austria.* *King Charles Albert led Piedmont*. In April 1848, just as it looked like the Austrians were on the edge of defeat, *Pope Pius IX withdrew his troops when mobs of people chased him out of Rome.* Sicily quickly followed, which allowed Austria to win.

Jesuits

*Members of the Society of Jesus*. The defining *characteristic of a Jesuit was mobility*; they were *committed to go anywhere to help save souls.* They *achieved phenomenal success for the papacy and the reformed Catholic Church*. Jesuits were* confessors and spiritual directors to kings, which allowed them to exert great political influence*. Their *two goals were to stop the spread of Protestantism and to spread Catholicism.*

Ethiopia

*Mussolini attacked it in 1935* and conquered it by 1936. The *League of Nations did nothing to stop him, encouraging more aggression.*

Black Shirts

*Mussolini's thugs* who *physically assaulted and used castor oil against leftist politicians.*

(Napoleon III's) Authoritarian Period

*Napoleon III was very successful during the 1850s. This period until 1861 is known as this period.* He used *press censorship to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulated elections, and deprived the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power.* On the plus side, France's *industries grew at a rapid rate, national railroads were built, employment and wages went up, and Paris was rebuilt.* Napoleon III very wisely hired architect Georges Haussmann to rebuild the city.

Appeasement

*Neville Chamberlain*, the British prime minister beginning in 1937, and *Edouard Daladier*, the French premier, thought that the *best way to avoid war was to give Hitler what he wanted*. Obviously, they failed!

Frederick III, duke of Saxony

*One of seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire, he outlawed the sale of indulgences within his duchy*. *When Martin Luther became an outlaw of the Empire, he protected him.*

Chinggis (Genghis) Khan

*One of the greatest conquerors in history*, Genghis *led his Mongol Horde to conquer all the land from China to Hungary*. The *Golden Horde was infamous for its barbarity* - they *killed every living being in entire cities and burned villages and cities to the ground*. It was in 1242 that they *conquered Kievan Rus* (what we now call Russia). *People who rebelled were slaughtered and people who served were rewarded!*

Reflection on the Revolution in France (Edmund Burke)

*One of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism*. He *defended inherited privileges* in general and those of the English monarchy and aristocracy. He *glorified the unrepresentative English Parliament*. He *predicted that France would slip into chaos and tyranny.*

Versailles

*Originally Louis XIII's hunting lodge, Louis XIV turned it into one of the greatest architectural wonders of the world.* It is located 12 miles from the old palace of St. Germain in Paris. *The façade of the structure is nearly 2000 feet long, and it was built to house 10,000 nobles.* The *grounds of the palace include 1,400 fountains!* *Nearly 60% of the royal tax revenue went to maintain Louis' court at Versailles.* The *traditional historians claim that the expense was worth it - instead of plotting against the King, nobles were involved in court intrigue and gossip and fought over who got to wipe the King's bottom!*

The Six Articles

*Parliament enacted it in 1539 (during Henry VIII's reign), and Protestants referred to it as "the bloody whip with six strings."* They reaffirmed the Catholic doctrine of 6 issues: *1. Transubstantiation 2. Withholding the cup from the laity (non-clergy) during communion. 3. Clerical celibacy 4. Observance of vows of chastity 5. Permission for private masses 6. Emphasis of auricular confession.*

Test Act of 1673

*Parliament passed this act in 1673 to restrict the rights of Catholics*. *People who wanted public office and entrance to the universities or the military had to agree to take the Eucharist at church (something Catholics wouldn't do).*

Pope Urban VIII v. Galileo

*Pope Urban VIII allowed Galileo to write about different possible systems of the world as long as he did not judge which one actually existed*. Pope Urban VIII *requested Galileo's book, Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, to have two qualities*. Urban requested that *Galileo not advocate heliocentrism, only argue for and against it*, and that *Galileo include Urban's own belief on the matter in the book*. However, the *character included to express Urban's beliefs and defend the Aristotelian geocentric view, Simplicio, was often caught in his own errors and came across as a fool!* Pope Urban VIII *called Galileo to the Roman Inquisition, where Galileo recanted his writings.*

Motives of European Imperialism

*Possession of colonies was a sign of national virility and power!* The failure to acquire colonies showed national decadence! *a.* Controlling colonies meant the addition of more soldiers (from the natives). *b.* Colonies provided markets for the mother country's businesses. *c.* Colonies provided raw materials for the mother country. *d.* Social Darwinism emphasized the idea of life as a struggle, with the stronger surviving at the expense of the weaker. Countries that failed to expand were seen as losing the struggle for survival. *e.* Christians wanted to go on missions to convert the heathen! *f.* Humanitarians wanted to bring the advantages of the superior European civilization to inferior cultures to help them out. An example of this was Dr. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary, who spent 30 years exploring Central Africa and gathering evidence on African and Arab slave traders because he wanted to end the slave trade. *g.* Social Darwinists believed that the advanced white race had an obligation to civilize the less developed peoples of the world who just happened to be of darker complexions!

Francois Mitterand

*President of France from 1981-1995. Socialist.*

Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu

*Richelieu played a major role in King Louis XIII's control of the country and created one of the first examples of an absolute monarchy*. Together, *the crown successfully intervened in the Thirty Years' War against the Habsburgs, kept the French nobility in line, and retracted the political and military privileges given to the Huguenots by Henry IV.*

Intendants

*Royal officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers, and carried out government policies in the provinces, intendants were the eyes and ears of Richelieu.* These officials *took over functions that had been done by the old nobility* (nobles of the sword), *weakening the nobles.* Intendants were *middle-class men or newly-ennobled nobles of the robe.* To keep them independent, *Richelieu forbade men from serving as intendants for their home provinces.*

Boyars

*Russian nobles*. Ivan IV eventually smashed them!

The Irish Question

*Since the adoption of the Act of Union in 1801, Ireland had been united with Great Britain and was governed by the British Parliament.* *Following the Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829, the number of Irish Catholics in the House of Commons grew considerably*. These members became rather *outspoken in their demand for home rule under which Ireland would have its own parliament and the British would continue to control foreign policy*. Of course, the *Protestants in Northern Ireland (Ulster) and many in Britain opposed home rule because they feared being overwhelmed by the Catholics.* *Gladstone introduced bills on two occasions to grant Ireland home rule, but both failed*. It wasn't until 1914 that *Liberals finally pushed the Home Rule Bill through Parliament. By then, it was too late - the Protestants in Ulster organized an illegal militia of 100,000 men*. In response, the *Irish nationalists organized a militia of their own.* *By the summer of 1914, Ireland stood on the brink of civil war.*

Great Purges

*Stalin had many of the old Bolsheviks arrested and subjected to public show trials with foreign reporters present.* The *accused confessed to all kinds of crimes*. Many skilled, professional people, including *military leaders, were purged*. *Millions were executed*. The Purges became important for WWII because Stalin knew that the USSR was weak. He had killed off nearly all of his commanders! So, he *signed a non-aggression pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) with Hitler to buy time*. Both Hitler and Stalin *promised not to attack each other*, and they jointly *carved up Poland*. In 1941, Hitler stabbed Stalin in the back by foolishly invading Russia.

Treaty of Westphalia

*Treaty that ended the Thirty Years War*, signed in two separate parts, both in 1648. It *forced all parties to recognize the Peace of Augsburg*, in which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state. *A new addition to the religions previously allowed in the Peace of Augsburg was Calvinism*. *Christians who were living in areas where their religion was not the official religion were guaranteed the right to practice their religion in public during allotted hours and in private at their free will*. The *independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland from the Empire was formally recognized*. The treaty also *denied the papacy the right to participate in German religious affairs*. The *treaty ensured that the individual German princes would maintain their autonomy, which kept the Holy Roman Empire weak and Germany from uniting.*

Defenestration of Prague

*Two ministers for the emperor, who were destroying or seizing Protestant property, were thrown out a window at a meeting over land disputes in Prague in 1618.* Many in the room later claimed that they thought the two ministers were only going to be arrested, but by the time they realized what was happening, it was too late. *The ministers were thrown out the window, 70 feet up. They, according to Protestants, landed on a large pile of horse manure in a dry moat and survived. Catholics countered with the story that angels helped the men land softly on the ground.* Yeah, angels!

Cardinal Mazarin and Anne of Austria

*When Louis XIII died, he was succeeded by his son*, the 4-year-old *Louis XIV*. Since Louis was so young, *his mother, Anne of Austria, served as regent.* *Anne chose Cardinal Mazarin to replace Richelieu as chief minister.* *Mazarin was a Sicilian and Anne was a foreigner as well. The French people, rather xenophobic, did not accept them.* To add to their problems, the *peasants were unhappy (see #6), and the nobles plotted to regain their authority.*

Council of Four

*Woodrow Wilson* of the US; Premier *Georges Clemenceau* of France; Prime Minister *Lloyd George* of Britain; and Premier *Vittorio Orlando* of Italy. They made the major decisions at the *Paris Peace Conference that resulted in the Treaty of Versailles.*

Revolution of 1905

*Workers marched on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg on Sunday, Jan. 22, 1905.* This day is *known as Bloody Sunday in Russian history*. It was a *peaceful protest over high food prices*, but *guards gunned down over 200 unarmed people*! Strikes then broke out all over Russia in response. *The first soviets were formed in the cities*. These *soviets were workers' councils that would eventually take over the entire nation during the 1917 Russian Revolution*. Leon *Trotsky led the most powerful soviet, the St. Petersburg Soviet.*

Charles' secret treaty

*also known as the Treaty of Dover*, it was *signed with Louis XIV*. The *King would get 200,000 pounds annually in exchange for the things mentioned in #46.*

Social Revolutionaries

*another party of radicals formed at about the same time as the SDs*. These people were *descendants of the Populists*. They *felt that the farmers could inspire a revolution and were called the Social Revolutionaries* (SRs).

Gustav Stresemann

*chancellor and foreign minister of Weimar Germany from 1923 to 1929*, he worked with the Allies to *restructure German reparations* in the *Dawes Plan* and *reduce* them in the *Young Plan*. He *held the Weimar Republic together*, and actually *made huge economic and diplomatic gains* during his time. The month he died, though, *the Great Depression led to the type of desperation the Nazis were waiting for.*

Gustav Stresemann

*chancellor and foreign minister of Weimar Germany* from *1923 to 1929*, he *worked with the Allies* to restructure German reparations in the *Dawes Plan* and reduce them in the *Young Plan*. He *held the Weimar Republic together*, and actually *made huge economic and diplomatic gains* during his time. The month he died, though, the Great Depression led to the type of desperation the Nazis were waiting for.

"Old Believers"

*commoners that did not want to adopt Nikon's changes*. 20,000 of them burned themselves alive in protest, chanting hallelujah 3 times as they died because Nikon demanded that the hallelujah be chanted twice.

Ausgleich of 1867

*defeat by Piedmont and France in 1859* and *defeat against Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War* in 1866 *caused Francis Joseph to experiment with decentralization*. The *Magyars in Hungary got the Emperor to agree to the Compromise of 1867*, which is *better known as the Ausgleich of 1867*. It *created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.*

Boers

*descendants of Dutch colonists who came during the 17th century that lived in the Cape Colony* (South Africa).

Tartars

*descendants of the Mongol Horde and Genghis Khan*, they *attacked Eastern Europe periodically during the 17th century.* In 1656-57, *Crimean (southern Russia) Tartars tore through Prussia, killing and kidnapping approximately 50,000 people.* This attack was a *reason that the Great Elector was able to use to scare the people into giving him more power.*

Bukharin

*editor of Pravda*, he *liked the NEP* and *opposed Trotsky*. Stalin used Bukharin to discredit Trotsky. Trotsky was forced into exile, Stalin took over, and then *Stalin eventually turned on Bukharin and killed him in the Great Purge*. Bukharin *formulated the thesis of "Socialism in One Country,"* put forth by Stalin in 1924, which argued that *~socialism could be developed in a single country*, even one as underdeveloped as Russia. This new theory stated that *revolution needed to be no longer encouraged in the capitalist countries since Russia could and should achieve socialism alone*. This was in direct opposition to Trotsky's (and Lenin's) ideas. Trotsky, by the way, fled to Mexico, where Soviet agents murdered him in 1940. A pickaxe to the back of the head killed him. ~socialism, in Marxist theory, is the transitional stage from capitalism to communism

San Francisco Conference

*established the UN.*

Prince Eugene of Savoy

*great Austrian hero who defeated the Turks at Vienna in 1683*, Eugene is also *considered a great hero in Austrian history for inflicting numerous defeats on the French during the War of the Spanish Succession* (1701-13). *Ironically, Louis XIV had turned Eugene down when Eugene attempted to join the French army*. Eugene *built the Belvedere, 2 baroque palaces in Vienna*. The palaces are *better known as the Winter Palace and the Summer Palace* (the summer palace is also known as Schönnbrunn)

Young Italy

*in 1831, a secret society for Italian unification began, led by Giuseppe Mazzini*. Its goal - *to start a revolution* to *unite Italy* under a *republic*. It *failed in 1848*, just like all the other revolutions. Though he was pretty much a failure, Mazzini is known as the *"Soul of Italy"* because of his influence on Italian unification.

Re-emergence of Eastern serfdom

*in Western Europe, the Black Death in the 14th century led to the eventual end of serfdom, as lords were forced to pay their peasants to work for them.* In *Eastern Europe, however, the lords pressured the Kings to pass laws that brought the serfs into virtual slavery, and they seized most of the peasants land.* *Punishments on runaway serfs were barbaric* - serfs were *nailed to posts by their ear and given a knife to cut themselves loose*, for example. In many places in Eastern Europe, *lords were free to issue the death penalty to any peasant any time they pleased.* The difference between the *development of Eastern Europe and Western Europe can be explained by politics* - *nobles were much more powerful in the East and Kings were generally weak and looked to the nobility for support.* Whereas *people like Richelieu and Louis XIV were weakening the nobles and elevating the middle class, the East did the opposite - there was no middle class!* Weak kings allowed the nobles to do whatever they pleased to the serfs.

A "scrap of paper"

*in order to execute the Schlieffen Plan, Germany had to march their soldiers through neutral Belgium in order to get to Paris quickly. *Belgium had sworn in 1839 to be forever neutral* (like Switzerland had in 1815). All the other nations, including *Prussia, signed the neutrality agreement.* Alas, in 1914, German Chancellor *Bethmann-Hollweg of Germany called the Belgian Neutrality Agreement a "scrap of paper," and Germany marched through Belgium!* *Britain was outraged* because of their close ties with Belgium and respect of international law. *Britain then declared war on Germany* (Aug. 4, 1914). *France, threatened by German invasion, also declared war.*

Frederick William IV

*leader of Prussia*. In March 1848, Prussian *liberals asked him for liberal reforms, but he refused.* *Demonstrations broke out in Berlin.* Fred agreed to call a *national assembly and grant the people freedoms.* A group of reformers then met and agreed that *all males in the German Confederation could vote for representatives to a national body on unification*. That body was the Frankfurt Assembly.

Joseph Palacky

*leader of the Czech rebellion against Austria.* He won very similar concessions from Austria for the Czechs as Kossuth won for Hungary. Unfortunately for the Czechs, *Palacky's gains did not last long, as the revolutionaries fought amongst themselves* (like in France). Imperial armies stormed into Prague and Vienna and restored the Austrian monarchy (which had temporarily been ended). *Franz Joseph and Archduchess Sophia led Austria from that point to WWI.*

Louis Kossuth

*leader of the Extreme Liberals*, a group of *Hungarian nationalists*. At that time, *Hungary was controlled by the Austrian Habsburgs, and many Magyars (Hungarians) wanted to be free*. On March 3, 1848, Kossuth made one of the great speeches in European history. He demanded parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional government for the rest of Austria. He *challenged the Magyars to follow him in a battle for liberal government and reduced Austrian authority over the nation*. On March 15, 1848, *mass demonstrations in Buda and Pest forced the imperial government to give in to all of the protesters' demands.* *Hungary became autonomous within the Habsburg Empire.* Kossuth is the "George Washington of Hungary" which is nowhere near as awesome as being George Washington of America!

Oliver Cromwell

*leader of the New Model Army*, Cromwell *became the Lord Protector of England in 1653* and *ruled as a dictator for 5 years*. He *viciously suppressed rebellions in Ireland and Scotland, advanced English trade, and greatly increased English power.*

Giuseppe Garibaldi

*leader of the Red Shirts* (their uniform color), he *took over Sicily with only 1,000 trained men* (aptly named "*i mille* - the Thousand). In Sept. 1860, *Cavour, nervous that Garibaldi might provoke a huge war with all the European powers by attacking the Pope, decided to take Rome* before Garibaldi did! He *left the Pope the Vatican, but took the rest of Rome for Piedmont.* Cavour did not trust Garibaldi at all. *Cavour thought Garibaldi was too republican (too liberal).* They met in Naples, and *Garibaldi agreed to combine the lands he had conquered in southern Italy with Piedmont under Victor Emmanuel II's rule.*

Heinrich Himmler

*leader of the SS*, the Black Shirts in Germany, he *combined the SS and the Gestapo to create a total police state, including concentration camps.*

Dr. Leander S. Jameson

*led an unsuccessful raid into the Transvaal*. The *Jameson Raid convinced President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal that Rhodes, who was now President of Cape Colony, was plotting to take all Boer lands*. Kaiser *William II of Germany sent a telegram to Kruger congratulating him on his success against the Jameson Raid. This didn't make the English too happy with Germany!*

Indian Congress Party

*led by Mahatma Gandhi*, it led a *nonviolent campaign of protest against British control.*

The Hermitage

*museum in St. Petersburg that commemorates the baroque period* and the *age of Peter the Great*, it was *formerly the Winter Palace* and *home to the czar's daughter, Elizabeth.*

Metaphysical

*people think in abstractions.* They ask questions, such as what is the essence of existence?

Scientific

*people use a positive, scientific approach to solving social problems.*

Realpolitik

*politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and on practical and material factors and considerations, rather than ideological notions or moralistic or ethical premises.* It is sometimes *called neo-Machiavellian politics.*

Alexander III

*really reactionary!!* Who wouldn't be if they saw their father get killed by a bomb?! He *cut back on the few rights the people had*, and *began a program known as "Russification."* Russification was *designed to make all non-Russians living in Russia accept Russian language, culture, and religion.* Russification *led to pogroms, or massacres, especially of Jews*. The *pogroms were the first modern examples of genocide conducted by a government.* In fact, the government actively encouraged peasants to conduct the pogroms!

Impressionism

*replaced realism*. Artists tried to *capture the overall feeling, or impression, of the moment*. *Light and color* were very important.

1968

*student protests about conditions in the universities broke out in Italy, West Germany, and France.* They quickly *turned into protests of the Establishment.* *Students won* important concessions, including *influence over the curriculum and teaching methods* (which is why we ended up with courses like Basket Weaving and Sociology of Sports)!

servicios

*taxes in Spain, mostly on the poor.*

Dutch economy

*the Dutch led the world in banking, fishing, and commerce.* The Dutch *merchant marine was the largest in the world in the 17th century*. The Dutch were like Walmarts - they *bought in bulk and could sell for less than anyone else*. The *ports* had the *greatest diversity of products in the world*. In addition, the *Dutch set up companies to colonize to create new markets around the world*. Because of their economy, the *Dutch alone suffered none of the food shortages and riots that plagued the other countries of Europe.*

Holstein and Schleswig

*two provinces directly south of Denmark and in the north of the German Confederation.* Both provinces included *populations of Germans and Danes*, and had been *fought over for centuries*, including as recently as *1852, when Prussia drove Danish armies out of the provinces*. In *1863, the Danish king made the boneheaded decision to annex the two provinces.* Seeing an opportunity, *Bismarck got Austria to join Prussia in attacking Denmark*. The war, known as the *Second Schleswig War of 1864*, lasted less than two months. The *two provinces fell under the joint control of Prussia and Austria after Denmark was trounced.* **Bismarck knew that joint control would cause conflict between Austria and Prussia - exactly what he wanted!!

Russia under Lenin

1921: *conditions in Russia were awful.* Trotsky: forced to use the *Red Army to put down rebellions* *Red Terror: used to wipe out "class enemies."* *Famine* swept the country, and industry and agriculture were crippled. Lenin introduced the *NEP* to relieve the economic crisis.

Death of Marat - Jacques-Louis David

A *1793 painting of the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat*. It is *one of the most famous images of the French Revolution*. Charlotte Corday, (the person who killed Marat), feared an all-out civil war in France, and proclaimed "I killed one man to save 100,000."

Eastern Orthodox

A *Christian religion that is almost identical to Roman Catholicism*, except that they *reject the authority of the Pope* and have a *different-shaped cross*. Instead of a Pope, they have a *Patriarch*. He, though, *does not have the authority of the Pope*. Instead, *seven Ecumenical Councils govern the Church*. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the *center of the religion moved to Moscow*.

Bourgeoisie

A *French term meaning "middle class."* Louis *used members of this class instead of the aristocrats to run his government.* In fact, *no member of the nobility of the sword ("Upper Nobility") attended the daily council sessions at Versailles.* The *members of the bourgeois owed their jobs, and therefore their allegiance, to the King.*

Adolf Hitler

A *German nationalist* who *described Jews as a parasitic race with the potential to pollute pure Aryan blood and weaken the superior Germans*, he believed that *all Jews should be exterminated*. He rose to power as the *leader of the Nazis in 1933* via election. He was *called Der Führer (the Leader).*

Adolf Hitler

A *German nationalist* who described *Jews as a parasitic race with the potential to pollute pure Aryan blood and weaken the superior Germans*, he believed that *all Jews should be exterminated*. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazis in 1933 via election. He was called *Der Führer (the Leader).*

Michael Servetus

A *Spanish theologian, physician, cartographer, and humanist*. He was the *first European to describe the function of the pulmonary circulation*. He believed that *no person under 20 was capable of committing a mortal sin, and he did not believe in the Trinity*. Catholics and other Protestants despised him. He *sought refuge in Calvin's Geneva, but was arrested and burned as a heretic.*

(Peter Paul) Rubens

A *baroque painter at the peak of the baroque period*, he delivered the *most developed representation of baroque art*. Renaissance *masters like Michelangelo influenced him*. His *paintings are characterized by animated figures, melodramatic contrasts and monumental size*. Though he was a *devout Catholic, he is known for his portraits of "fleshy, sensual nudes" which included Roman goddesses, water nymphs, saints and angels.* (Pictured: The Garden of Love)

Gresham College

A *college established with the funds of Sir Thomas Gresham, an Elizabethan financier*. The college *focused largely on studying sciences, and scientists were regarded as important*. It was the *main center for scientific study and research in England during the early 17th century, and helped establish the Royal Society of London, which promoted and published scientific literature*. Better instruments (*thermometers, microscopes, etc.) were made in order to produce more accurate results.*

Coup d'etat (1799)

A *coup d'etat is the sudden, illegal overthrow of the government, usually by a small group of the existing state* (usually the military) *to replace the government with another body. This is exactly how Napoleon came to power.*

Declaration of the Rights of Woman (Olympe de Gouges)

A *declaration that directly parallels the views of the Wollstonecraft*. She *compared the rights guaranteed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen to the rights guaranteed to women*. Not surprisingly, the *comparison did not depict women in an equal position.*

Schmalkaldic League

A *defensive alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire during the mid-16th century.* The princes *eventually intended to replace the Holy Roman Emperor*. The League had a substantial *military to defend the politics and religious interests of the League.* They *fought a long war against Emperor Charles V, leading to the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed princes to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism as their official religion.*

The Directory

A *five-man group elected by the legislature*, it *held executive power in France following the Convention*. They were *faced with severe economic problems and foreign wars.*

French Academy

A *group of philologists* (people who study grammar and rhetoric) *that standardized the French language* (no matter where a person is in France, the language is at least roughly similar). They *created a dictionary to do this.* The Academy is still around today; every so often it's in the news protesting words like "L'hamburger" and other intrusions on the superior French culture by America! French did end up being the language of diplomacy.

Dreyfus Affair

A *huge scandal* during the Third French Republic. In 1894, Captain Alfred Dreyfus *faced charges that he had spied for the Germans*, whom they detested. The military rushed to accuse him, and he was *found guilty and sentenced to prison at Devil's Island*. Dreyfus was a *convenient target...he was Jewish*. Dreyfus' *supporters included Emile Zola*, who *wrote J'Accuse in support of Dreyfus*. Zola's worldwide *fame and respected reputation brought international attention to what he considered Dreyfus' unjust treatment*. J'Accuse "was one of the great commotions of history," according to historian Barbara Tuchman. It caused such a stir that *Dreyfus was granted an appeal*. The *Anti-Dreyfusards*, who used the affair as an excuse to attack the 3rd Republic to show how weak it was, included *monarchists*, *anti-Semites*, *Catholic leaders*, and *conservative members of the army*. After spending *5 years at Devil's Island, Dreyfus was pardoned*; it took 7 more years before his conviction was nullified. The *case gripped the country for 14 years*, and greatly *harmed the image of the Catholic Church and the military*, but at least the 3rd Republic survived! However, the Anti-Dreyfusards got the last laugh, as they, the *Anti-Dreyfusards, eventually led the Nazi-Collaborationist Vichy government during WWII*. In 1944, they sent Dreyfus' granddaughter to a concentration camp, where she was exterminated.

Battle of the White Mountain (1620)

A *major battle during the 1st phase of the 30 Years War*, it was a *huge turning point in the history of the Czech* people. The *Czechs, centered in a region called Bohemia, were Protestants, but their Habsburg ruler was Catholic*. When the ruler, *Ferdinand II, won the battle against the Bohemians*, he *confiscated the lands of the Protestants and gave it to Catholic nobles.* The *native people were crushed under the Habsburg foot, as foreigners came to dominate the region. The Czechs would not receive their independence for 3 centuries!*

Franco-Spanish War (1635)

A *military conflict between France and Spain*. It *started in 1635 with French intervention in the Thirty Years' War, in which Spain was already a participant*. *France entered the war because she wanted to expand her territory*, but the *Habsburgs stood in the way*. *France had offered subsidies to enemies of the empire, supporting a Swedish invasion of the empire after 1630*. Sweden was eventually defeated, and France's First Minister *Cardinal Richelieu, unhappy with the results of the treaty brought by the Swedish defeat, declared war on Spain*. *France started off well, gaining the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, cutting off Spanish access to the Netherlands, through the Treaty of Westphalia. However, the death of the King and Richelieu in 1643 and the Fronde (French Civil War) seriously weakened France.* So, *France and Spain decided to end their conflict in 1659.*

"Third Rome"

A *name given to Russia*, 3rd Rome means that the *Russians saw themselves as heirs to the Roman Empire*. The *2nd Rome had been in Constantinople, but the Turks conquered it in 1453*. To strengthen the belief of Russia as "Holy Russia" or the Third Rome, *Ivan III married Sophia, niece of Constantine XI, the last Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor*. This *made Ivan III heir to the Byzantine throne.*

Reign of Terror

A *period of violence that occurred for a little over a year after the onset of the First French Republic (National Convention)*. It was caused by *conflicts between rival political parties*, the *Girondins and the Jacobins.* During this time were *mass executions of "enemies of the revolution," and the guillotine became a very popular choice for executions*. The *Committee of Public Safety was established in this time to suppress internal counter-revolutionary activities and to raise a larger army*. It *ended with the Thermidorian Reaction, after several leaders during the Reign of Terror were executed* (Robespierre and others).

The Spirit of the Laws

A *political theory novel written by Montesquieu*. It *discussed the idea of separation of powers and checks and balances*, which is similar to our government because we have three branches that create a *separation of powers*. For instance, Congress makes laws, but the President can veto them, and the Supreme Court can declare them unconstitutional.

Thermidorian Reaction

A *revolt during the French Revolution against the members of the Committee of Public Safety*. It *started when the Committee voted to execute Robespierre, who was one of the leaders of France at the time.* This *ended the most radical phase of the Revolution*, as the *Committee was replaced with the French Directory*. Basically, people tired of the bloodshed and chaos of the Revolution.

Revolt of the Vendee

A *royalist rebellion and counterrevolution in the Vendee region of France from 1793-1796*. The revolt *began because the Civil Constitution of the Clergy forced clerics to swear allegiance to the revolution, even though the revolution was anti-clerical*. Most bishops and priests of the area refused, so they were imprisoned or exiled and any women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets. This upset the region, but the *final straw was when the revolutionary government imposed a draft quota of 300,000 men from the region, which was a large portion of the populace.* The *region quickly created its own small ill-equipped army, the Royal and Catholic Army*. The *Republic of France quickly responded by sending 45,000 soldiers to the region*. The *Vendee region* had large numbers as well, but they were *less trained and less equipped, and were eventually defeated*. Then, *the Republican army killed everyone they saw, even if they were not part of the Vendee army.* Eventually, the *Convention allowed the people of the Vendee liberty of worship and guaranteed their property*. Some believe the *evacuation and mass killings after the defeat of Vendee was one of the first genocides*. It is estimated *between 117,000 and 450,000 people were killed out of a population of just 800,000 people of the region.*

Absolutism

A *single ruler has control over all functions of government.* In the 17th and 18th centuries, it *refers to a monarch with complete control over the state.* In truth, the monarch had *centralized control, but not complete control over every aspect of his subjects' lives.* Best-known *examples of absolutists are Louis XIV, Catherine the Great, and Frederick the Great.*

Totalitarian

A *single ruler or group controls every aspect of life in the nation.* Totalitarian regimes were *not common in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries because the monarchs did not yet have the resources to control every single part of their subjects' lives.* However, the argument *could be made that Ivan IV and Peter the Great were totalitarian* rulers. *Best-known examples of totalitarian rulers are Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini.*

Open-field System

A *system involving the division of a large field that surrounds a village into small strips of land* farmed by peasants. *Each peasant family had a few strips, scattered across the field.* They would *all till the field together, and try to plant different crops throughout the year to keep the soil fresh. It was quite inefficient.*

Peace of Augsburg

A *treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League* on September 25, 1555. It officially *ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire.* The peace *allowed German princes to select either Lutheranism of Catholicism within the domains they controlled*, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states. *Citizens who did not wish to conform to the prince's choice were given a time period where they were free to migrate to a region where their religion had been accepted.* The famous saying was "whose region, his religion," which meant that the religion of any area would be that of the ruling political authority - the local prince.

Great Northern War (1700-1721)

A *war between Russia, Poland, Saxony, and Denmark on one side against Sweden on the other*. *Sweden*, then a world power, *won numerous victories early in the war*; they *crushed Denmark almost immediately*, and then *defeated the Russians in a surprise attack at Navra* in a snowstorm in 1700. Eventually, *however, superior Russian numbers and Peter's reforms contributed to the Russian victory in 1721*. Russia's *victory over Sweden gave it control for the first time over Estonia and Latvia*, and *Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea for the first time*. This *****made Russia a great European power.*****

Baroque

A *word that describes post-Renaissance art*. The word is *speculated to have come from the Portuguese word for an "odd shaped, imperfect pearl."* The *term was at first used as scorn at the newly developing art form that was called "overblown and unbalanced."* It is *characterized by intense emotional tension, realism, and light contrast.* Much of the *art was motivated by a desire for the renewal of religious fervor in the Catholic Church.*

On the Jews and their Lies

A 65,000 word treatise written by Martin Luther in 1543. In it, Luther writes that the Jews are a "base, wh-ring people, that is, no people of God, and their boast of lineage, circumcision, and law must be accounted as filth." They are "full of the devil's feces ... which they wallow in like swine," and the synagogue is an "incorrigible wh-re and an evil sl-t." Basically, it is loaded with hatred toward the Jewish, and also seems to support their murder. The treatise openly calls for the burning of synagogues and Jewish schools, the execution of rabbis, forced labor of the Jewish people, and many other horrific acts. This book had a major impact on German attitude toward the Jewish between the Reformation and the Holocaust. (*sorry about the censorship, Quizlet does not allow profanity.*) tl;dr: Luther hated on the Jews. He really hated them.

Jan Hus (John Huss)

A Czech priest, theologian, professor and church reformer who was *burned at the stake* on July 6, 1415. During his time as a professor, *he promoted reformist ideas: living modestly, denouncing the sale of indulgences and promoting "academic freedom."* *He wrote On the Church, which was one of the first books to openly criticize the Catholic Church.* Huss became a martyr for his beliefs and a symbol for those fed up with the Church. *He was an early precursor to the Protestant Reformation and an inspiration to Martin Luther.*

Catherine II

A German princess, she was *Czarina of Russia* from 1762-1796. She was *married to the mentally challenged Peter III, but she soon got rid of him*. When Peter III was just about to pull his forces out of the 7 Years' War, *Catherine used the anger of the troops as an excuse to have Peter's officers (including one of her 21 official lovers) stab him to death*. She then went on to accomplish *three goals* as czarina. The first was to *Enlighten/westernize Russia*. Catherine worked hard to rule in an enlightened manner, *importing architects, musicians, sculptors, and intellectuals from the West*. In addition, she *wrote plays, spoke multiple languages, and decried French censorship of the Encyclopedia*. The *second goal was to change domestic policy*. She wanted *religious tolerance, improved education and stronger localized governments*. Her *third goal was to expand Russian land*. She met this goal through the *Partitions of Poland- Poland lost land to Austria, Prussia, and Russia on three separate occasions, until it disappeared from the map in 1795*. Unfortunately, Catherine *became much less enlightened after a Cossack rebellion, called Pugachev's Rebellion*, in 1773. The rebellion *reversed some of Catherine's reforms, such as abolition of torture and religious toleration.*

Rocroi

A convincing *victory of the French over the Spanish in 1643*, it *occurred in Belgium* (Spanish Netherlands). The battle was a *culminating event of a long series of wars between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons* (French royal family) *over territory in Italy*. The wars were *resolved by the Treaty of the Pyrenees* in 1659, which *gave France extensive Spanish territories.*

Taille

A direct land tax on peasants and middle-class people in France, but not on the nobles. It was imposed on each household, and the cost was based on how much land people held.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A famous Genevan philosopher, he was best known for his political philosophy of direct democracy. He believed that long ago before civilization, man had lived in freedom, equality, happiness, and virtue. He believed that civilization corrupted this. He admired the Native Americans, who he called "noble savages." He stated that "all men are born free, yet everywhere they are in chains." Social inequality was the worst corruption. He wrote the books, The Social Contract, Emile (about the importance of education), and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Mankind. He, unlike Thomas Hobbes, believed that members of society agree amongst themselves to be ruled by the "general will." This will decided the founding laws of the society. Similar to John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the people had the right to rule themselves. He believed that instead of electing officials, like in Locke's ideal form of government, the people themselves would literally make all the decisions. This meant that every citizen would vote on every issue, an impractical system for most nations of decent size. Rousseau took Locke's idea to the extreme by saying that if a person was not hurting someone else, they could do whatever they wanted. Rousseau did not believe that the government should have any power over the people's lives (unless someone was being hurt).

The Supremacy Act

A separate act that *explicitly declared the king the supreme head of the Church of England.*

Elba

A small island 20 kilometers offshore of Tuscany (Italy). Napoleon was exiled here for about 300 days before returning to France for the Hundred Days and being defeated in the battle of Waterloo.

Nepotism

A term referring to the *appointing of a relative of a church official, regardless of his ability.* In the 16th century, this referred to Popes who gave their "nephews" and other family members the rank of Cardinal so they could eventually become Pope. This created "Papal Dynasties," including the Medici.

"King" Cholera

A terrible *disease that killed millions of people during the 19th century*. It *spread in filthy conditions*, which were common during the Industrial Revolution. *Open sewers ran in the streets, seepage flowed into basements where people lived (literally living in poop!), and garbage was everywhere*. People tossed their excrement and garbage out their windows into the streets below! That's why shops have awnings, by the way.

Vichy France

After *France fell in 6 weeks*, *Germany directly controlled most of the country*, but *left a puppet French government in SW France*. This government, *Vichy France, was made up of Fascist collaborators led by Henri Petain and Pierre Laval.*

Night of the Long Knives

After Hitler took power, he worried that the *Brown Shirts could not be controlled, especially* SA chief, *Ernst Roehm*. So, he *had the SS, his personal bodyguards, carry out a wave of assassinations* on *June 30, 1934.*

February Revolution (Revolution of 1848)

After Louis Philippe's *minister (Guizot) stopped a banquet*, mobs of people took to the streets! The *people then erected barricades in the streets*. Louis sent out the soldiers on Feb. 23, *52 people were killed*, and the protest became a revolution. *King Louis Philippe abdicated, and was the last French king in history.*

Frederick II

Also known as *Frederick the Great, he ruled Prussia* from 1740-1786, was the *son of Frederick William I (loved tall soldiers), and was a member of the Hohenzollern family*. He is generally considered *one of the best examples of Enlightened absolutism*. He *loved French literature, language, music, and art, corresponded with Voltaire for years, wrote a book condemning Machiavelli's political beliefs, and even played the flute!* He gave his people *freedom of speech, press, religion (except Jews), and forced the wealthy to sell grain to the poor at reasonable rates.* He *abolished torture, sped up trials, and educated his people.* On the down side, he *confined the Jewish people to ghettos, extended the power of the nobility over the serfs, and fought two major wars.* Starting off his reign, Frederick *entered the War of Austrian Succession* (1740-1748) with the intent to gain control over the territory Silesia, then controlled by Austria. He *accomplished his goal with the Treaty of Dresden*, which ended the war. *Prussia was aligned with France, but when the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756, it was Britain and Prussia against France, Austria and Russia.* The switching of sides is *called the Diplomatic Revolution, and was initiated by France*. *Frederick* won countless battles all over Europe, but *was outnumbered*. Most of *British aid was money, not troops, so the end did not look good for Frederick.* However, *Peter III had had taken the throne of Russia and Peter, being an admirer of Frederick, ended the war with the Treaty of St. Petersburg* (1762). This *left Austria for Frederick to dominate, which he did.* Frederick's *reign ended with his death in 1786, but he left Prussia the dominant power in Europe.* Briefly.

Planned Economy

Also known as a *command economy*, it is when the *central government of a country controls all aspects of the economy*. The *government makes all important decisions such as production and distribution of goods throughout the country*. The *government decides the use of resources*, and what the *people will be able to do and buy*. This way the *government can completely stay in control of the economy, which takes some freedoms from the people*. The *National Convention attempted to run a planned economy by fixing prices and regulating production*. Some historians claim that it was an *early form of communism.*

Battle of Austerlitz (1805)

Also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, it was Napoleon's greatest victory. After 9 hours of fighting, France won the battle, defeating the Third Coalition, led by Alexander I of Russia and Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire. After this huge win in the Austrian Empire, the combatants agreed to the Treaty of Pressburg, which took Austria out of the war, dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, and created the Confederation of the Rhine.

Piedmont

An *Italian city-state in northern Italy*, it was led by a *new king, Victor Emmanuel II*, and his *advisor, Count Camillo di Cavour*, and they believed that *Italy could not be unified as long as Austria controlled territory on the Italian peninsula.* The defeat in 1848 had convinced Cavour that the *Italians alone could not defeat Austria.* So, in order *to gain favor with England and France, Piedmont joined their side in the Crimean War* (1854-56), even though Piedmont had no interest at all in the situation in Russia! Then, *after the successful conclusion of the war, Cavour called upon Napoleon III of France for help against Austria.*

Romanticism

An *art period of the 19th century characterized by free expression, emotional intensity, and a focus on the power of nature.* In painting, it was the *dominant form of art for the first 30 or so years of the 19th century, but in music, it dominated the entire century.*

Potsdam Grenadiers

An *elite group of Prussian soldiers all over 6 feet tall*, *Frederick William I collected them from all over Europe to serve*. He loved them so much that he *never sent them to war*! In fact, Prussia was at peace for the entirety of Frederick William I's reign.

Baroque

An *emotional, spiritual art form that dominated Europe during the 17th century*, the baroque style was *encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church as a way to combat the Protestant Reformation*. The style was also *used by members of the upper nobility and by royalty to awe visitors to their palaces*. The *best-known masters of the period are Bernini (sculpture) and Rubens (art).*

Girolamo Savonarola

An Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until he was executed in 1498. He burned books, destroyed every piece of art he thought immoral, and preached against the moral corruption of much of the clergy. Pope Alexander VI demanded his arrest and execution in 1498 under heresy, sedition, and uttering prophecies. He was hanged to the point of asphyxiation and then a fire was lit beneath him, roasting him to death!

Camille Pissarro - Peasant Woman with a Wheelbarrow.

At least this title is self-explanatory. Sorry again.

Gregor Mendel

Austrian monk whose work became the basis of *modern hereditary theory*. Worked with pea plants! Came up with the terms *"dominant" and "recessive."*

Francois Boucher

Boucher was a French Rococo painter, who was known for his voluptuous paintings of pastoral occupations (farmers, for example). Boucher also painted multiple portraits of his patroness, possibly his most famous was Madame de Pompadour, the chief official mistress of Louis XV.

Charles Darwin

British scientist who *laid the foundation of modern evolutionary theory with his concept of the development of life through a slow-working process of natural selection* (a process whereby the members of a species compete for food, and those who survive tend to have favorable variations that allow them to survive). He traveled around the world on the *HMS Beagle*. He was *greatly influenced by Malthus' ideas on how food availability would not increase faster than the population* (so population had to be kept in check by natural forces). He *wrote On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man*. His *ideas caused a major rift between science and religion.*

War and absolutism

By the 17th century, *Eastern monarchs were finally beginning to rise in power*. They *achieved this through warfare*. Several kings claimed they were "war kings" and that they needed special powers to save the nation! They *felt that either you were with the King or you were with the enemy*. Since *armies cost huge amounts of money, kings raised taxes without consent from any legislative body*. They also *used their standing armies as agents to spy on their own people to control them, and they conducted diplomatic relations with other countries without interference from congresses or parliaments*. It worked great! The *people lost all of their freedom and the kings dominated.*

Polish-Saxon Settlement

Castlereagh tried to persuade Alexander I to compromise over Poland, but failed. Metternich tried to negotiate, but insulted Alexander, who then challenged him to a duel! So, Talleyrand joined with Metternich and Castlereagh in a secret alliance against Russia and Prussia (Prussia wanted to control Saxony). They intentionally leaked the news of the "secret" alliance so that Alex and the Prussians would hear it. Faced with a huge war against France, Austria, and Britain, Russia and Prussia compromised. A small Poland, with Warsaw at its center, was re-created with Alexander as its leader. In return, Austria and Prussia kept some of their Polish territories (they had gained them when Poland disappeared from the map between the 1770s and 1790s in a series of three partitions). Also, Prussia gained control over 2/5 of Saxony and 800,000 people!

Jan Van Eyck

Considered to be one of the best painters in northern Europe during the 15th century. He was a very skilled oil painter and through the years made new effects with glazes and wet-on-wet techniques. He was paid very well and painted for private clients as well for the court. He painted the Ghent Altarpiece and Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride.

Responses of Luther and Calvin to Copernicus' views

Copernicus' hypothesis had many negative religious implications, as it suggested that Earth was not the center of the universe (and hence God's special place), and suggested that the universe was of massive size. His heliocentric hypothesis challenged the Aristotelian idea that the earthly world was different than the heavenly one, which received sharp attacks from religious leaders, especially Protestants. Martin Luther referred to him as "the new astrologer who wants to prove the Earth moves and goes round. The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside down." Luther also said the Bible states that the sun stands still, not the Earth. Calvin condemned Copernicus for his ideas for the same reasons as Luther.

Holy Alliance

Created by Alexander I, it was a group of three nations (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) who would act as Christian brothers and help each other protect religion, peace, and justice. Supposedly, it was to "instill the Christian values of charity and peace in European political life," but it was really designed to protect each other from revolution, liberalism, nationalism and secularism. It became an instrument for Alex and Metternich to repress liberal and nationalist movements.

Peace of Prague

Despite the smashing victory, *Bismarck was wise enough to treat Austria well in the peace settlement. He didn't want a bitter enemy on his southern border as he pursued unification of the German nation.* *Austria was forced to turn over Venice to Italy*. They also were *forced to accept the breakup of the German Confederation and creation of the North German Confederation*, a military alliance of *22 northern German states with Prussia as the leading state*. And, *Austria was also forced to pay a small amount of war damages.* (Because of this relatively kind treatment, *Austria stayed neutral in 1870 when Prussia invaded France in order to unite the south German states with the North German Confederation.* If Prussia had treated Austria harshly after the 7 Weeks' War, *Austria might have joined with France in the Franco-Prussian War.*)

Isabelle d'Este

Duchess of Mantua, and one of the leading women in the Italian Renaissance both culturally and politically. She sponsored such painters as Titian, Da Vinci, and Raphael. Unfortunately, in 1491, she instructed her agent to secure a black girl between 4 and 8 years old "shapely and as black as possible," as she saw the child as a source of entertainment. This popularized African slavery in Europe (slaves had been white before this time - the word slave comes from Slav, an ethnic group in southeastern Europe).

Enclosure

During the 16th-18th centuries, large landowners in England seized common lands, kicked the peasants off, and fenced them in to raise sheep. Many modern historians argue that this process helped England prepare for the Industrial Revolution, since landless peasants were forced to move to cities, where they provided early factories with cheap semi-skilled labor.

Dutch Revolt (Eighty Years' War, 1568-1648)

During the early 16th century, *the Habsburgs assumed control of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands under the leadership of Emperor Charles V*. The *Dutch, not surprisingly, resented being controlled by the Habsburgs, so they eventually revolted*. Causes: *1. taxation.* The *Dutch paid more taxes than they wanted because of the high costs of defending Habsburg lands*, including *wars against France in Italy and wars against the Ottomans in the Mediterranean.* In addition, the Dutch did not have a voice in governance - *no taxation without representation*! *2. religion.* A *sizable minority of the Dutch was Protestant*. Because their *society depended on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential*. However, *Charles V, and his son, Philip II, saw themselves as defenders of the Catholic religion and were determined to crush Protestantism*. *3. centralization.* The *Dutch had long been autonomous in choosing her own administrators. The HRE changed this to more efficiently collect taxes.* *4. Philip II.* *Charles V was Flemish* (Flanders is a region in NE France, Belgium, and the Netherlands). He *spoke Dutch and understood their culture.* But, *Philip was raised in Spain and didn't even speak Dutch or French.* Results - *under the leadership of William the Silent, Duke of Orange, the 7 northern provinces eventually won their independence and became the United Provinces. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) guaranteed their freedom.*

Famine Foods

During the second half of the eighteenth century, a lot of *shortages existed in a variety of different crops. People had to resort to eating chestnuts, stripped bark, dandelions, roots, and grass to escape starvation*. Because of a big *imbalance in the diets of people at this time, they were weak and susceptible to epidemics.*

Spinning Jenny

Englishman James Hargreaves invented this device in 1764. This device sharply reduced the amount of work that was needed to produce yarn. This made the worker able to work eight or more spools at once. Many homes in the English countryside had a spinning jenny.

The Royal Society of London

Established in 1662, this society was created by practical men and scientists as a way of publishing scientific papers, and they also sponsored scientific meetings. Meeting together allowed the great minds of the time to synthesize their ideas into new ideas, advancing knowledge.

Edict of Worms

It was a *decree issued by The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, banning the writings of Martin Luther and labeling him an enemy because of his 95 Theses*. It, issued on May 25, 1521, in the city of Worms, was the culmination of an ongoing struggle between Martin Luther and the Roman Catholic Church over the sale of indulgences. Luckily for Luther, he escaped the Diet of Worms and was sheltered by Duke Frederick III of Saxony.

Counter Reformation

It was a *reform movement within the Roman Catholic Church that arose in 16th-century Europe in response to the Protestant Reformation.* The movement *grew out of criticism of the worldliness and corruption of the papacy and clergy during the Renaissance.*

Continental System

It was a large-scale embargo against British trade. Britain countered by threatening to sink any ship that didn't come to a British port, leading to the armed conflict between the US and Britain in the War of 1812. It also resulted in the disastrous Russian Campaign; when Czar Alexander I of Russia stopped enforcing the Continental System, Napoleon felt that invasion was his only choice.

Georg Hegel

German philosopher. I'll make this as simple as I can - his ideas are too complex to explain in a paragraph. His *process is known as the Hegelian Dialectic* (*metaphysics*) - he believed that the *course of history is determined by the dialectic, a struggle between ideas and the antithesis of those ideas.* *Nothing can alter the course of history, it is natural law.* Basically, *one historical idea conflicts with its opposite, creating a synthesis of those two ideas*. This *synthesis becomes the new thesis*, and soon *develops its own antithesis*. For example, a thesis might be "absolute monarchy." Its antithesis might be "absolute freedom." The synthesis it might create is "constitutional monarchy." The process leads to perfection - the end is "the absolute idea." He had a massive impact on Karl Marx.

Glasnost

Gorby's policy of *"openness."* *Public media and the citizenry would be allowed to criticize the government.* Gorbachev's policies *unintentionally led to the end of communism across Europe in 1989*, and in the *USSR itself in 1991*. Gorbachev was *forced from power and replaced by Boris Yeltsin.*

Sandro Botticelli

Great Florentine painter who is best known for La Primavera and Birth of Venus, he combined classical themes with realism.

V.I. Lenin - Imperialism: The Last Stage of Capitalism (1916)

He *argued that capitalism must expand to survive*. Once capitalists have saturated the domestic market, they must look overseas for investment. *When capitalism can expand no further, then it will collapse.*

Mikhail Gorbachev

He *assumed control of the USSR in 1985.* He was *young and vigorous* and was determined to make reforms needed since the 1960s. He *emphasized the problems of poor labor habits and bad management caused by the Stalinist command economic system.*

Count de Saint-Simon

He *believed that the workers, not the "idle" upper classes, should get the highest incomes.* Societal *leaders should come from the ranks of scientists and engineers.*

Jeremy Bentham

He *developed utilitarianism*, which holds that the *rightness of any law should be measured by its usefulness*. *How useful it is, is measured by how much it reduced human suffering*. The aim of all laws should be "the greatest good for the greatest number." In other words, almost 180 degrees different from how Congress works today!

Leonid Brezhnev

He *replaced Khrushchev in 1964* (Khrushchev lost face as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the economy was crap). *He abandoned any thoughts of reform*, which probably *doomed the USSR in the long term*. His rule was from *1964-1982*. His *policy of arms limitations treaties with Nixon* is called *détente.*

Nicholas II

He *took over after Alex III died in 1894 and ruled until 1917*. He was the *last Czar and was overthrown during the Russian Revolution*. He was an autocrat just like all the other Romanovs had been, but he *lacked the iron will and determination of his predecessors*. He was a lot like Marie Antoinette - *clueless about the suffering of his subjects.*

Auguste Comte

He *wrote Course of Positive Philosophy and System of Positive Philosophy*. He developed the theory of *positivism*: there are *3 stages to human intellectual development: theological, metaphysical, and scientific.* Comte is one of the *founders of sociology.*

Louis Blanc

He *wrote The Organization of Labor in 1840*. He believed that the *state should socialize all major economic services, including banking, railroads, and insurance, and establish cooperative factories owned and run by workers.* These cooperatives were called *workshops.*

Pierre Proudhon

He *wrote What is Property?* In 1840. He argued that all *property is a theft of the value created by labor.* *Profits are property stolen from the workers!* He wanted to *set up cooperative businesses that would produce and exchange goods noncompetitively based on social need.* He was intensely *distrustful of government and was the first to call himself an anarchist.* "Whoever lays his hand on me to govern me is a usurper and tyrant, and I declare him my enemy." Some refer to his thought as *"libertarian socialism."* Unlike Marx, *Proudhon believed that social revolution could occur without violence.*

John Calvin/Calvinism

He believed that *God selected people to do His work and that he was selected by God to reform the church.* Under him, in Geneva, the *state was subordinate to the church*. Calvinism believed that *God decided at the beginning of time who would go to Heaven (the "Elect") and who would be doomed to eternal Hell (the "Reprobate"). This idea is known as "predestination."* Geneva became known as the City of the Saints, due to its extreme morality.

Charles Fourier

He believed that a *cooperative society would see an immense improvement in productivity levels.* *Workers would be compensated for their labors according to their contribution.* Fourier saw such *cooperation occurring in communities of exactly 1,620 people he called "phalansteries."* *Wealth was determined by one's job; jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual.* There were incentives: jobs *people doing a job they might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay*. Fourier considered *trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the "source of all evil"* and advocated that *Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries.* *Fourier characterized poverty, not inequality, as the principal cause of disorder in society, and he proposed to eradicate it via sufficiently high wages and by a "decent minimum" for those who were not able to work.* Fourier was also a supporter of women's rights. He believed that *all important jobs should be open to women on the basis of skill and aptitude rather than closed on account of gender*. He spoke of women as individuals, not as half the human couple. Fourier saw that "traditional" marriage could potentially hurt women's rights as human beings and thus he never married. Numerous utopian communities were founded in the United States based upon his ideas.

Gutenberg

He invented the printing press, one of the most important inventions in human history. This device allowed the Renaissance to spread, made propaganda possible for rulers and the Church, and helped Martin Luther start the Protestant Reformation. The first printed book was the Gutenberg Bible. (Fun fact: Yale University has a complete Gutenberg Bible on display)

Jean-Paul Marat

He is *best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution*. His newspaper, *The Friend of the People*, *attacked public officials constantly*. He was *known for his stance against the enemies of the Revolution and for reforms for the poorest members of society*. He was *associated with the Jacobin group*, and during the downfall of the Girondin faction, he was one of the most important men in France. *A Girondin sympathizer, Charlotte Corday, murdered Marat while he was in his bathtub.*

Rembrandt (Harmenszoon van Rijn)

He is considered one of the *most important painters and print makers in European art history and is the most important Dutch artist*. His *works are characterized by blunt realism and the use of dramatic lighting.* (Pictured: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp)

Maximilien Robespierre

He was *one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution*. He was a *leader of the Committee of Public Safety* and instrumental during the Reign of Terror. As his power increased, he became less liked, especially when *he had Danton and other more moderate leaders executed, tried to establish a Republic of Virtue, and attempted to eliminate Christianity and replace it with the Cult of the Supreme Being*. After the Reign of Terror ended, *he was arrested and guillotined without trial*. Before the execution, *Robespierre attempted to kill himself with a pistol, and shot off part of his jaw*. Just before the executioner dropped the guillotine's blade, he ripped the bandage off Robespierre's jaw, so Robespierre would die screaming!

John Stuart Mill

He was a *Benthamite*. One of the most brilliant men ever - he studied Greek at age 3 and wrote history of Rome at age 6! He *wrote On Liberty* in 1859. He believed that *government should be designed to give every person the greatest degree of freedom possible.* *Government may only restrict freedom to protect society.* He *urged government to eliminate poverty, stop the exploitation of children, stop economic injustice, and stop the repression of women.* He is considered a *major figure in feminism because he tried to get universal suffrage and education.*

Albrecht von Wallenstein

He was a *Bohemian soldier and politician who offered his services to the Emperor with an army of 30,000-100,000 men during the Danish period*. He *became supreme commander of the armies of the Habsburg Monarchy and was a major figure in the Thirty Years' War.*

Johann (John) Eck

He was a *German theologian and defender of the Catholic faith*. He *debated Luther in 1519, forcing Luther to agree to beliefs that were probably more radical than Luther had wanted to express*, including questioning papal supremacy and agreeing to some of Jan Hus' ideas.

Magellan

He was a *Portuguese explorer* who *obtained Spanish nationality to serve King Charles I of Spain (aka Emperor Charles V of the HRE) in search of a westward route to the "Spice Islands."* His expedition of 1519-1522 became the *first expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean, and the first to cross the Pacific*. His expedition (although he did not complete it, as he died in the Philippines) was also the *first voyage around the world.*

Duke of Alva (also "Alba")

He was a *Spanish general and governor of the Netherlands. He was known as the Iron Duke because of his harsh tactics in trying to pacify the Netherlands, his execution of his political opponents, and his massacre of the residents of several cities.* He *set up the Council of Troubles*, soon *called the Council of Blood by the Dutch*, *killing at least 5,000 people perceived as rebels.* He also *foolishly executed two popular leaders of the Dutch nobility, even though they were Catholic.* Alba *made things even worse by imposing a 10% sales tax to raise money to pay for his armies.* Even Catholics objected. Dutch exiles, known as "beggars," fitted a fleet of privateers and seized the town of Brielle. *Due to his harsh actions, he unwittingly became the instrument of the future independence of the 7 Dutch provinces.*

Georges Danton

He was a *leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first president of the Committee of Public Safety*. Some historians say he was the *chief force in overthrowing the monarchy and establishing the First French Republic.* He was a *member of the Mountain faction that sat in the upper left reaches of the legislature.*

Duke of Wellington

He was a British military leader who led Britain's Peninsular Campaign (the fight on the Iberian) against Napoleon. Although he had several victories in his career, people mostly remember one battle that he won, the Battle of Waterloo, which led to the end of Napoleon. He later went on to become Prime Minister.

Jacob Fugger

He was a German banker and son of the famous Mother Fugger. He often lent money to the rulers of Europe. His money helped to finance Charles V's war on Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire.

Turgot

He was a physiocrat and French finance minister from 1761 to 1774. He argued against government intervention in the private sector. His laissez-faire ideas predated Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations by ten years. As finance minister, he abolished restrictions on grain sales within France, ended the conscription of workers to construct roads (replacing it with a tax), and abolished the guild system, which had prevented workers from entering certain trades. Louis XVI did not like his reforms and dismissed him. Some say that if Turgot had not been dismissed, the French Revolution might have been avoided.

John of Leiden (Leyden)

He was an *Anabaptist leader who became King of Münster (a German city) and attempted to lead the city in a rebellion against the Catholic Church.* Münster was set up as a polygamous theocracy and any unmarried woman must accept the first request by a potential a husband. *The army of Münster was defeated, and John of Leiden was captured, tortured, and executed.* Their *dead, mutilated corpses were hung from cages on St. Lambert's Church, where they rotted for fifty years before their bones were removed!* The empty cages remain on the church to this day.

(Gian Lorenzo) Bernini

He was an *Italian sculptor, architect, painter, playwright and metalworker*, but he is *best known for sculpture*. His ability to capture with *extreme realism* in a dramatic religious scene and use of *lighting* for emphasis made him *Michelangelo's artistic successor*. His work *revived spiritual vigor* in the Catholic Counter Reformation. (Pictured: David)

Mirandola

He was an Italian Renaissance philosopher known for his Oration on the Dignity of Man. In his works, he expressed the opinion that there were no limits to what man could accomplish. The Oration has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance."

Titian

He was an Italian painter and the most important member of the Venetian school. He was adept with portraits, landscapes, and religious subjects. His painting method of applying color had a profound influence on Italian painters of the Renaissance and also with future western art. He worked mainly for Phillip II of Spain.

Pope Nicholas V

He was pope from 1447-1455. During his time as pope, he issued a papal bull (order) confirming the right of the Portuguese to "subjugate Saracens, Pagans, and other enemies of Christ wherever they may be found." The wording of the bull allowed the Portuguese to justify the beginning of African slavery. On the good side, though, he did order the collection of over 900 manuscripts, which were eventually placed in the Vatican library planned by him.

Pope Sixtus IV

He was pope from 1471 to 1484. He built the Vatican Library that Pope Nicholas V had planned, and he built the Sistine Chapel. In 1478, under pressure from Ferdinand of Aragon, he issued the papal bull that established the Spanish Inquisition. He also supported the Pazzi Conspiracy.

Willy Brandt

He was the *1st Socialist Chancellor of West Germany* (1969-1974). He famously *visited a memorial to the 400,000 Jews who died in the Warsaw Ghetto during WWII.* He *knelt on the steps of the monument and cried*. In addition, he is also remembered for *Ostpolitik*, his *efforts to improve diplomatic relations with East Germany, Poland, and the USSR.*

William Laud

He was the *Archbishop of Canterbury during the reign of Charles I*. He *attempted to bring back a lot of the Catholic rituals as part of worship in the Anglican Church*, which did not go over very well at all in Protestant England. In 1637, Laud *tried to make a Scottish version of the Book of Common Prayer and force it on the Scots, who were strict Presbyterians* (Calvinists). This *caused the Scots to revolt, eventually forcing Charles to call the Short Parliament into session.*

Gustavus Adolphus

He was the *founder of the Swedish Empire at the beginning of the Golden Age of Sweden*. He was *king from 1611-1632, and led the nation to military supremacy during the Thirty Years' War.* Some call him the *"father of modern warfare,"* as *Sweden went from a regional power to a kingdom during his reign because of great strategy and well-trained professional soldiers.* He was *killed in a battle in 1632*, when he led a charge into battle at Lutzen.

William the Silent, Duke of Orange

He was the *leader of the Dutch rebels and financed and politically led the opposition to Philip II*. He is considered the *George Washington of the Netherlands*, and their national anthem is a propaganda song about him! *In 1572, the 7 northern provinces declared independence, and it was William who led them in revolt until he was assassinated in 1584*. It *took another 25 years after that for the northern 7 provinces to form the United Provinces, and then another 30 years for it to be officially recognized*. The *southern 10 provinces, which today form Belgium, continued to be ruled by Habsburgs.*

Otto von Bismarck

He was the *minister president of Prussia from 1862-1890 for William I (Frederick William IV's successor), Frederick III, and William II.* Bismarck, long the leader of the Junkers (Prussian nobles), was a *great diplomat*. He was *determined to bring the German states together into one great German nation* (under Prussian leadership). He was *called the Iron Chancellor* after he became the 1st Chancellor in Germany in 1871, mostly *because of his determination to weld the German nation together with "blood and iron"* if necessary. (He had no use for legislative wrangling; if force was necessary, then so be it). Bismarck felt that *Prussia must use force to exclude Austria from German affairs*. He knew that he needed middle class support to accomplish this. Bismarck was a genius. *He wanted to keep the privileges that the Junkers had always enjoyed, but realized that he had to make the middle class think they had a say in the government as well.* It was a *tricky balance* - making them think they had power without actually giving them any real power. Bismarck decided to *build up the strength of the Prussian military, but the parliament decided not to approve of the tax increases he demanded to pay for it. Bismarck collected the taxes anyway, without parliament's consent.* The parliament protested, but the citizens paid anyway. So, the *middle classes had their constitution and their parliament, making them feel like they had power, yet Bismarck still had his way.* He was the *master of Realpolitik.*

Klemens von Metternich

He was the chief minister of Austria. He was the major player at the Congress of Vienna and in the Concert of Europe. He wanted to restore Europe's "equilibrium" and restore monarchs to their thrones, which he called "legitimacy." Liberalism and nationalism were his hated enemies! He was so important that the time period between 1815-1848 is called the Age of Metternich. He might have let it go to his head a little - "There is a broad sweep about my mind. I am always above and beyond the preoccupation of most public men; I cover a ground much vaster than they can see. I cannot keep myself from saying twenty times a day: how right I am, and how wrong they are." What a guy!

Alexander Ypsilanti

He was the leader of the Greek nationalists who wanted to overthrow Ottoman Turk rule. Intellectuals and romantics supported the revolution. After all, Greece was the foundation of European civilization! Russia and Austria first sided with the Ottomans because they opposed all revolutions. But popular opinion, even in countries with virtually no freedom, was too strongly in support of the Greeks for their governments to resist. Greece gained its independence and spent the next 80 years trying to gain all of historic Greek lands from the Ottomans.

Adam Smith

He wrote *The Wealth of Nations in 1776*. It is known as the *"Bible of Capitalism."** Supply and demand drive the economy and regulate conditions.* Government should not interfere. Smith is famous for the "*invisible hand of the marketplace."* Also, he believed that *labor is the source of all value.* Rational *self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity.* Smith "viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism ... yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system."-Herbert Stein. My favorite Smith quote: "It is not very unreasonable that the rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more than in that proportion."

Abbé Sieyès

He wrote What is the Third Estate?, a pamphlet which argued that the Third Estate represented the nation. In this pamphlet, he advocated that all estates should vote together. The first lines start as follows: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been thus far in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To be something." It was one of the immediate causes of the Revolution.

Thomas Cranmer

He wrote the *Book of Common Prayer*, which *laid out the teachings and structure of the services conducted by the Anglican Church (Church of England)*. He was a *leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI*. He *helped build a favorable case for Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, which resulted in the separation of the English Church from Roman Catholicism. Mary Tudor had him roasted alive in 1556!*

J.A. Hobson - Imperialism: A Study (1902)

Hobson argued that *great financiers, who desired to increase their wealth through overseas investments, were the power behind imperialist policies.* They *manipulated public opinion to win broad support for expansion* and *used their political connections to induce governments to acquire additional colonies*.

Edward Jenner

If Lady Mary Montague were to be considered the mother of smallpox inoculation in Europe, Edward Jenner would be the father. For him, it began when he learned that maids who contracted cowpox (a similar, but much weaker disease) did not get smallpox. He studied cowpox and smallpox for eighteen years and eventually discovered a way to inoculate people against smallpox using the basically harmless cowpox disease. He is the reason kids of responsible parents get shots in the thighs and arms and don't die of smallpox anymore.

Henry VIII's wives

In 1509, Henry married his first wife, *Catherine of Aragon*. After twenty years of marriage, she failed to produce a male heir. In other words, she was defective and needed to be traded in for a newer model *(divorce)*! She *gave birth to Mary, who later became Queen.* After his split with the Catholic Church and his divorce of Catherine, he married *Anne Boleyn*, who *gave birth to Elizabeth*, but still failed to produce a male heir. After her miscarriage of a male son, Anne was accused by Henry of adultery and incest, and *executed*. His third wife, *Jane Seymour*, *gave birth to the future King Edward VI.* She unfortunately *died of an infection* after the birth of Edward. He married his fourth wife, *Anne of Cleaves*, after seeing her portrait (painted by Hans Holbein the Younger) and before actually meeting her. Henry found her to be ugly (he called her a "mare") and *annulled* the marriage before it was consummated. His fifth wife was *Catherine Howard*, Anne Boleyn's cousin and lady-in-waiting. Though initially pleased with his wife, he soon discovered her adulterous behavior with both the royal advisor and her former secretary. She was *executed* soon after. His sixth wife was a wealthy widow named *Catherine Parr*, a religious reformer who helped mend Henry's relationship with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth. She was basically his *caretaker* because he was so stricken with syphilis by this point in his life and his leg was oozing pus so smelly that it could be detected from a distance! Of course, that didn't stop him from trying to have another male heir! He died in 1547.

Ferdinand II (HRE)

In 1617, *he was elected Holy Roman Emperor*. His *deep belief and faith in Catholicism caused immediate turmoil in his non-Catholic subjects, especially in Bohemia*. He *did not respect the religious liberties granted by the Letter of Majesty, signed by a previous emperor, which had guaranteed the freedom of religion to the nobles and the inhabitants of the cities as long as they agreed to stop seizing Catholic property.* Additionally, Ferdinand was an *absolutist monarch and infringed upon several historical privileges of the nobles*. Ferdinand *defeated Frederick V at White Mountain* in 1620. After Frederick's flight to the Netherlands, *Ferdinand ordered forced conversion to Catholicism in Bohemia and Austria, causing Protestantism there to nearly disappear in the following decades, and he reduced the Bohemian Diet's (Congress') power.*

Nikon

In 1652, the *head of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Nikon, tried to reform the Church so that it would follow the Greek Orthodox model*. The *officials in the church followed his plan, but the masses of common people did not want to change their ways*. The *commoners were called the "Old Believers."* Nikon *decided to force the changes on the people*. Believe it or not, *Nikon's agents searched homes and gouged out the eyes of those with the wrong kind of icon* (religious symbol of the cross)! About *20,000 of the Old Believers burned themselves alive in protest of Nikon's policies, chanting hallelujah 3 times as they died* (Nikon demanded that the hallelujah be chanted twice)!

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

In 1685, *Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes* (see #10). *Louis believed that more than one religion could not exist and that religious unity was essential for absolute control ("one king, one law, one faith").* Louis XIV *destroyed Huguenot schools and churches and took away their civil rights.* The *Huguenots escaped France and settled in Holland, England, and America.* The traditional historical interpretation of the importance of this event is that the *removal of the Huguenots greatly hurt the French economy, since many of the Huguenots were craftsmen and businessmen.* Revisionist historians have claimed that the effect wasn't that great at all.

Invasion of Russia (1812)

In 1812, Napoleon launched a two-front invasion on Russia. 600,000 French forces marched towards Moscow and St. Petersburg, opposed by 200,000 Russian troops. The Russians successfully stopped the forces that intended to capture St. Petersburg, making the division headed by Napoleon himself the sole attacking force. Winning minor victories along the way, the French marched about 1,000 km into Russian territory, and met the Russian forces at the battle of Borodino. Napoleon emerged victorious, but suffered major losses and failed to destroy the Russian army. Following the battle, the French captured Moscow, and attempted to negotiate a peace treaty. The Russians refused and burned down most of Moscow, leaving nowhere for Napoleon's troops to stay. Napoleon was forced to retreat, having to march his army all the way back to France, and struggling with the harsh Russian climate. By the time his army returned, only about 30,000 troops remained. About 380,000 men died, 100,000 were captured, and the rest had deserted. It was a humiliating defeat for Napoleon.

White Terror

In 1815, the Ultras (royalists in France who wanted absolute monarchy) murdered about 1,000 former revolutionaries. They failed to make France an absolute monarchy, however.

Battle of Omdurman

In 1896, *Lord Kitchener* advanced into the Sudan and *fought the Battle of Omdurman* (1898). Though vastly outnumbered (52,000 to 26,000), the *Anglo-Egyptian armies had rifles and Maxim guns*. It was a slaughter. About *10,000 of the Muslims were killed and another 5,000 captured and 13,000 wounded. The grand total of Kitchener's losses? 28!*

Entente Cordiale

In 1904, *Britain agreed to a "close understanding" with France*. This *ended a period of 40 years of British "splendid isolation"* from the rest of Europe.

Ruhr Crisis

In 1923, *France and Belgium occupied the German Ruhr*, an important *mining and industrial region*, *in response to the German request for a moratorium* on reparations payments. *Laborers in the Ruhr stopped work in protest of the foreign takeover*, and the *government printed more money and pumped in funds to support the workers.* This *caused cataclysmic inflation* (4.2 trillion marks = one dollar)! It also *shook the confidence* of the average German. People lost their life savings, and the *sense of betrayal made them blame the Weimar Republic, the Western governments, the Jews, big business, and the communists.* In short, it *allowed Hitler to rise!*

Extended family

In Western culture, this refers to grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins. Until recently, scholars believed that the extended family was typical in preindustrial Europe, but recent discoveries have shown that most European families were nuclear. In an extended family, a newly married couple lives with either the bride's or the groom's family. They raise their children in the same house as their own brothers and sisters, who may also have their own families in the house. The family is a big 3 or 4-generation clan, and is usually led by a patriarch.

August 4 Decrees

In a dramatic all-night session on August 4th, one deputy after another stepped forward to propose, debate, and approve reforms including: (1) the abolition of the feudal system; (2) the exclusive right of hunting was abolished; (3) any kind of tithes and fees were abolished; (4) The sale of judicial and municipal offices was abolished; (5) Financial, personal, or real privileges were abolished forever. Every citizen paid the same taxes on everything; (6) Every specific privilege of provinces, principalities, regions, districts, cities and communities of inhabitants, either in the form of money or otherwise, was abolished; (7) Every citizen, whatever his origins, could hold any ecclesiastic, civilian, or military job.

Labour Party

It *replaced the Liberal Party as the main opposition to the Conservative Party in Britain during the 1920s*. *Led by Ramsay MacDonald*, the party *championed the working class* and was committed to *moderate socialism.*

De-christianization, Cult of the Supreme Being

It *took place during the Republic of Virtue*. France was *closing and selling the churches or using them for storage*. They *changed the calendar to get rid of the Christian months*. Robespierre created the *Cult of the Supreme Being, to believe in one God, and get rid of Christianity in France*. It developed only a small following, though. A *lavish celebration of the Cult took place in 1794, and it included the construction of a mountain on the Champ de Mars!*

Asiatic brown rat

It drove out, and eventually eliminated, the black rat from Europe. The Asiatic brown rats' fleas did not carry the plague well. This was most likely a major reason for the near disappearance of the Bubonic plague.

Peace of Utrecht (1713)

It ended the War of Spanish Succession between France and Spain with Britain. After 12 years of fighting, Britain forced Louis XIV into the Peace of Utrecht. Louis had to cede Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay area to Britain. Spain was also compelled to give control of its West African slave trade (asiento) to Britain.

Frankfurt Assembly

It had *830 representatives, mostly burghers* (German middle class), who met in Frankfurt in May 1848. Austria immediately opposed the Frankfurt Assembly because the plan included reorganizing the Austrian Empire. So, the *Frankfurt Assembly then excluded Austria from their plans for a unified Germany*. Since Austria was the leader of the German Confederation, this was pretty controversial! Over the summer of 1848, *Frederick William IV had strengthened his position, turned against the Revolution, and used military force to get rid of most of the liberal gains made in March and April*. The Frankfurt Assembly completed its work in March 1849. They: *a.* called for a unified Germany that excluded Austria, *b.* wanted a constitutional monarchy, *c.* demanded a parliament elected by all adult males, *d.* invited Frederick William IV to become the "Emperor of the Germans." *Frederick William IV refused to accept the "crown from the gutter"* (slam!) offered by the Assembly. Unification and liberalism failed...for now!

Viceroyalties

It is *the name given to the territory administered by the viceroy, a royal official like a governor. New Spain was divided into two of these.*

Price Revolution

It is a *term referring to the relatively high rate of inflation during the 16th century to the first half of the 17th century, with prices rising on average perhaps sixfold over 150 years*. Some historians contend that the *influx of huge quantities of gold and silver from the New World was a primary cause of this.*

Renaissance

It is a French word for rebirth. It describes the reawakening or rebirth of interest in the heritage of the classical past (Greeks and Romans). It started in the Italian city-state of Florence during the 14th century.

St. Helena

It is a rocky island far off the coast of western Africa where the allies imprisoned Napoleon after his defeat at Waterloo. Many historians believe that the British laced Napoleon's licorice with arsenic, resulting in his death in 1819.

Capitalism

It is an economic system that became dominant beginning in the late 18th century. Capitalism *includes private ownership of the means of production, the creation of goods or services for profit, competitive markets, and wage labor.* So, *businesses could charge what they wanted* for doing what they wanted, *pay their workers what they wanted*, and could run business the way they wanted it to be run with *zero government regulation ("laissez-faire")*.

Nationalism

It is similar to patriotism, except in the 19th century, it was almost always based on ethnicity. Basically, ethnic groups wanted to be autonomous or have their own countries instead of being ruled by multinational empires like Austria, Russia or the Ottoman Empire. It was very dangerous because various ethnicities living within those empires might get the idea that they should have their own nations and revolt.

Transubstantiation

It is the *Catholic belief* that the *bread and wine are actually transformed into Christ's flesh and blood.*

Consubstantiation

It is the *Protestant view* that the *bread and wine of Communion/the Eucharist are spiritually the flesh and blood of Jesus, but yet the bread and wine are still actually only bread and wine*. As Protestants would say, a piece of iron thrust into the fire does not change its composition but still has a differing quality.

Constitutionalism

It is the *limiting of the power of a government by a written body of laws* (a constitution). Unlike absolutism, it is a *balance of government power on one side*, and the *rights of the people on the other*. For example, when Richard Nixon claimed that the laws of the United States didn't apply to him because he was president, he discovered that the Constitution said otherwise and he was forced to resign the Presidency. In the case of the *17th century, constitutionalism meant that the power of the King of England or the stadholders in Holland was limited; they could not do whatever they wanted*. The *transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy was sometimes rough*, as monarchs didn't like to give up their power.

Confessions of Augsburg

It is the document that *states the beliefs of the Lutheran Church*, written in 1530 and accepted by the Protestant princes of Germany. It stated the *beliefs of the Lutheran Church*, including free will and justification by faith alone, and *refuted many of the practices of the Catholic Church at the time, such as monasticism, indulgences, and celibacy of the priesthood.* It *led to the formation of a league of Protestant princes against the Catholic princes and gave a set of beliefs for the newly established Protestant churches.*

Brunswick Manifesto

It was *a proclamation issued by the Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Coalition Army (principally Austrian and Prussian), to the population of Paris during the French Revolutionary Wars.* The Manifesto *threatened that if the French royal family was harmed, then French civilians would be harmed*. It *was a measure intended to intimidate Paris, but instead angered the French.*

Dutch Companies

It was *established in 1602 and given a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia*. It became the *major organ of Dutch imperialism*, and *within a few decades expelled the Portuguese from Ceylon and other East Indian Islands*. It was the *first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock*. The Dutch West India Company was founded in 1621. With full support of the United Provinces, it *transported thousands of Africans to Brazil, the Caribbean, and New Netherland.*

Excommunication

It was *punishment of an individual through suspension or deprivation of membership in a religious community*. If you were, it meant that your soul was damned to hell!

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Mary Wollstonecraft)

It was *written to eliminate the sexual inequality that persisted in the 1790s*. She *supported the revolution and opposed Burke*. She *called for the rights of women to be respected and that women have their dignity returned*. Women must be educated as equals!

Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

It was a *book written by French author Bernard de Fontenelle*. The book *made the discoveries of science understandable for the regular, nonscientific reader.* It *used simple everyday situations to explain the confusing matter of science problems. It was a normal conversation between two people*; it just happened that they were talking about the basics of astronomy. A little cheesy, but still effective.

The Index

It was a *catalogue of forbidden readings, which were considered by the papacy to be against Catholic teachings or dangerous to the hierarchy of the Church.* *Unless a Catholic gained permission from the church*, reading any of the books listed on The Index was *punishable by excommunication*. It was abolished in 1966.

Holy Roman Empire

It was a *confederacy (voluntary association) of over 300 individual states that lasted from 800 AD to 1806. It is also known as the German Empire, since most of the little states that made it up were of German-speaking people.* The *Habsburg family dominated* the HRE. The HRE was *torn by religious differences*, as the *south tended to be Catholic and the north Protestant*. And, the *Protestants were divided up into lots of different sects - Lutherans, Calvinists, Anabaptists, etc.*

Diet of Worms

It was a *meeting of the Diet (assembly) of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms, Germany, in 1521, where Martin Luther defended the principles of the Reformation*. Basically, Luther was put on trial for his teachings, and the Diet was the court. Emperor Charles V granted him safe conduct to a hearing at the Diet. However, *on April 17, 1521, Luther refused to recant his views*. Disorder broke out, the emperor adjourned the proceedings, and Luther escaped and went into hiding. The Catholic Church urged German nobles to condemn Luther, but instead he was not because the nobles sided with Lutheranism as a means to oppose the Holy Roman Emperor and the Catholic Church.

Declaration of Pillnitz

It was a *statement by the monarchs of Austria and Prussia that declared their willingness to intervene in France*. It was *expected to have a sobering effect on revolutionary France*. It *backfired, creating a lot of nationalism in France instead.*

Boer War (1899-1902)

It was a *war between the Dutch descendants and the British, ended with British victory, and Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal were united into the Union of South Africa*, a self-governing dominion of Britain.

Factory Act of 1847

It was a British law that established a *10-hour workday for all women and children.*

Enlightenment

It was a cultural movement in which intellectuals in 18th century Europe sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance human knowledge. The Enlightenment promoted intellectualism, and opposed intolerance and abuses in both the Church and state.

Enlightened Absolutism

It was a form of an absolute monarchy in which rulers were influenced by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs had embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, which they then applied to their territories. An enlightened despot allowed religious toleration, freedom of speech and freedom of press, and encouraged the growth of art, science and education. Voltaire was one of the leading proponents of enlightened absolutism. Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria and Catherine II of Russia were enlightened despots.

Hôtel des Invalides

It was a hospital in Paris for elderly veterans, which inexplicably also stored weapons! Following the creation of the National Assembly, massive crop failures led to famine and increased already high tensions. Bread prices rose, and as a result, mobs filled the city's streets. The fear spread that the king would retaliate with force, and rumors said that the King had brought soldiers to Paris to prepare to march to Versailles and break up the National Assembly. On the morning of July 14, 1789, a mob of Parisians, about 8,000, showed up to demand weapons. The crowd seized 32,000 muskets and 12 pieces of artillery. Now, they need to get some powder and some ammo!

Peasants Revolt (1524-25)

It was a series of revolts in which peasants, townsfolk, and nobles participated. It involved an estimated 300,000 peasant rebels, and an estimated 100,000 died. *The revolt began as a simple petition sent to the Holy Roman Emperor, known as the Twelve Articles*, on behalf of some German peasants, who sought relief from some of the particular oppressions that the German peasants were facing. *The Emperor ignored the Twelve Articles. Revolt broke out in late 1524 and soon spread throughout southern and central Germany.*

Corn Law of 1815

It was a tariff designed to protect British corn prices against less expensive foreign corn, following the Napoleonic Wars (when there was a surplus of grain). The Corn Laws increased the profit and political power of the landowning aristocracy, while raising the price of food for commoners. It has been considered one of the most blatant examples of class-based legislation in history, just after the Bush tax cuts!

Four elements

It was an *Aristotelian belief that everything on Earth was made up of the four imperfect, changing elements: fire, water, air and earth.* *Air and fire were known as "light" elements* and believed to naturally gravitate upward, while *earth and water were known as "heavy" elements* and naturally moved downward.

King James Bible

It was an *English translation of the Bible divided into chapters and verses. Completed during the reign of James I of England*, it is still the most popular English translation of the Bible today.

Battle of White Mountain

It was an *early battle of the Thirty Years' War, and began in November of 1620*. *15,000 Bohemians under Christian of Anhalt and Frederick V fought the combined armies of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and the Catholic League*. *Frederick lost and the battle marked the end of the Bohemian phase of the Thirty Years' War.*

Treaty of Tilsit (1807)

It was negotiated between the French, Russians, and the Prussians. The several terms to this agreement included Russia and France becoming allies, and it split Europe into different sections controlled by either nation. Prussia was stripped of half of its land. The land taken from them was converted into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which the King of Saxony ruled. Prussia was told to significantly shrink their army to 40,000 men. The treaties also created the Continental System, designed to stop all trade with Britain.

Simony

It was the *crime of paying for sacraments and for holy offices in the hierarchy of a church*. Pope Alexander VI, for example, infamously engaged in this by allegedly ordering the deaths of elderly bishops, so he could raise money by auctioning their positions!

Consulate

It was the *government of France between the fall of the Directory in 1799 to the establishment of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804*. *Napoleon was named the first consul, thereby establishing himself as the head of a conservative French Republic.* The *establishment of the French Consulate was also victory for Sieyès, who advocated for the new form of government, believing that the Directory was ineffective.* Over a period of five years, Napoleon was able to use the aristocratic Consulate to consolidate his power before naming himself emperor.

National Convention

It was the *government of France from 1792 until 1795*, during the most critical period of the French Revolution. It was *elected to provide a new constitution for the country after the overthrow of the monarchy*. Among its early acts were the *formal abolition of the monarchy* and the *establishment of the First French Republic*. Unfortunately, the *Republic became a police state, and the country was swept by the Reign of Terror, and tens of thousands died.*

The Third Republic

It was the *government of France from 1870-1940.* It: *1.* Legalized trade unions *2.* Made elementary education compulsory (everyone had to go) and funded by the state, not the Church. *This gave the state the power of indoctrination.* The *pledge of allegiance and the national anthem replaced the catechism!* This *encouraged nationalism and increased French pride.*

Constitution of the year III (1795)

It was the *national constitution of France ratified by the National Convention in 1795*. It *established the Directory and was in effect until Nov. 1799*. It *established a liberal republic, a bicameral legislature to slow down the legislative process, and a five-man Directory to hold executive power*. Unfortunately for the Revolutionaries, *only "qualified property owners" could vote or hold public office!*

High Church Anglicanism

It was the *practice of Anglicanism that tends to follow trends put forth by the Catholic Church, such as its traditions and ceremonies*. Followers of High Church Anglicanism believe that *any doctrine or tradition not specifically forbidden by the Bible is acceptable*. So, they were the loose constructionists of their time. This is the *form of Anglicanism established by the Six Articles.*

Treaty of the Pyrenees

It was the *treaty that ended the Franco-Spanish War*, signed in *1659*. *France gained territories along its border with the Spanish Netherlands* (Belgium today). *In return, France agreed to stop supporting Portugal against Spain and renounced France's claim to Barcelona*. *Spain was forced to recognize all of the gains earned by France in the Treaty of Westphalia*. Also, a *marriage was arranged between Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Spain.*

Parlement of Paris

It was the French court system under the monarchy composed mostly of noblemen who had the right to evaluate royal decrees publicly in writing before they came into effect. After Louis XVI's failure to acquire a tax on the land of the wealthy from the Assembly of Notables, he asked the Parlement of Paris. They refused and were dismissed. The King was then forced to assemble the Estates General.

Ancien Regime

It was the feudal social and political order of France before the French Revolution, where power rested solely with the nobility and monarchy, with the rest of the population at the mercy of the higher classes. The Ancien Regime included the political estate system. In this system were three "estates," or groups of people, under the law. The first and smallest was the clergy, with a population of about 100,000. They owned approximately ten percent of the land in France and voluntarily paid a small "gift" of money to the government every five years. Other than the gift, they paid no taxes. The second estate was the nobility, who owned about 25% of all the land. About 300,000 - 400,000 French were nobility. They were exempt from almost all taxes. They also had manorial rights, which allowed them to tax the peasants, done in the form of licenses to grant special rights to hunt, fish, bake bread, and make wine. They also had other special rights, such as being able to carry a sword. The third estate was everyone else, regardless of money or occupation. They included 98% of the population, or about 24.5 million people. This group owned about 65% of the land, but had no political rights and paid nearly all of the taxes. The third estate possessed no special rights and also didn't have power in the Estates General (which never met anyway - see #14) proportional to their numbers. Ruling all this was an absolute monarch who, in theory, answered to no one.

Consulate

It was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in 1799 to the establishment of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804. Napoleon was named the first consul, thereby establishing himself as the head of a conservative French Republic. The establishment of the French Consulate was also victory for Sieyès, who advocated for the new form of government, believing that the Directory was ineffective. Over a period of five years, Napoleon was able to use the aristocratic Consulate to consolidate his power before naming himself emperor.

Lady Mary Montague

Lady Mary Montague brought inoculation to Europe. Having been disfigured by smallpox in her youth, she was eager to protect her children from its touch, and heard about the practice in Muslim countries of inoculation. Her son was successfully inoculated, and she brought the practice back to Europe with her in 1722. However, it was widely disliked because one in fifty people died because of the inoculation, and people who had been inoculated were infectious to those not inoculated.

Lorenzo de Medici

Known as "Il Magnifico" ("The Magnificent"), he continued his grandfather's sponsorship of the arts and policies on behalf of the lower and middle classes. He also supported equality for women! (15th century!) During his time in power, capitalism began in Florence (private ownership of companies to make profit). He stopped the Pazzi Conspiracy and killed the entire Pazzi family in retaliation. At the end of his reign, the people turned against him, as a "holy man" named Savonarola convinced the people that his rule had led them to live excessively and against the spirit of Christianity.

St. Petersburg

Known as the *"window on Europe" because of its location on an arm of the Baltic Sea*, the city was *created by Peter the Great in 1703*. It became the *capital of Russia for 200 years*. Peter *ordered serfs to work for free for 3 months each summer to help complete the city*, and an *estimated 30,000 people died in its construction*; the city *has been called the "city built on bones."* Peter *hired German engineers to direct the construction*. Also, the *city was baroque - it has broad and straight avenues, houses in straight lines, parks, stone bridges, street lighting - it was a modern city*. The city was also *divided by class*; rich people lived in a section separate from the lower classes.

March Laws

Kossuth seized the moment! Hungary passed the March Laws, which: *a.* ended Austrian control over the Hungarian government, *b.* allowed the Austrian emperor to keep his title of monarch (King of Hungary), though he still had the power to handle military affairs for the empire, for example, *c.* abolished serfdom, d. established press freedom, *e.* promised Hungary a representative parliament and democratic elections.

Successful Revolutions of the 1810s and 1820s

Latin America, Greece (see #29), and Belgium (see #11). Spain lost all of its territories in Latin America while the Napoleonic Wars were waged. When they wanted to return, they were not allowed by the US's Monroe Doctrine, backed up by British naval power (because Britain wanted the trade with Latin America).

Louis Napoleon

Louis Napoleon won the election for President of the Second French Republic in December 1849. Why? *1. His name!* French romanticism had made his uncle Napoleon into a godlike figure. France wanted to return to those glory days! (They must have forgotten about the 16 years of constant warfare)! *2. Fear of socialism.* Louis Napoleon was no socialist. *3.* Louis Napoleon believed that the government should represent the people and should try to help them economically (unless they wanted socialism, of course). *4.* He argued that political parties and the parliament were corrupt and influenced by special interests (This sounds familiar!). He vowed to fight for change!

Brunelleschi

Many people credit him, along with Piero della Francesca, with the development of perspective in painting. He was an architect, sculptor, and an engineer. His best-known work is the dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore, the cathedral of Florence.

Karl Marx

Marx wrote the *Communist Manifesto* and *Das Kapital* with *Friedrich Engels*. He is the *founder of communism*. Instead of Hegel's metaphysical explanation of the process of historical development, Marx thought that *everything can be explained through economic struggle. Rich v. poor throughout history!* He felt that *class struggle explained history, and that it would inevitably lead to a dictatorship of the proletariat.* Basically, he believed that the* working class gets screwed by the man, but they are too ignorant and distracted to realize it.* Once they are *educated and achieve "class consciousness" - an understanding that they have common interests and are being exploited by the capitalist class (the "bourgeoisie") - they will revolt.* During the revolution, the *bourgeois will be overthrown, their property redistributed, and a workers' society established.*

Napoleon Bonaparte, rise to power

Napoleon *seized power in 1799*. He *left his home in 1785 for some brief and unsuccessful fighting for Corsican independence*. In 1789, he *returned to France as a dedicated revolutionary and French patriot.* He *rose rapidly in the new army, winning brilliant battles while commander* in 1796 and 1797. Napoleon soon learned that *prominent members of the legislature were plotting against the weak dictatorship of the Directory*. *Abbé Sieyès personified this revolutionary thinking, and he and his followers sought a strong military leader. Napoleon was ideal.* So the *conspirators organized a takeover, which occurred on November 9, 1799*. They *expelled the Directors and the following day they disbanded the legislature at bayonet point*. Napoleon was *named First Consul of the Republic, and his new constitution was overwhelmingly approved*. He soon *founded the Bank of France, signed the Concordat with the Pope, and signed the Treaty of Amiens with Britain*. 5 years after overthrowing the Directory, *Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France.*

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres

Napoleon I Enthroned

Grande Empire

Napoleon's Grand Empire was divided into three sections, the French empire with a portion of Italy, the satellite countries, or countries that were dependent on France and ruled by Napoleon's family or close friends, and the allies of France who were forced into their allegiance (like Prussia and Russia).

Grande Armée

Napoleon's army. With it, he conquered nearly all of Continental Europe. Unfortunately for him, it was destroyed in the Russian Campaign in 1812.

Empire

Napoleon's coup d'état and consolidation of power over 5 years allowed him to create the First French Empire. He pursed polices that pleased many of the citizens and affirmed his control, but his zest for war eventually led to his downfall. Many favored the rise of Napoleon, looking for strength and stability to replace ineffectiveness and the weak Consulate. The Empire lasted from 1804-1814.

"Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity"

National motto for France. Liberty represents freedom; equality stands for being equal in law and so to maintain a sameness of rules, status, rights, respect, opportunities and privileges that must be applied to all; and fraternity is associated with the idea of community, which is a body of people that share a common interest or purpose and is also associated with brother/sisterhood.

Development of science and mathematics (as an aid to navigation)

Navigation problems were a critical factor in the invention of many new scientific instruments, including the barometer, the microscope, the pendulum clock, the telescope, and the thermometer. Better instruments permitted more accurate observations and were also a main factor of the scientific revolution. Galileo, for example, saw his telescope as an aid to navigation at sea and over land, as well as to look at the skies.

First Peace of Paris (1814)

Negotiated among the Quadruple Powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) that defeated Napoleon, this treaty was very lenient toward France, kind of a surprise after France invaded just about every country in Europe over the past 20 years! Anyway, the statesmen were trying to create a balance of power and did not want to weaken France too much. Also, they didn't want to punish Louis XVIII for the actions of Napoleon. The treaty: 1. Charged France no war indemnity. 2. Allowed France to keep all the lands she had seized before Nov. 1792. 3. Returned to France lands seized by England. 4. Restored the House of Bourbon to power in France. 5. Gave Switzerland its independence. 6. Even allowed France to keep the artwork she had stolen from other nations!

Masaccio

One of the first great painters of the quattrocento, he is credited with creating the modern or "international" style. He was one of the first to use linear perspective, employing techniques such as the vanishing point. He is best known for The Tribute Money and Expulsion of Adam and Eve, and all of his works were religious in nature.

Utopian socialism

People wanted to *create perfect societies where the benefits of industrialization would be shared by all instead of monopolized by the wealthy few.*

Philip II and the Habsburgs

Philip was *probably the greatest of the Spanish kings*, and he ruled from 1556-1598. Phil *considered himself the champion of the Catholic religion*, and he saw it as *his duty to stop the Protestants*. Spain's *wealth was drained, as Philip tried to stop the Protestant Reformation, including in England, where his Spanish Armada failed spectacularly*. He was also *unable to stop the Dutch revolt against Spain* (Spain ruled the Netherlands until the 17th century). Philip's family, the *Habsburgs, ruled Spain, much of the New World, the Netherlands, Austria, and many of the German and Italian states.* Philip II's *father, Charles V, had ruled it all*, but *Phil and his uncle Ferdinand I split the Empire into Spanish Habsburgs and Austrian Habsburgs.* Unfortunately for Spain, *Philip's heir, Philip III, was a weak King - he was more interested in prayer than ruling.*

Philosophes

Philosophes is a French word meaning philosophers. Philosophes, in the 18th century Enlightenment, were intellectuals that studied philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues. The philosophes were critical of everything they learned so they could devise reforms. Some of the most famous philosophes include Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, and Thomas Hobbes.

Eugene Delacroix

Liberty Leading the People

Physiocrats

Physiocrats were economic theorists who developed an economic theory known as physiocracy. Physiocracy was the idea that the wealth of nations was derived only from the value of its land development. Physiocracy, the first well developed theory of economics, was popular in the second half of the 18th century, especially in France. Major physiocrats include François Quesnay and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot. Perhaps the most influential contribution of the physiocrats was their emphasis on the productive work of the people as the source of the nation's wealth. Physiocrats celebrated farmers because their work was improving the wealth of the nation. Physiocrats wanted to replace mercantilism with a free market, leading to the development of capitalism.

Cossacks

Many *peasants fled from their lords in Russia to freedom in the south*. There, they *joined free groups of people to try to stay independent from Russia*. During the *Time of Troubles, they slaughtered lots of nobles in an attempt to regain the freedom of movement for serfs and reduce their taxes*. They were *defeated at the gates of Moscow by the combined forces of Russian boyars.*

Plebiscite

More commonly known as a referendum, a plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. Napoleon held numerous plebiscites to grant him more and more authority. The French people overwhelmingly supported him in these votes.

Perestroika

Gorbachev's plan to *restructure the Soviet economy.*

Purging

Purging is the practice of using laxatives prescribed by an apothecary to empty the bowels. It was believed that regular purging was extremely beneficial to one's health, but really the opposite was true. Rather, purging resulted in only slightly less shortened lives than bloodletting did.

Anabaptists

Radical for their time, *they believed that only adults who were old enough to make their own choices about faith and had experienced an "inner light" could be baptized into the Christian community*. They believed in religious tolerance, pacifism, *separation of church and state, abolition of private property, and even allowed women into the ministry.* Anabaptists attracted the poor and unemployed. The Amish trace their origins back to the Anabaptists. *Catholics and other Protestants viciously persecuted the Anabaptists, especially because of their stance on separation of church and state and abolition of private property.*

Sergei Witte

Russia's industrial revolution really started going during the 1880s, and Sergei Witte, the *minister of finance for Alex III and Nick II, played a major role in Russia's industrialization*. Witte *put Russia on the gold standard, attracted foreign investment in the Russian economy, and began the construction of the Trans-Siberian railroad*, which runs nearly 5,000 miles from Moscow to Vladivostok.

Margaret of Parma

She was *ruler of the Dutch under Philip II of Spain.* She was the *illegitimate daughter of Charles V.* *Philip II wanted her to enforce the decisions of the Council of Trent and to use the Inquisition to stamp out heresy*. She *quickly discovered that events in the Netherlands would not allow her to successfully follow Philip's orders due to threat of rebellion. So, she suspended all of Philip's religious decrees.* Nice try, but unfortunately this *did not placate the Calvinists.* Also, *1565 saw a bad harvest, increasing food prices dramatically and causing unrest in the cities.* In August *1566, the Iconoclastic Fury broke out. Catholic churches, seen as bastions of the rich, were attacked all over the Netherlands.* In Flanders alone, 400 churches were attacked. Church *icons were destroyed and valuables stolen.* Alarmed, *Philip II sent the brutal Duke of Alba to "pacify" the Netherlands. Margaret warned Philip that Alba's iron fisted approach would be a catastrophe, and then resigned.*

Marie de' Medici

Since *Henry's son, Louis XIII, was only 9 years old*, *Henry's wife became the regent* (person ruling in place of the King). *She was weak, caring little about governing*. As a result, the *nobles, who had lost power under Henry, worked to regain their standing.* She *spent the surplus gathered by Sully* (who resigned in disgust) on her court and her favorite nobles.

Failed Revolutions of the 1820s

Spain, Italy, and Poland all had revolutions that were crushed by the Great Powers, excluding Britain. All three revolts were failures, showing that Metternich's determination to crush liberalism and nationalism was at least somewhat successful during the 1820s.

Francisco Franco

Spanish *Fascist* who *waged the Spanish Civil War against the Spanish Republic*, a leftist government which had been in existence only 5 years. Spain became a *testing ground for the new German and Soviet weapons, as each supported a side.*

Napoleon in Egypt (Battle of the Pyramids, Rosetta Stone, Battle of the Nile)

The *Battle of the Pyramids* was *fought in 1798, and was the battle in which Napoleon put into use one of his significant contributions to military tactics, the infantry square*. The *Rosetta Stone* was essentially *the key to the modern understanding of hieroglyphs*. *French soldiers in Egypt in 1799 made the discovery*, but the *British took the Stone when the commander of the French army surrendered to the British following a battle in 1801*. The *Battle of the Nile* was a *major naval battle fought between the British and the French, and the French lost.* Though *Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was generally unsuccessful, he returned to France before it was generally known, allowing his reputation to remain unharmed.*

Yalta Conference (Feb. 1945)

The *Big Three met again*. When they met, the *Red Army controlled almost all of Eastern Europe*. *1.* They agreed to allow the USSR to keep the land they had taken from Poland. *2.* They also agreed to free elections in nations liberated from the Fascists. Of course, Stalin ended up ignoring this provision! *3.* USSR also agreed to enter the war against Japan three months after the defeat of Germany. *4.* Germany would be demilitarized and divided into 4 zones of occupation (French, British, US, USSR). *5.* Berlin would be divided into 4 zones, too. *6.* The seeds of the Cold War were sewn - Stalin wanted reparations, to deindustrialize Germany, and to split the country into separate states. The US and Britain refused. *7.* The United Nations would be formed.

Seven Sacraments

The *Catholic Church's teachings*, which they believe are *signs of grace entrusted to the Church by Christ*, by which divine life is dispensed to us. They *include baptism, confirmation, Eucharist (Communion), penance, anointing of the sick, holy orders, and matrimony*. Luther accepted only two - Baptism and Eucharist.

Louis XVI - trial and execution

The *Convention brought Louis XVI to trial after he disregarded his promises to abide by the constitution and to be a constitutional monarch*. He was *charged with conspiring with foreign countries for the invasion of France*. Louis XVI had plans of flee France and obtain aid against the revolution from Austria. The King was *sentenced to death*. In January 1793, the *King was stripped of all titles, and was beheaded by guillotine.*

Bourbon Family

The *French royal family that began with Henry IV and ruled France from 1589 until 1848*. With the exception of Henry IV, *they were a Catholic dynasty*. *One of the three powerful families in France, they struggled to gain power*. After the death of Henry III's heir, a Bourbon named *Henry of Navarre was next in line for the French throne*. *However, the Guise wanted the throne, and Henry of Navarre was a Huguenot.* Using religion as a front, the *Guise did anything in their power to prevent Henry of Navarre from ascending to the throne, causing the War of the Three Henrys* (near the end of the French Wars of Religion). *Eventually, Henry of Navarre gained control of France through force, and through his conversion to Catholicism.*

Dunkirk

The *German blitzkrieg* (lightning war) moved quickly *through Belgium, trapping the Belgian army and hundreds of thousands of French and British troops*. The *Brits sent everything from sailboats to tugboats to ferry the soldiers across the English Channel, rescuing 400,000 men.*

Operation Barbarossa

The *Germans broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact by invading Russia in June 1941*. The quickly *swept across Ukraine and the western part of Russia before the Russian winter slowed them.*

Black Slavery

The *Ottoman capture of Constantinople* in 1453 (ending the Byzantine Empire) *cut off the supply of white slaves* from the Black Sea region and the Balkans ("Fun" fact: the word 'slave' derives from 'sclava', the latin word for 'Slavic', in reference to the name of people living in west-central Europe). *Mediterranean Europe was forced to look for an alternative slave source, sub-Saharan Africa. African kings and dealers sold black slaves to European merchants who participated in transatlantic trade.*

Siege of Vienna (1683)

The *Turks 2nd attempt at taking Vienna, they besieged the city for 2 months before the Christians were rescued by fresh troops.* The Christian *armies counterattacked, and drove the Ottomans out of Hungary and Transylvania* (where vampires killed thousands of Turkish soldiers). The *rout resulted in the addition of Hungary as a 3rd part of the Habsburg state* (Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary).

States General and Stadholder

The *United Provinces* (Netherlands/Holland/the Dutch) *became free from Spanish rule in 1648 at the Peace of Westphalia that ended the 30 Years War*. The Dutch had a *decentralized system*. While they did have a *national body called the States General*, the *United Provinces' sovereignty was held by provincial authorities.* The *representative from each province to the States General was called the stadholder*. The *most important of the 7 provinces in the UP was Holland, which was dominated by the House of Orange.*

Mercantilism

The *belief that a colony exists for the financial benefit of the home country.* It is an *economic theory stating that the prosperity of a nation depends on its capital, or wealth, and that the volume of global trade is unchangeable.* The theory says that *a nation should export more than it imports*, and it should *accumulate gold*. With the gold, the *nation raises armies to gain more colonies*. With colonies, the *nation can control a larger percentage of global trade*. This theory was the *prevailing economic theory until the late 18th century, when it was replaced by capitalism.*

Predestination

The *belief that before the creation of the universe, God determined the fate of the universe throughout all time and space.* Calvin *didn't believe people had free will because that would detract from the absolute sovereignty of God.* Instead, Calvin believed that *God in his infinite wisdom chose the eternal destination of each individual. Those destined for Heaven were called "Elect," and those doomed to eternal Hell were known as "Reprobate."*

Rationalism

The *belief that nothing was accepted on faith, everything was to be submitted to the rational, critical, and scientific way of thinking.*

The White Man's Burden

The *best example of Social Darwinist attitude* is *Rudyard Kipling*'s The White Man's Burden: Take up the White Man's burden-- Send forth the best ye breed-- Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need; To wait in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild-- Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half-devil and half-child.

Maria Theresa (Austria)

The *daughter of Charles VI, who was supposed to be protected by the Pragmatic Sanction from invasion, but wasn't.* In 1740, *Frederick II of Prussia attacked Austria in the War of Austrian Succession*. After eight years of fighting, *Prussia obtained Silesia from Maria Theresa. She then aligned with Russia and France in the Seven Years' War against Britain and Prussia, but accomplished nothing*. She was then *succeeded by her son Joseph II in 1765, though she continued serving with him until 1780*. Her accomplishments included *bringing the Church under her complete control*, and she *made everyone, including nobles, pay taxes*. She also *paved the way for her son, Joseph, to free the serfs, by reducing the power of the nobles over them.* Also, Maria Theresa was the *mother of Marie Antoinette*, the ill-fated future queen of France.

Franco-Prussian War

The *dramatic increase in Prussian power alarmed Napoleon III and French nationalists.* Sentiment began to build in France for a *war to stop the rising German threat.* Bismarck was delighted! *Napoleon III sent a diplomat to meet King William I at Ems, Prussia.* The *diplomat demanded a pledge from William that no Hohenzollern (Prussian ruling family) would ever rule Spain.* *Bismarck had attempted to get one of the Hohenzollerns onto the throne of Spain.* France was less than thrilled at being surrounded by Hohenzollerns. *William I refused France's request, and he sent a telegraph to Bismarck to tell him.* *Bismarck then reworded the telegram to make it sound insulting toward the French diplomat. He then released it to the newspapers!* This was known as the *Ems Dispatch*. It intensified feelings for war in both countries. *On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia.* The southern *German states joined Prussia in their military struggle, just as Bismarck had planned.* The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) did not go well for France (what war does?)! *Napoleon III was captured only one month into the war, and Prussia took control of Paris by January 1871*. The *armistice was signed in Versailles aboard a railcar that would later be used at the end of WWI*, when France got its sweet revenge!

Council of Trent

The *ecumenical (church) council opened at Trent (today, in northern Italy) on December 13, 1545, and continued through December 4, 1563. 18 years!* It was the Church's *attempt to halt the spread of the Protestant faith and to clean up some of the abuses in the Church that led to the Protestant Reformation.* These are the decrees of the Council of Trent: *1. It gave equal validity of the Scriptures and traditions as sources of religious truth* (unlike the Protestants, who put 100% of the weight on the Bible). *2. It reaffirmed the seven sacraments and the traditional Catholic teaching on transubstantiation (i.e. "We were right all along!").* *3. The sale of the indulgences was banned.* *4. Bishops were given absolute power over their jurisdiction. These bishops had to visit every religious house in their jurisdiction at least twice in a year in order to prevent absenteeism.* *5. Every diocese had to establish education for the clergy to eliminate clerical ignorance.* *6. It standardized the Bible Catholics read (Latin Vulgate Bible).* *7. It established The Index.*

Battle of Poltava (1709)

The *first major Russian victory in the Great Northern War*, it *took place in Ukraine.*

First Coalition

The *first major effort of many European states to contain Revolutionary France from 1792-1797*. *France declared war on Austria, and Prussia joined in against France shortly thereafter*. Many countries were *involved*, including *Spain, Naples, and Great Britain, to try to contain France*. *France drafted (levee en masse) and made their armies much larger*. In the end, *Austria signed a treaty and ceded Belgium to France, which ended the War of the First Coalition, except with Britain, who fought on.*

Michael Romanov

The *first of the Romanovs to rule Russia*, Michael *ended the Time of Troubles and re-established absolutism in Russia*. His family ruled until 1917.

Stenka Razin

The *greatest rebel leader in Russian history before Lenin*, Razin *led the Cossacks in rebellion against the boyars and Czar Alexis* in the late 17th century. His *motive was to "establish the Cossack way so that all men will be equal."* Razin was *captured in 1671 and tortured and quartered alive in equal parts!*

Paul Cezanne - The Card Players.

The *most expensive painting ever sold! $259 million!*

Noblesse de robe

The *new nobility*, nobles of the robe were *often judges and other administrators for the King.* They *owed their titles of nobility to the King*, and were therefore *loyal to him.*

Nobles of the sword

The *old nobility*, the nobles of the sword *could trace their lineage all the way back to medieval times.* They *claimed that their blood was pure* (i.e. not mingled with common blood), and they *were superior to all others, inherently (at birth)*. They *saw their power greatly reduced during the 17th and 18th centuries, yet still had many privileges, including exemption from taxation, the right to hunt on royal land, the right to carry a sword, and being generally above the law.* They greatly *resented the noblesse de robe.*

Interregnum/Commonwealth

The *period in English history between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II is called the Interregnum*, Latin for "between Kings." The *Commonwealth was the republican government that lasted from 1649-1653*. *Power was supposed to be shared between the Parliament and Cromwell, but in 1653, Cromwell took the title of Lord Protector of England and became a military dictator*. The *Protectorate was unpopular with the English people as people resented the severe moral code of the Puritans* (sports and theater were forbidden, as were card games and dancing, for example). *When Cromwell died in 1658, people were tired of stern military rule and they kicked his son Richard out of power in 1660*. The *Interregnum ended when Charles II was invited to return from French exile and accept the throne.*

Deductive reasoning

The *process of doubting everything possible to then produce self-evident principles*. Also called deductive logic, it is *reasoning that constructs or evaluates deductive arguments*. Deductive arguments are *attempts to show that a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of premises. The conclusion must be true if the premises are true.* An example is: 1. All men are mortals. 2. Mr. Carver is a man. 3. Therefore, Mr. Carver is mortal. Since each premise is true ("sound" in philosopher-speak), then the conclusion must be valid. On the other hand, *if a premise is unsound, then the whole syllogism (argument) is invalid*: 1. Everyone who teaches AP Euro is a genius. 2. Mr. Carver teaches AP Euro. 3. Therefore, Mr. Carver is a genius.

Czar Alexander II

The *successor to Nicholas I*, he is *known as "The Tsar Liberator" because he freed the serfs*. Czar Alexander II *recognized the need to industrialize Russia*. Russia still had serfdom, which tied the peasants to the land. *Hoping to free up a labor supply, Alexander II freed the serfs in 1861* - the same year the Civil War began in the US. *Conditions for the former serfs did not improve, however, because they were forced to pay for the land for their farms and didn't have money!* Many of the *serfs were forced to move to the cities because of their poverty, and there they became unskilled workers in the factories.* Alexander got what he wanted, and the people called him "The Tsar Liberator" because he freed the serfs. It *didn't take long, though, before the lower classes realized that their conditions had not improved.*

Treaty of Campoformio (Campo Formio) (1797)

The *treaty marked the victory of Napoleon's campaigns in Italy, the collapse of the First Coalition, and the end of the first phase of the French Revolutionary Wars.*

Napoleonic Code (1804)

The Napoleonic Code of 1804, also called the Civil Code of 1804, reasserted fundamental qualities of the revolution. The first was *equality of all male citizens before the law and absolute security of wealth and private property*. The protection of private property allowed Napoleon to *establish powerful private banks* that helped to serve the state's interests. The code also provided for *freedom of religion*, a reversal of the emphasis on secularism. It also *forbade inherited privileges*, thereby confirming the end of the nobility. Furthermore, the Napoleonic Code stressed that *public sector jobs be awarded based on merit, not through purchase of government positions*. Unfortunately, Napoleon, and his assistant Rousseau, believed *women to be inferiors*, so the Code Napoleon placed *women under the complete control of their husbands*. The Napoleonic Code was very significant because it firmly established a *viable legal system that could be respected and upheld by the French.*

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

The National Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) proclaimed the rights of all citizens and guaranteed equality before the law and a representative government. It is similar to the American Bill of Rights. Louis XVI stupidly refused to sign it.

Women's March on Versailles

The Women's March on Versailles happened on October 5, 1789 in response to Louis XVI's refusal to sign the Declaration of the Rights of Man. It was a protest by women who sought a reduction in the high cost of bread. The women carried pikes, rolling pins, spatulas, and butcher knives! They demanded that the King should remove his court to Paris so that he would be able to see for himself the plight of the poor. They were insistent and even took along a cannon as evidence of their commitment. Guards died. The Queen's life was put in jeopardy. The King acquiesced (as usual!), and the royal family was marched back to Paris to the Tuileries.

General Will

The belief that members of society agree amongst themselves to be ruled by the desires of the majority, or "General Will." The idea of the General Will was promoted by the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

National Assembly (Constituent Assembly)

The dispute over voting during the meeting in the Estates General led the Third Estate to break away and form the National Assembly on On June 17, 1789. It pledged, in the Oath of the Tennis Court, not to disband until they wrote a new constitution, eventually known as the Constitution of 1791. The king panicked and locked the meeting hall doors to try to stop them! So, the representatives walked down the street to a tennis court!

Schlieffen Plan

The idea of the plan was to *win a two-front war by first quickly beating France again in the west - the plan scheduled 39 days for the fall of Paris and 42 for the capitulation of France - before the "Russian Steamroller" would be able to mobilize and descend upon East Prussia.* The plan depended on Germany's ability to *invade France before France could fully mobilize its troops to defend itself*, and *then to turn on Russia, seen as the slowest of the three to mobilize, before the Russians were ready*. It envisioned: 1. *rapid German mobilization 2. *disregard of the neutrality of Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands* 3. *overwhelming sweep of the powerful German right wing southwest through Belgium and Northern France, "letting the last man on the right, brush the Channel with his sleeve," said Schlieffen*. Then, *with France secured, German armies would move to intercept the Russians in the east*. The plan very nearly worked in WWI.

Louis XVIII

The monarchy had been abolished during Louis XVI's rule, but the Bourbons were restored to power following Napoleon's exile to Elba. Louis XVIII took over as king. He ruled during the Bourbon restoration period, from 1814-1824. His government was a constitutional monarchy. The Charter of 1814 limited Louis XVIII's personal power. Louis went into hiding during the Hundred Days, but was later restored to the throne. Louis named Talleyrand Prime Minister. Louis' reign witnessed the White Terror. People suspected of having ties with the governments of the French Revolution or of Napoleon were arrested and executed, 50,000-80,000 officials were purged from the government. After the Hundred Days, Louis had to sign another Treaty of Paris, which retracted France's borders and formally ended Napoleon's reign. Fun fact - Louis was the last French monarch to die while reigning.

Hundred Days

The period between when Napoleon arrived in Paris after escaping exile on Elba and when Louis XVIII returned to Paris. When Louis XVIII's soldiers, sent to arrest Napoleon after his escape, encountered him, they deserted and joined Napoleon, then marched on Paris! March 20, 1815 - July 8, 1815.

Nihilists

They were *young revolutionaries who felt that nothing was sacred*, not even the czar! They, unlike the Populists, *would do anything to change the government, even kill the czar*. They were the *first real anarchists*. A *nihilist bomb killed Alexander II in 1881.*

Reform Bill of 1832

This Act: a. redrew electoral districts to eliminate "rotten boroughs." Rotten boroughs were districts that once had a lot of people living in them, but had since lost their populations to the cities because of the Industrial Revolution. Now, people in the cities had more say, giving the urban middle class more power. They were much more likely to be Whigs. b. all middle class males received the right to vote. This meant that about 1/5 of all males could vote. C. Women were expressly forbidden the right to vote, which encouraged the suffrage movement in Britain. D. The number of crimes punishable by death was reduced by half - to 100!

Ottoman Empire

This empire *controlled most of the Middle East, a strip of land all the way across North Africa, and the Balkan Peninsula* (Greece, Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Hungary). *Destroying the old Byzantine Empire* (Eastern Roman Empire) *in 1453, the Ottomans were a very powerful state until the 19th century*. The *leaders of the Empire were called sultans*, and the *most powerful one in history was Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled in the 16th century.* The Ottomans were *enemies of the Habsburgs*, and they *battled twice over control of Vienna, Austria (Habsburgs barely won both times).*

Concordat of 1801

This was an agreement made between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon. The agreement reasserted the Catholic Church as the dominant religion of France, thereby ending the emphasis on secularization through the Cult of Reason and the Cult of the Supreme Being. It gave Catholics in France the right to practice their religion freely. This agreement allowed Napoleon to gain favor with Catholics in France while giving him a political arm in Rome through restoring ties with the Papacy.

Social Democrats

This was the *strongest political party in Sweden and Norway after WWI.* Their brand of socialism *benefitted workers during the Great Depression by creating public works projects, providing social welfare benefits, and guaranteeing old age pensions, subsidized housing, maternity pay, and unemployment insurance*. It *increased taxes*, especially on the wealthy, which conservatives today claim would destroy the economy. Instead, the *Scandinavian countries thrived during the Depression.*

Republic of Virtue

When Robespierre was in power, the *de-Christianizing of France took place*. *Churches were sold and closed, and used to store arms and grains*. The *Cult of Reason was the new religion that replaced Christianity*. Robespierre didn't believe in it and created the *Cult of the Supreme Being, though neither really gathered much of a following*. Also, during this time, the *French Revolutionary calendar came about, which replaced the names of the months with names derived from nature (de-Christianized the calendar).*

Calonne

Yet another French finance minister (1783-87). Calonne also tried to save the French economy through progressive reform, including a universal (all classes) land tax, a system of free trade, and reduction of government spending. Unfortunately, the weakness of the crown and opposition of the nobility prevented any of these reforms from happening. Calonne was dismissed and exiled in 1787. He had spent even more money than Necker, bought two chateaux for Louis XVI, and increased the debt greatly.

(Nicolas) Poussin

a *French classicist painter*. *French Classicism is defined as the art and literature produced during the reign of the French King Louis XIV.* "...he believed that the highest aim of painting was to *represent noble actions in a logical and orderly, but not realistic, way*." (Pictured: The Funeral of Phocion)

(Georg) Händel

a *German-British baroque composer known for his operas and concertos*. He was born in Germany the same year as Bach (1685).

Dr. David Livingstone

a *Scottish missionary* who *spent 30 years exploring Central Africa* and *gathering evidence on African and Arab slave traders* because he wanted *to end the slave trade.*

Unitarianism

a *belief that God is only one being, a rejection of the Trinity.*

Constitution of 1848

a *bourgeois victory*. Instead of "liberty, equality, and fraternity" as the rights for all, it was *"family, work, property, and public order!"* It did *abolish nobility and slavery.* The 2nd Republic was led by a strong executive named Louis Napoleon.

Service Nobility

a *class of new nobles created to serve Ivan III*, the service nobility were *rewarded with land in return for their allegiance to Ivan and for military service.*

Herbert Spencer

a *follower of Comte's positivism.* Human society can be studied scientifically. He was a *philosopher of biological and social evolution - one of the biggest supporters of the evolutionary theory.* *Humans are always driven forward by the economic struggle determined by "survival of the fittest."* Obviously, the *poor are the weak and the rich are the strong.* Rich people are rich because they work harder and are smarter. Poor people are poor because they are lazy and dumb. Many people still share those views even today. Spencer is also *responsible for Social Darwinism - the powerful, dominant culture crushes the weaker, lesser culture.* Having respect for other cultures is a weak philosophy - we must crush the weak! This philosophy went along nicely with what the Americans were doing to the Indians at the time, and what the Europeans were doing in Africa and Asia during Imperialism.

Seven Weeks' War

a *horrendous defeat for Austria. Bismarck cleverly baited Austria into war: during a dispute in Schleswig-Holstein in 1866, Prussia sent in troops without notifying Austria*. Only one major battle to know: *Battle of Sadowa* (aka *Battle of Koniggratz*). At this battle, *Austria lost 45,000 men, while Prussia lost only 9,000*. Tremendous defeat for Austria.

Montaigne

a *humanist who believed the object of life was to "know thyself."* He *developed a new literary genre, the essay*. Yeah!!! He *wrote Essays*. Essays *provide insight into the mind of a remarkably civilized man*. He *writes about his disgust with the religious conflicts of his time, reflecting a spirit of skepticism and his belief that humans are not able to attain true certainty.* He is known as the *Father of Modern Skepticism.*

Jacobins

a *political faction of generally radically-minded people in France*. The Jacobin Club was the *most famous political club of the French Revolution*. They *opposed the monarchy, supported the death of the King, tried to de-Christianize France, and established the Republic.*

Mountain (La Montagne)

a *political group, whose members, called Montagnards, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly*. They were considered to be the *left wing of the Assembly*. They generally *opposed the Girondists party even though they had many similar ideals.* It consisted almost entirely of *uncompromising men of action.*

Skepticism

a *school of thought founded on doubt that total certainty or definitive knowledge is ever attainable.*

Jacques Necker

a Swiss banker and financial reformer before the French Revolution, Necker served as finance minister to Louis XVI from 1777-1781. He used massive amounts of loans in order to fund French participation in the American Revolution, driving the nation further into debt. He foolishly attempted to solve the financial crisis with more loans and more debt, which got him dismissed. He published the work, Report to the King, which detailed France's budget, including income and expenditures. While this was the first time such details were released to the public, it did not go down as the first time factually correct documents were published to the public. Necker forged most of the data so that it showed France as an economic power, when it reality France was heavily in debt from Necker's loans. He made up false accounts that more money was coming in than was being spent to assure the lenders that France could pay them. By viewing financial records, the French people began to take more interest in the way government was run and created their own opinions on how it should be run - one factor leading to the French Revolution. He was later reappointed in an attempt by Louis XVI to appease the nobles, investors, and holders of government bonds. Then, Louis attempted to send him away. The people were unhappy, since Necker advocated for doubling the representation of the Third Estate, so he was called back again (1788-89). Then, he was sent away again, and the people marched around carrying his bust before storming the Bastille in protest.

A fallow field

a field that has been exhausted, so the farmer allows it to "rest" by not planting crops there for a season. Fields were made fallow on purpose so the soil could recover. Needless to say, this isn't very efficient! It was replaced by crop rotation.

Cato Street Conspiracy of 1820

a group of radicals was caught plotting to assassinate the entire cabinet and Prime Minister Lord Liverpool. They then wanted to set up a government modeled after the National Convention in France! This conspiracy led to even greater crackdowns by British authorities. As the 1820s continued, Britain grew ever closer to revolution because of the reactionary policies of the Tory government. However, unlike France, Britain pulled itself back from the brink of disaster. New moderate ministers, especially George Canning and Robert Peel, helped encourage needed reforms and helped England avoid the revolutions that affected every other European nation.

Battle of the Nations (1813)

a.k.a. The Battle of Leipzig, this was a battle between the 6th Coalition and France. The 6th Coalition, made up of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Saxony, battled Napoleon's army at Leipzig, Saxony. Having a larger army and better equipment, the 6th Coalition easily defeated the French forces. Following the battle, the coalition rallied its troops and invaded France itself. Napoleon was forced to resign, and was exiled to Elba.

1861

all of Italy united except Rome, Venice, Trent, and Trieste. *Venice* became part of Italy in 1866 when Italy sided with Prussia against Austria in the Seven Weeks' War. *Rome* - was gained when the French became distracted by the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). It then became the capital of Italy (Oct. 2, 1870). *Trent and Trieste* - were still controlled by Austria. Those two territories were a major reason why Italy ended up switching sides during WWI to fight Austria and Germany. The *movement to acquire the two territories was known as Irredentism* (unredeemed Italy) during the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th.

Carbonari

also called the *Society of Charcoal Burners* because they met on beaches around charcoal fires! *Middle class group.* They *led revolutions during the 1820s in Naples and Turin*, but *failed*. They *did not have enough popular support* yet, and the *Holy Alliance put them down*. Most Italians just didn't care; only an educated minority did.

(Michelangelo Merisi da) Caravaggio

an *Italian artist whose paintings were noted for their sharp contrasts between light and dark and his realistic, even theatrical depictions of emotions and physical appearance.* His work did much to *influence the baroque style of art and baroque artists like Rembrandt*. His career was relatively short lived, as he *died four years after fleeing from Rome for killing a man in a brawl.* (Pictured: The Calling of St. Matthew)

Concert of Europe

created by the Settlement of 1815 that ended the Napoleonic Wars, the Concert of Europe was a group of European powers, including Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia, and France, which met periodically to solve common problems. Think of the Concert as a sort of pre-UN, except effective! The goal of the Concert of Europe was to suppress liberalism and nationalism.

Louis Philippe

he had taken over as King of France at the conclusion of the July Revolution in 1830. At first, he was known as the "Citizen King," but soon became scorned as the "Bourgeois Monarch" because of his support for rich capitalists instead of aiding the poor. When misery brought on by French industrialization inspired rebellious behavior among the working class, the King responded with military force and censorship of publications. Restrictions on public demonstrations led rebellious citizens to hold large banquets (yes, banquets - the French like to eat!). After they finished their crème brulée, they vented their rage at government policies!

Erwin Rommel

he was *called the Desert Fox*. He was a *German military genius who gave the British and Americans a hard fight in North Africa* (the Germans were there because of Mussolini's bungling and to try to prevent Britain from bringing troops and supplies through the Suez Canal).

Robert Walpole

he was a *famous royal minister* who became the *first prime minister*. He and his *successors all answer to the Parliament*. The prime minister *has executive power*, but *must have the confidence of the Parliament and be a member of Parliament or else be removed from power.*

Francis Rakoczy

he was a *great rebel leader of the Hungarians against the Habsburgs*. Even though he was *defeated in the early 18th century*, his *rebellion succeeded in keeping the Hungarians somewhat separate from the Austrian Empire.* They were *ruled by Habsburgs, but unlike Bohemia and Austria, Hungary kept many of its own institutions.*

Louis-Joseph Marquis de Montcalm

he was a French soldier most known for being the commander of the French forces during the French and Indian War in North America. He fought in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1738) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). Montcalm was killed in the Battle of Quebec during the French and Indian War.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

in August 1572, *the death of over 20,000 Huguenots occurred*. This then *led to more civil strife between Protestants and Catholics.* The *massacre began two days after the assassination of Admiral Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots.* A group of *men, led by Henry, Duke of Guise, attacked de Coligny in his hotel, stabbed him, and threw his body out of the window before beheading him*. Starting on August 23, 1572 (the eve of the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle with murders on orders of the king of a group of Huguenot leaders including Coligny), *the massacres spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks, the massacre extended to other regions. This massacre crippled the Huguenots, as many of their followers were either killed or discouraged.*

Secularism

involves the basic concern with the material world instead of with the world of spirit. Renaissance humanists emphasized this over spiritualism.

Letters on the English

is a collection of essays written by Voltaire. The essays were based on Voltaire's experiences living in England in the early 1700s. The book of essays was published in both English and French. Voltaire discusses English culture, society, and government and, in comparing it to France, concludes that these elements of England are better than France.

Agricultural revolution

is a period of farming advances that started in the mid-seventeenth century. It resulted in a dramatic increase in crop production and caused a population explosion. Advancements in agricultural technologies were made during this revolution. The technologies allowed more food to be easily picked from fields. The increase in production allowed for the growth of cities, providing a ready labor supply for industrialization.

Realism

it *replaced Romanticism*, and it was dominant in France from 1840-1870. Artists *reacted against the emotionalism of romanticism by focusing on subjects as they appear in everyday life.* A peasant was just as good as a Greek goddess for a subject!

Legislative Assembly

it was the *government of France from October 1791 to September 1792*. The *Constitution of 1791 created it*. It was a *constitutional monarchy*. The government was *weak because extremists from both sides worked against it* - *monarchists from the Right and Jacobins from the Left.*

Czechoslovakia

led by *President Thomas Masaryk and Foreign Minister Eduard Benes*, this country was the only nation in Eastern Europe to remain a *democracy after 1930*. Despite pressure from Germans living in the western part of the country, known as the *Sudetenland*, Czechoslovakia remained *strong until Britain and France at the Munich Conference sold them out in 1938.*

Putting-out System

merchant capitalists and rural workers worked together. First, merchants loaned raw materials to cottage workers. Cottage workers took the raw materials back to their homes and made finished products. The merchants then paid the workers for their work by the piece. The merchants proceeded to sell the finished products at the market. A major weakness was that the merchants could not rely on their supply of product, since the cottage workers labored at their own pace and at their leisure.

Jean Francois Millet

painted landscapes. Many works are of peasants in the fields. *The Gleaners*, a painting showing women gathering scraps of grain in the fields, is his *best-known work.*

Mestizos

part white and part Native American. On the social hierarchy, they were below whites, but above Native Americans, mulattoes (part black, part European), and Africans. Mestizos could become considered as white if they accumulated enough wealth and power.

The Creoles

people of Spanish blood born in America. The most wealthy and influential were called the Creole Elite.

Honore Daumier

realist *painter and caricaturist.* Used *everyday themes and showed social protest.* The caricatures *criticized the corrupt French government and the hypocrisy of the middle class.* *Third Class Carriage* is his most famous work.

Cape Colony

the *British acquired the Cape during the Napoleonic Wars*. During the *1820s, British settlers moved in and immediately came into conflict with the Boers.*

Benjamin Disraeli

the *Conservative Party leader in the Commons in the 1860s during the reign of Queen Victoria*, he decided that it would be politically wise to *push for the adoption of a new reform bill before the Liberals did*. So, they *passed the Reform Bill of 1867*. This granted the *right to vote to nearly all of Britain's male industrial workers.* Interestingly, the tactic did not work. From *1874-1880, Disraeli was the Prime Minister.* The *Conservatives passed laws* to further *regulate the factories*, expanded the *role of the government in public sanitation* through the *Public Health Act of 1875*, and *cleared out the slums* and *built public housing* in the *Artisans Dwelling Act of 1875.*

Weimar Republic

the *first democratic government in German history*, it lasted from *1919-1933*. It was doomed from the start because *German militarists hated it for agreeing to the Treaty of Versailles*, which heavily *punished Germany* for WWI by making them *pay huge reparations* and by *blaming them for the war*. The *reparations destroyed the German economy.*

Weimar Republic

the *first democratic government in German history*, it lasted from *1919-1933*. It was doomed from the start because *German militarists hated it for agreeing to the Treaty of Versailles, which heavily punished Germany for WWI* by making them pay *huge reparations* and by *blaming them* for the war. The *reparations destroyed the German economy*. The *Weimar Republic paid the annual reparation bill in 1921*, but due to rampant inflation, was *unable to pay in 1922*. They *asked for a 3-year moratorium* on payments. The *French weren't having it*!

Battle of the Bulge (Dec. 1944)

the *last serious German offensive of the war*. *Germans almost broke through to separate Allied lines, but the Americans stopped them.*

Helmut Kohl

the *leader of West Germany from 1982-1990* and *of a reunited Germany from 1990-1998*. He *oversaw a great economy, collapse of the Berlin Wall, and reunification of Germany.* He also *worked with French President Mitterand on the Maastricht Treaty.*

Girondists

the *more moderate and conservative political faction at the Legislative Assembly*. The Girondists were *mainly theorists and thinkers*. The Girondists tended to *support a constitutional monarchy and opposed the execution of Louis XVI*. They also *tended to be from the provinces and not urban areas.*

Junkers

the *name given to nobles and landowners in Prussia.* They *had the power of taxation taken away from them by the Great Elector and allowed him to become an absolutist.*

Phony War

the *period of time between the German invasion of Poland (Sept. 1, 1939) and April 1940. It ended with the German invasion of France.*

Hohenzollern

the *ruling family of Brandenburg-Prussia.*

Claude Monet

the *term "impressionism" came from his painting, Impression Sunrise*. Painted a lot of *landscapes*. Painted the *same subjects over and over so that he could show the effects of the changes of light, time, and seasons.*

June Days Revolt

the *workers in Paris weren't too happy about the closure of the workshops.* They revolt! This *resulted in street combat (more barricades!) between workers and government soldiers.* *1,500 workers and 1,000 soldiers died, and 15,000 people were sent to prison in Algeria.* The fighting lasted from June 23 to June 25, 1848.

Teheran Conference (1943)

the Big Three (*FDR, Churchill, and Stalin) agreed to punish Germans for war crimes and agreed to D-Day.*

Second French Republic

the First French Republic was the National Convention, during the French Revolution. This 2nd Republic was meant to be permanent. The rebels had succeeded in getting rid of the King and establishing a government. Unfortunately, after they got what they wanted, some of them wanted more! The *2nd Republic split into 2 parties - Moderate Republicans and Radical Republicans.* The Moderates thought that the revolution was over and that the mobs should have been happy with what they got. The Radicals, on the other hand, believed that the revolution wasn't finished, as the rich still owned everything. They wanted socialism! *So, basically the difference between them was that the Moderates wanted political, but not economic, equality, while the Radicals wanted both*. The Moderate Republicans were alarmed! They (the peasants and bourgeois) had something to lose - their property! Socialists want to share all wealth and property, which the Moderates didn't like one bit! *Moderates were led by the statesman Lamartine.* *Radical Republicans were led by Louis Blanc.* He was a socialist and created the workshops. The *workshops were designed to give unemployed people jobs, especially in the cities. The workshops became centers of radical political activity.* Bourgeois and peasants both decided to do something about the workshops! When elections were held for the new National Assembly in April, Moderates won a resounding victory. They then ordered the workshops to be shut down. This *led to the June Days Revolt.*

Fronde

the Fronde was a *series of civil wars in France from 1648-52.* "Fronde" means "slingshot" - poor kids in the streets threw mud and stones at the carriages of the rich as they passed. The event *began in 1643, when the Parlement of Paris met.* This *group of nobles called for the abolition of the intendant system, a habeas corpus law (the right of the accused to be informed of charges against him), and the right to approve of taxes raised by the King.* This *would have severely limited the King's power and made France a constitutional, instead of an absolute, monarchy*. So, *Mazarin arrested the leaders of the Parlement of Paris. This led to the civil wars.* *Peasants, angered by high taxes, joined the revolt of the nobles against royal authority.* The *nobles sought to use the peasants to gain power*, but the *civil war quickly spiraled out of control and civil order collapsed completely.* The *nobles realized that they had more in common with the King than with the dangerous peasants; they preferred absolute monarchy to anarchy and sided with the King to end the Fronde.* The Fronde was *significant because: 1. It badly disrupted French trade and the economy.* 2. It *traumatized young Louis XIV, who was treated roughly by nobles* -they invaded his bedchamber several times - a fact he would never forget.

Marie Antoinette

the fifteenth child of Maria Theresa of Austria, Marie married Louis XVI and became queen of France at the age of fourteen. As queen, she didn't have any real duties. Doing foolish things like playing dress-up with her ladies-in-waiting upset the French people who were forced to live in extreme poverty. Rumors about the queen circulated the country in pamphlets and newspapers. The people of France loathed her for her frivolous and immoral behavior. She was involved in the diamond necklace affair, a scandal that involved a cardinal, a diamond necklace, and a prostitute who posed as the queen. This scandal tarnished the monarchy's reputation. During Marie Antoinette's rule, France was in debt, partly because of the assistance France provided the colonists during the American Revolution. As conditions worsened for the French people, they blamed it on Marie Antoinette because of her lavish spending habits, especially on clothing. Later, in 1789, when the Parisian women marched to Versailles to get bread, Marie became the focal point of their anger. The women who invaded the royal apartments looking for her said, "We are going to cut off her head, tear out her heart, fry her liver, and that won't be the end of it." Though they didn't manage to kill her, their actions forced the king, the queen, and their son to move out of Versailles and to Paris. Also known as Madame Deficit and the Austrian *****, she was a foreigner in a notoriously xenophobic nation. The women of France especially despised her, as she spent lavishly on royal luxuries, gambled excessively and greatly reduced the French treasury. She appeared to be completely unaware of the famine and economic hardship that her people faced. When asked about famine in France, she is said to have replied, "Let them eat cake." She probably never said this, but it demonstrates how oblivious she was to the plight of the poor. After French rebels took the king and queen hostage and moved them back to Paris in 1789, political turmoil led the French people to suspect her of treason and eventually behead both her and her husband.

Second Estate

the political class of the noblemen in France. It was made up of about 400,000 people.

Assignats

they were printed as certificates to represent the value of the church lands that had been seized, but soon evolved into the legal tender of France during the Revolution. Unfortunately, the assignat became virtually worthless after the government printed too many, causing widespread inflation.

Slave tax and Janissary Corps

when the *armies of the sultan captured new lands*, the *sultan levied a slave tax whereby the local population had to give a certain number of their Christian boys away.* The *Balkan Peninsula gave between 1,000 and 3,000 male Christians each year!* The *boys were taken back to Turkey and trained to be soldiers or officials in the government.* The *bright ones worked in the government, the rest became soldiers.* The Christian boys who became *soldiers formed the sultan's army, known as the Janissary Corps.*

Gustave Droz

wrote *Mr., Mrs., and Baby* (en français, "Monsieur, Madame, et Bébé"). He believed that *love within a marriage is the key to happiness.* He encouraged *women to follow their hearts and marry someone close to their own age* (very rare in those days of arranged marriages). His ideas brought *sexual freedom for French women.* He also *urged fathers to begin acting like a father, and get close to their kids and play with them.* Many men could learn from Droz even today!

Pope Pius V

Pope from 1566 to 1572. He *stood against nepotism, and rebuked Pope Pius IV to his face when he tried to make a 13- year-old member of his family a cardinal*. He *made an alliance of the Catholic states called the Holy League, and excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for the persecution of English Catholics.*

Portrait of Emperor Charles V - Titian

Red Carpet. The painting won't load.

Munich Conference

Sept. 1938. *Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, and Mussolini met in Munich to discuss the Sudetenland, which Germany wanted to take from Czechoslovakia*. *Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were not invited*. Hitler said that he "wanted no Czechs," leading *Daladier and Chamberlain to tell their citizens that the Munich agreement had secured a "peace in our time."* *Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia six months later, proving appeasement to be a failure.*

Calendar

The *French revolutionary calendar was created and implemented during the French Revolution and the de-Christianization of France*. The *months were changed to names derived from nature, instead of the names used in Christian calendars*. Each *week had 10 days*, and each *month had three weeks*. Even *hours were changed - the day was 10 hours long*! The hour was *broken into 100 decimal minutes, and minutes were made up of 100 decimal seconds.*

Duke of Olivares

The *actual ruler of Spain during the reign of the pathetic Philip IV*, he *attempted reforms and tried to gain new sources of revenue*, but was *dragged into the Thirty Years War and a war with France.*

French classicism

The *reign of Louis XIV is considered the Golden Age of France.* Louis was a great sponsor of the arts. *Classicism was the French equivalent to the Renaissance in Italy - realism and attention to detail was very important.* Also, themes of the art tended to be classical (Greek and Roman) themes, just like the Renaissance. *After Louis became King, classicism was used to glorify the state (France).*

Mongol Yoke

The *rule of the Mongols for 2 centuries over Russia.*

Danish phase

The *second phase of the 30 Years' War*, it happened from *1625-1629*, and *began when Christian IV of Denmark led an army against the imperial forces of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II*. *Christian, a Protestant, was concerned about growing Catholic power in northern Germany*. *Ferdinand II employed Albrecht von Wallenstein, who had an army ranging from 30,000-100,000 men, to fight the Lutheran armies*. The *Catholic army was way too powerful for the Lutherans, and the Protestants were defeated quickly*. The *Danish Phase was concluded in 1629 by the Treaty of Lubeck*, which *allowed Christian IV to keep control of Denmark if he abandoned his support for the Protestant German states.*

New Monarchs

Some scholars refer to Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and Isabella as this. They were 15th century monarchs who unified their nations and created stable, centralized governments. They accomplished this by emphasizing royal majesty and royal sovereignty, arguing that monarchy was the one institution that linked all classes and all people, and by ruthlessly suppressing opposition and rebellion, especially from the nobility.

Miguel de Cervantes

Spanish writer, most famous for his book Don Quixote, which describes the fabric of 16th century Spanish society. In the book, Don Quixote, the main character, lives in a world of dreams, traveling the countryside seeking military glory. The book is hailed as one of the best fiction books ever written.

Tennis Court Oath

The Oath was a pledge signed by the members of the Third Estate who vowed to continue meeting until they created a constitution for France, known as the Constitution of 1791. The Oath signified the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI. By meeting, they defied his wishes.

Pazzi Conspiracy

The Pazzi family was a Florentine family who tried to overthrow the Medici by murdering Lorenzo. The plot was even supported by Pope Sixtus IV. The assassination attempt was made during High Mass on April 26, 1478 at the Cathedral of Florence. Lorenzo's brother, Giuliano, was stabbed 19 times and killed by a gang that included a priest! Lorenzo managed to narrowly escape. The people of Florence rallied to the Medici and the conspirators were pursued. Many Pazzi were killed by the Florentine mobs, the rest were hunted down and killed by the Medici. The failure of the conspiracy led to a 2-year war between Florence and the papacy. It also increased Lorenzo's power because the people supported him.

Theodore Gericault

The Raft of the Medusa

Adam Smith

Adam Smith was a Scottish social philosopher and a key figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. His most famous works include The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The work, which is usually referred to as the abbreviated The Wealth of Nations, was his most influential work and is today called the first modern work of economics. Smith is given credit for being the father of modern economics and capitalism.

Nationalism - tricolore, "La Marseillaise", Levee en masse

During the revolution in France, the people were very patriotic. The national anthem (La Marseillaise) was created in 1795 during the revolution. The Flag of France was created with the three colors: red, white, and blue. Levee en masse refers to the draft and was meant for all able-bodied men to rally to defend France.

Jean Lamarck

French *botanist and invertebrate zoologist.* He *formulated one of the earliest theories of evolution. Believed that animals are arranged in one continuous scale.*

Sack of Rome

In 1527, *Emperor Charles V captured and looted Rome.* This was seen by many as a *judgment of God against the behavior of the Renaissance popes.* After the death of Pope Clement VII, Pope Paul III began needed reforms.

Frederick V

In 1618, *the Protestant estates of Bohemia rebelled against the Holy Roman Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II, threw his ministers out a window, and offered the crown of Bohemia to Frederick V, choosing him since he was the leader of the Protestant Union*, a military alliance founded by his father. *Frederick duly accepted the crown, which triggered the outbreak of the Thirty Years War*. He is *nicknamed the "Winter King" because he only held the kingship until 1620, when he was forced out of power when the Bohemian Protestants lost the Battle of White Mountain.*

Illegitimacy explosion

In the second half of the eighteenth century, the former pattern of late marriage and marriage before childbirth began to break down. Previously, it wasn't necessarily that couples weren't having sex outside of marriage. In fact, a lot of them were. They almost always got married before the child was born, though. Then, between 1750 and 1850 that all changed. Illegitimate births in places like Frankfurt, Germany, rose from approximately two percent of all births in the early 1700s to twenty-five percent in 1850. This was because fewer young women abstained from premarital sex, and fewer young men had the sense of duty to marry the poor lasses they got pregnant. Love 'em and leave 'em! Because of the cottage industries, young people didn't have to wait for their parents to kick the bucket before they could have their independence and financial stability. Also, young people in cities did not face the pressure to conform to the old rules of morality.

Lord Castlereagh

Representing Britain, he had no territorial ambitions in continental Europe, unlike all the other powers. So, he served as a sort of mediator. He was much more moderate than Alexander and Metternich.

Dutch tolerance

Unlike any other country in Europe, the *UP had a very liberal policy toward religious tolerance*. Because the *UP was an urban society, it was more tolerant of religious dissent. Even Jews prospered in the Netherlands in the 17th century* - a unique occurrence. As a result, the *UP became the most metropolitan country on earth.*

Czechoslovakia, 1968

("Prague Spring") The *Czechs tried to break free from Soviet control*. *Led by Alexander Dubček*, reformists wanted "socialism with a human face." In *March, they 1. ended government censorship 2. reduced the power of the security police 3. operated the Communist Party democratically 4. and offered Czechs the right to form noncommunist parties*. The *Soviets invaded in August, crushing the movement.*

1st Balkan Crisis

(*a.k.a. Bosnian Crisis*) 1908-09. *Austria and Russia had entered into a secret agreement* (yes, I know that's confusing after what I just wrote, but hey, it's politics). *Austria would annex Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Russians would support them*. In return, *Russia would gain control of the Dardanelles* (straits that connect the Black Sea to the Mediterranean) *with Austrian support*. Meanwhile, *Serbia had wanted to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina for itself* since many Slavs lived there. *Serbia did not know about the secret agreement*. *Austria annexed B and H, but then refused to support Russian control of the Dardanelles*! *Germany stepped in to support Austria*, or Russia almost certainly would have invaded Austria. *Russia and Serbia were very angry with Austria as a result of this incident*. Serbian *nationalist groups such as the Black Hand began to secretly receive support from the Serbian state to terrorize Austria.*

Louis XI

(1423-1483). He was a tough, cynical, and calculating ruler, continually pursuing more power. He preferred to be feared rather than loved in order to be secure. Scholars have given him credit for laying the foundation of French absolutism (centralized control of the country). He was assisted in his centralization efforts by the death of many of the nobles by the end of the disastrous Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). His nickname was "The Spider" because of his behind the scenes plotting and intrigue.

Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

(1520) Luther argued that *papal power in Germany needed to end in order for the Catholic Church in Germany to reform*. Martin Luther urged the princes to *confiscate ecclesiastical wealth, end the selling of indulgences, and eliminate dispensations, pardons, and clerical celibacy*. His appeal to German patriotism earned him the support of the princes.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

(1632-1723) Anton discovered bacteria, free-living and parasitic microscopic protists, sperm cells, blood cells, microscopic nematodes and rotifers.

English Civil War

(1642-49). The *war concerned two major issues - religion and sovereignty*. The *supporters of the King were called Cavaliers or Royalists, and they were the wealthy landowners, Catholics, and the Anglican clergy*. The *supporters of Parliament were called Roundheads, and they were middle class, merchants, small nobility, Puritans, and the Presbyterian Scots who opposed Charles' efforts to impose his religion on them.* The *Cavaliers were named because of their expertise with horses*, while *Roundheads earned their name because of their cool bowl-shaped haircuts*! The *Roundheads were led by Oliver Cromwell* (see #43) *and his New Model Army*. In *Phase 1 of the war, Cromwell defeated Charles at the Battle of Marston Moor.* The *King surrendered 2 years later to the Scots, who turned him over to Parliament.* The *war then entered Phase 2 - the victors fought amongst themselves. The Presbyterian Scots wanted to set up a constitutional monarchy with Charles as King and Presbyterianism as the official church.* They were *opposed by the army, who wanted a Puritan republic.* Charles *took advantage of the disagreement and fled London*. In 1647, the *Scots allied with Charles, but they were decisively beaten by Cromwell at the Battle of Preston in 1648*. *Charles was again captured*. All the *Presbyterians were removed from Parliament, and the Parliament was known as the Rump Parliament, controlled by Cromwell*. In 1649, the *war ended with the execution of the King and the establishment of the Commonwealth.*

Carl Linneaus

(1707-1778) He was a Swedish scientist often called the *father of taxonomy*; his *system of naming, ranking, and classifying organisms is still used today* (*binomial nomenclature*). He was also one of the *first to describe food chains* and made many contributions to modern biology and ecology.

Denis Diderot

(1713-1784) He was a *French philosopher who edited the Encyclopedia* - The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts, which was a book that *included all the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers across Europe.* It was a 28 volume collection of all known knowledge of the time.

Baron D'Holbach

(1723-1789) He was a French philosopher who *wrote System of Nature*. In this novel, he *denied the existence of God*. This was quite scandalous for the eighteenth century, and *many people mistakenly associate the Enlightenment with atheism because of him.*

Captain James Cook

(1728-1779) He was a British explorer, and cartographer who rose to the rank of captain of the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland before making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, in which he made first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands.

Congress of Vienna

(1814-1815). The Concert of Europe met in Vienna to resolve postwar issues. The delegates of importance were Lord Castlereagh of Britain, Prince Talleyrand of France, Alexander I of Russia, and Klemens von Metternich of Austria. At the congress, they resolved a crisis over Poland and Saxony, guaranteed that France would not become a threat again, guaranteed Swiss neutrality forever, created the German Confederation, allowed Russia to keep Finland, and abolished the slave trade.

Peterloo Massacre

(1819). At St. Peter's Field outside of Manchester, England, about 60,000 to 80,000 people gathered to protest the Corn Laws and to make parliamentary reforms that would lead to greater popular participation in the government. Local magistrates panicked, read the Riot Act, and when that failed, sent in the cavalry armed with sabers. Eleven people died, and over 500 were injured, including over 100 women and children. This event led to...

Vincent van Gogh

(1853-1890). He was a *Dutch postimpressionist*(expressionist). Postimpressionists were *concerned with form, as opposed to light*. They focused on *emotion and imagination instead of realism*. He *painted Starry Night*. Other great postimpressionists were *Paul Cezanne* and *Henri Matisse*.

Max Planck

(1858-1947). He discovered that *matter and energy might be different forms of the same thing*. He is known as the *Father of Quantum Physics.*

John Maynard Keynes

(1883-1946). *Germany was forced to pay $33 billion in reparations*. At the time, John Maynard Keynes, perhaps the best-known economist of the 20th century, *wrote The Economic Consequences of the Peace* (1919). He stated that the *loss of Germany's colonies, the loss of the Rhineland and Saar, the loss of its navy, and the huge reparations all would lead to German economic collapse.* He was right!

T.S. Eliot

(1888-1965). An American-British poet, he *wrote The Waste Land* (1922) and *The Hollow Men* (1925). He had a *nervous breakdown while working at the bank, and while out of work, wrote The Waste Land*, one of the greatest poems of the 20th century!

Sergei Eisenstein

(1898-1948). He was a *Soviet filmmaker who advanced Soviet propaganda* during the 1920s-1950s.

Constitutional Charter

(Charter of 1814) It was issued by Louis XVIII in 1814 to preserve liberties won during the Revolution (and, frankly, to make it palatable enough to the French people to accept a king back onto the throne). It established a constitutional monarchy and a bicameral parliament, proclaimed religious toleration, and set Catholicism as the state religion.

Russian Social Democratic Party

(SD). *Despite government repression, radical movements grew during Nicholas' reign*. 1898: Russian Marxists organized the Russian Social Democratic Party (SD). 1903: the SDs broke into two rival groups - the relatively moderate *Mensheviks*, which means "minority" even though they were really the majority and the *Bolsheviks*, which means "majority." Both groups wanted to organize the industrial workers to facilitate a mass revolution. The *Bolsheviks were hard-core revolutionaries led by Vladimir I. Lenin.*

Coitus Interruptus

(a.k.a. "withdrawal") This was basically the only form of birth control they had during the eighteenth century. Not very effective! 27 times out of 100, the woman gets pregnant! Yikes!

Edict of Nantes

*Huguenots gained the freedom of worship, assembly, right to attend universities, and the right to maintain fortified towns for their protection.* This was put into law in 1598 by Henry of Navarre (IV).

Kulturkampf

(meaning "culture struggle") a *struggle against Catholicism in Germany*. Bismarck viewed *Lutherans as loyal citizens*, but felt that *Catholics were a treasonous menace*! He felt that the *Catholic Center Party was more loyal to the Pope than to Germany*. After all, if the Pope is infallible, as Catholics believe, would they obey the Pope or the Emperor? *Bismarck started the Kulturkampf to be sure that they followed the Emperor*! So, Bismarck: *1.* Removed all Jesuits from Germany. *2.* Passed the *May Laws*. All schools would be placed under government control, religious orders were banned (e.g. monks), and the state would conduct all marriages. *The Kulturkampf backfired*! The *Catholic Center Party actually gained more power and more seats in the Reichstag*. The *May Laws were partially reversed, but the state still controlled education and marriage.*

Collapse of Colonialism

*India gained independence in 1947*. France lost *Indochina in 1954*, and they lost *Algeria in 1962*. *Nearly all of French West Africa became independent in 1960*. *Nearly all of Britain's colonies, including Kenya and Nigeria, gained their independence between 1962 and 1968.*

Wladyslaw Gomulka

*Polish Communist leader* who *advocated independence from the Soviet Union*. When it became obvious that the workers and Polish security forces would support Gomulka, *Khrushchev yielded and gave Poland autonomy*. Gomulka *led from 1956-1970*, and *changed Stalinist policies to emphasize the production of consumer goods, abandon collectivized farming, and bring back the Catholic Church.*

Warsaw Uprising

*Polish people rose up to overthrow the Germans as the Red Army approached the city*. The *Red Army stopped, though, and Germans killed 200,000 Poles, crushing the rebellion*. *Warsaw was completely destroyed*. Then, the *Russians took the remnants of the city.*

Spiritual Exercises

*Written by Ignatius de Loyola in 1548, it called for self-discipline and good works.* Loyola *thought that people should go through a period of intense meditation and self-examination.* *At the end of that period, the person experiences unity with God through a surrender of his mind and will.* "What seems to me white, I will believe black if the hierarchical Church so defines." So much for free will!

Effects of the Revolution

*a.* Piedmont became the magnet for Italian unification movements. *b.* Mazzini's idea of a united republic lost support.

Soviet Propaganda

*all art forms were used for political propaganda.* *Sergei Eisenstein*: produced the film *Potemkin* in 1925 to support the Communists. Stalin did not like *modern art, and had its practitioners purged!*

William and Mary (Glorious Revolution)

1688 - *one of the most important events in the history of the world*. The *English Parliament invited the Protestant Mary, the eldest daughter of James II, and her hubby, William III, duke of Orange* (a province in the Netherlands), to *take the place of James II as monarchs of England*. *When William and Mary arrived in England, James II fled to France in exile*. Before the King and Queen were crowned, they *accepted as a condition of their crowning the Declaration of Rights* (enacted as the English Bill of Rights in 1689). This event is *momentous for several reasons*, including: *1.* It was the *beginning of the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy*. The monarchy had *gone from absolutism to constitutionalism.* *No longer was the King above the law.* This was a gradual event and was completed by the Glorious Revolution. *2.* The *Parliament*, though representing only the wishes of the wealthy in 1688, *came to represent "the people" as government came to be viewed as existing and functioning according to John Locke's Enlightenment concept of "consent of the governed."* (see #52). This view had a tremendous *effect on the development of the United States and republican government.* *3.* The *people received basic liberties in the English Bill of Rights* (see #51).

Decembrist Revolt

1825. After the death of Czar Alexander I, Russian liberals wanted his younger son, Constantine, to succeed him as Czar because he was far more moderate than his ruthless brother, Nicholas. About 3,000 officers and soldiers started the revolt, but were slaughtered by artillery attacks. The dead became martyrs for future revolutionaries. For example, Tolstoy's War and Peace is based upon the Decembrist Revolt. Unfortunately, the revolt made Nicholas I even more reactionary than he might have otherwise been.

Italo-Turkish War (a.k.a. Tripoli War)

1911-12. *Italy invaded Libya*, part of the Ottoman Empire, and then *proclaimed that Libya was its colony*. This defeat (by Italy!) *showed just how weak the Ottomans had become*. Others moved in for the kill...

Clover

A *good feed for livestock*, it *gave nitrogen to the soil, which improved farmland in Britain.*

Benvenuto Cellini

A Florentine goldsmith and sculptor, he is famed for The Autobiography. This book showed the emphasis of humanism on the individual. This new type of "self-absorbed" writing represented a sharp break from medieval times, in which people would not dare to write about themselves, but rather only the church.

Fashoda

A few days later, *Kitchener encountered a French force at Fashoda.* This kicked off a *severe diplomatic crisis between France and England known as the Fashoda Crisis.* Luckily, *war was averted when France decided to yield to the British*. This decision represented an *important step toward improving relations between the two powers on the eve of WWI.*

Corvee

A form of taxation through unpaid labor instead of money. It was generally required of peasants and middle-class people who could not pay normal taxes. It is different from slavery because the laborers worked a defined number of weeks or months a year, rather than year-round. The corvée was abolished in France shortly after the revolution, and is considered one of its major causes.

Inductive Reasoning

A kind of reasoning that *makes generalizations based on specific circumstances* and *arrives at a conclusion after observations*. Sir Francis Bacon, who believed that *direct observation was the way to discover scientific truth*, introduced it. He argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical, experimental research.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A law passed by the National Assembly on 12 July 1790 that subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the state. Clergymen were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the Revolution. Many refused (known as non-juring priests) and became counter-revolutionaries. It was a huge mistake that led many Catholics to turn against the Revolution.

The Twelve Articles

A list of German peasants' demands, it was drawn up during the Peasants' War of 1525. It *included demands that the poor should be able to hunt game and fish, get timber, eliminate the tithe (church tax) on cattle, and take the common lands back from the lords who stole them*. These rather simple demands were quite revolutionary for the times. The peasants insisted that the rightness of their demands be judged by Scripture and not by man. This derived directly from Luther's teaching that the Bible is the sole guide in matters of morality, not priests.

Francois Rabelais

A major French Renaissance writer, doctor and humanist during the early to mid 16th century. Somewhere between 1532 and 1552 he wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel, which on the surface is a story about the adventures of two giants. This book, though, includes discussions of religion, politics, philosophy, and education. He believed that institutions molded individuals and he thought education was the key to a moral and healthy life.

The Social Contract

A novel of political theory written by Rousseau. In this book, he shows his belief that people agree amongst themselves to be ruled by the "general will." An individual transfers some of his/her rights and freedoms for "the good of the society as a whole." Rebellion was warranted if the government failed to live up to the contract.

Reconquista

A period of almost 800 years from 710-1492, where Christian kingdoms took over the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims. It ended in 1492 when Ferdinand and Isabella's armies overtook the kingdom of Granada and united Spain.

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants

A piece written by Martin Luther during the Peasants' War of 1524-25. *Luther advised the lords to kill the peasants, since peasants were doing the work of the devil!* This was quite a shock to the peasants, who thought that Luther would side with them. *Luther had originally supported the peasants, but only in their freedom from the papacy, NOT from their political and social leaders.* The nobility went on to crush the rebellion, slaughtering thousands.

John Knox

A preacher who, *after working and studying with John Calvin, established the Presbyterian Church of Scotland*. The foundation of his religion in Scotland *resulted in a brief civil war that ended with Parliament converting Scotland from Catholicism to Presbyterianism*. *His Book of Common Order became the liturgical directory for the church.*

Emile Zola

A realist who wrote about the *life of the working class, the stock exchange, and coal strikes.* He *sympathized with socialists.* Wrote *Germinal, a novel about life in the coal mines of France.*

Caterina Sforza

An Italian noblewoman who was the illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Sforza, who was the duke of Milan. In her life she held numerous titles in positions of political power. She was a forceful and militant woman and always tried to uphold the military defense of her state. She was involved in a plot to assassinate Pope Alexander VI and imprisoned for a year.

Vingtieme

An income tax imposed by the Ancien Regime, it was abolished during the French Revolution. It was a direct 5% tax on all people, regardless of their standing in society.

Uraniborg

It was a *Danish observatory operated by Tycho Brahe*. It *cost 1% of the Danish national budget to pay for the construction*. That would be like $28 billion for a building today in the US!

Gabelle

An unpopular tax on salt. The tax was viewed as unfair because taxing a necessary commodity disproportionally affects lower class people. Of course, the nobles were "job creators," so they deservedly did not pay any taxes.

Turnips

They *started to become commercially farmed, along with peas, beans, and clover* as early as 1600. They were *great to feed to sheep during the winter, and useful with crop rotation.*

Second Peace of Paris (1815)

After the Hundred Days, the Concert was not as nice to France. France lost all territories gained between 1790 and Nov. 1792. They were charged a huge indemnity --700 million francs, and they had to pay for an army of 150,000 soldiers to occupy France for 5 years. And, perhaps most upsetting to the French, they had to return the stolen artwork they had plundered from the rest of Europe!

Alexander Pope

Alexander Pope was an English poet of the 18th century. Pope was known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer, the greatest Ancient Greek epic poet of all time.

Czar Alexander I

Alexander wanted Poland (then known as the Duchy of Warsaw). He felt he deserved a big role at the congress because he did a lot to defeat Napoleon. He ruled Russia from 1801-1825. He was extremely reactionary, even making Metternich look like a free-loving hippie! He said that the Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Napoleon were anti-Christian, and he probably even opposed birth control! He had zero toleration of criticism.

Fascism

An *antidemocratic political ideology* characterized by *extreme and expansive nationalism*, *alliance between the government and powerful capitalists and landowners to crush the rights of labor*, a *dynamic and violent leader*, and *glorification of war and the military*. It existed in *Italy, Spain, and Germany.*

Pan-Slavism

At the beginning of the 20th century, *Slavic nationalism disrupted the unity of the Ottoman Empire and the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary*. Both empires were in decline. The *Slavic peoples* (Czechs, Croats, Slovenes, Serbs, and many others) *resented Austrian and Magyar domination*. A nationalist movement known as *Pan-Slavism became very strong in the southern part of Austria*. This movement *tried to unite all Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, and Slovenes into one nation* (this did eventually happen after WWI - Yugoslavia). The *territory for this new nation would be taken from Austria*. Austria was determined to hold itself together and fend off Pan-Slavism. *Russia, a Slavic nation and anti-Austrian wanted to "help"* (by conquering them for themselves! Those crazy Russians!) its little Slavic brothers. This *created quite a bit of friction between Austria and Russia.*

Sigmund Freud

Austrian *physician and founder of psychoanalysis* (the method of bringing the unconscious mind to the surface). He *wrote The Interpretation of Dreams.* This work was an analysis of his own dreams and discussed his psychoanalytic technique. Freud believed that the *unconscious mind guides our behavior.* In other words, *our basic desires, which he called the id, drive us and we do not consciously realize it.*

Aristotelian world-view

Before the Copernican Hypothesis, Europeans believed in a universe described by the model theorized by Greek philosopher, Aristotle. *Aristotle had stated that the earth was the center of the universe and was at rest, with spheres containing the sun, moon, stars and the five known planets around it.* During the Middle Ages, *two more spheres were added to this model to make up for notable changes in the stars*. It was *believed that the spheres were perfect and unchanging*. The Europeans of the Middle Ages also decided to add some Christian views to the model and added that *God, Heaven and those lucky (or virtuous, depending on your religious sect) enough to be saved were beyond the spheres*. Aristotle also believed in just *4 elements- earth, fire, water, and air*. In physics, Aristotle said that a *uniform force moved an object at a constant speed and that the object would stop as soon as that force was removed*. These were the ideas followed and accepted by the people living during the Middle Ages.

Joseph II

Born during the War of Austrian Succession, he was *one of the sixteen children of Maria Theresa, in her effort to keep the Habsburgs going.* Quite an effort! He *succeeded his mother's throne in 1765, and held it until his death in 1790.* He was a man who *strived for a lot of reform during his reign*. He was *so radical for his time that he granted civil rights to Jews in his strive for religious toleration.* In his *Edict on Idle Institutions, he did away with contemplative orders, allowing only orders that taught, nursed, or did other practical work to exist.* The *money taken from abolished orders was given to charities or used to increase the salaries of priests.* He *abolished serfdom, and the nobility of Austria were now forced to pay their workers.* The *country descended into utter chaos, and, after his death, his brother Leopold II reversed a great many of the reforms that Joseph had established.*

Roman Inquisition

During the second half of the 16th century, this *Church court was responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of a wide array of crimes.* It was *comprised of tribunals (courts) that were developed by the Holy See of Roman Catholic Church*. *Crimes were heresy, sorcery, immorality, blasphemy, Judaizing, and witchcraft.* Intended at first to *combat the spread of Protestantism in Italy, but it went far beyond that purpose.*

Demonic View of Disease

Faith healers were still a powerful "healing" force during this period of time. People believed that illness was caused by an attack by a demon or devil that had gained access to the victim's body and was causing it harm. The only cure for demonic possession was an exorcism. This demonic view of disease was most prevalent in the countryside, where superstitions reigned and science was ignored.

The blank check

Following the assassination, the *Austrian government moved cautiously because Serbia was allied with Russia*. An *attack on Serbia would almost definitely lead to a war with Russia*. So, *Austrian Foreign Minister Berchtold first convinced the Hungarian part of the empire to support a war with Serbia*. Then, *Kaiser William II urged Austria to retaliate, blaming Serbia for the assassination.* *Germany told Austria that they would support them unconditionally*. This is known as "the blank check" - *Austria could go to war whenever they were ready because they knew they had German support.*

Louis Pasteur

French *chemist and biologist*. *Founded the science of microbiology, proved the germ theory of disease* (which improved upon the miasmatic theory that bad smells cause disease!), *invented the process of pasteurization, and developed vaccines for several diseases!* *Developed vaccines for anthrax, septicemia, cholera, diphtheria, fowl cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox, and rabies.* He single-handedly improved the lifespan of the average person by several years.

Louis XVI

French king during the French Revolution. In an attempt to raise funds to restore the French economy, Louis attempted to impose a general tax on "all landed property." He tried to get the approval of prominent members of the first and second estates via the Assembly of Notables (see #12), but they refused to endorse his plan, and instead called for tax reform approved by the Estates General. Louis refused these demands and established his taxes anyway. Judges of the Parlement of Paris declared the decrees null, and Louis, in turn, exiled the judges, rousing strong protests against the king. Eventually, Louis acceded to the requests of the nobles and in July of 1788 called for a session of the Estates General. That ended up a failure, and so he tried to reassert his absolute rule, which made him hated and eventually got him executed in the Revolution.

(Napoleon III's) Liberal Period

From *1861-1870, Napoleon III relaxed and became more liberal.* This period is sometimes *called the Independent Period (or Liberal Period).* He *allowed free debate in Parliament and relaxed press censorship.* This turned out to be a mistake, as *his opposition leader became the prime minister, but at least France was on its way to more democratic rule.*

Theodor Schwann

German *founder of histology*, the study of the structure of plant and animal tissues. *Applied cell theory to the evolution of animal life.* Did a lot of work on the processes of *fermentation, putrefaction (decay), and muscular contraction.*

Robert Koch

German *scientist who founded modern medical bacteriology.* He *isolated disease-causing bacteria, including those causing tuberculosis.*

Pragmatic Sanction

Habsburg emperor *Charles VI* had *no male heirs, so he wanted to pass his lands on to his daughter, Maria Theresa, but this had never happened before in Habsburg lands*. He was *concerned that other powers would try to take Habsburg territory if he couldn't get them to agree to respect his female heir before his death*. So, he *drew up the Pragmatic Sanction to state that Habsburg lands could never be divided and were always to be passed along to a single heir, even if that heir were female*. He *went all over Europe getting rulers to sign the agreement.*

Swedish phase

Happening from *1630-1635*, it *began with King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf) from Sweden, who invaded the Holy Roman Empire and turned the tables on the Catholics*. *Ferdinand II called upon Wallenstein and his army to fight the Swedish forces*. At the *Battle of Lutzen, the Swedes won, but King Gustavus Adolphus was killed*. The phase *ended with numerous Swedish territorial gains in northern Germany.*

Edwin Chadwick

He *began the Public Health Movement* (AKA the Chadwick Movement) in the 1850s, leading to *improved sanitation, the first sewer systems, and the first water systems* since Roman times.

Ignatius of Loyola

He was a *former Spanish soldier who founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits)*. He was the *author of* a great classic, *Spiritual Exercises*. The *exercises include meditations, prayers, and mental training, which are to be performed over 28 to 30 days.*

Moliere

He was a *playwright who poked fun at the bourgeois, female intellectuals, and the Catholic Church* (he was careful to attack individual church officials he believed were hypocrites and not the Church itself). *Moliere's greatest plays were comedies.*

Francois le Tellier (Marquis de Louvois)

He was the *secretary of war* for *Louis XIV*. He was *responsible for the creation of the French army* to *replace the private armies of nobles*. He *found creative ways to get people into the military* - passing out at a bar was a bad idea, for example, as many awoke as enlisted men in the military! He *also used criminals, mercenaries, and beggars*. He also *employed the draft, including the lottery system*. He also *created an ambulance system*, and he *standardized uniforms and weaponry*. Finally, he *created a "rational system of training and promotion."*

Giorgio Vasari

His fame rests on his book, Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (usually just referred to as Lives). The book is a series of biographies of the Renaissance artists, and remains an important source of information on their lives even today.

July Ordinances

In 1830, Charles X issued the July Ordinances to put the smack down on the bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies. He: 1. Dissolved the newly elected legislature. 2. Limited voting rights by taking the franchise away from the bourgeoisie. 3. Censored the press. As a result...

Anti-Corn Law League

In *1839*, the *Anti-Corn Law League was established in Britain*. The *middle class wanted repeal of the Corn Laws and free trade*. Industrialists Richard Cobden and John Bright were their leaders*. They argued that *reducing the price of food would improve the workers' standard of living*. What they didn't say was that *reducing the price of food would allow the industrialists to lower wages, thereby making more profit themselves*! What great humanitarians! In *1846, Parliament voted to repeal the Corn Laws and established free trade.*

Ruhr Crisis

In *1923, France and Belgium occupied the German Ruhr*, an important *mining and industrial region.* *Laborers stopped work in protest* of the foreign takeover, and the *government pumped in funds to support the workers*. This *caused cataclysmic inflation* (4.2 trillion marks = one dollar)!

Lateran Treaty

In *1929*, *Mussolini and the Church ended the 60-year tiff* between them (since unification). The agreement *accepted the pope as the ruler of the Vatican City*. In return, the *Fascists gained an ally* in the pope.

Polish Revolt of 1830 (November Revolt)

In 1830, Poland kicked the Russians out and declared their independence. Nicholas ordered the Russian army to invade Poland to "punish them." Yikes! The Russian soldiers were so ruthless that Poland became known as the "land of graves and crosses."

Non-juring priest

In 1792, the Legislative Assembly attempted to put pressure on the priests who refused to take the oath by telling them that they would be sent out of the country. The non-juring priests led movements against the Revolution (counter-revolutionaries).

Peninsular Campaign (1808-1814)

In 1807, France allied with the Spanish and invaded the Portuguese. Napoleon and the French then turned on their Spanish allies in 1808. The French forces captured Spain and dismantled the Spanish administration, planning to install Napoleon's brother (Joseph) as the new king. However, Spanish guerilla forces fought back, draining the resources of France's army. Meanwhile, England secured Portugal and mounted attacks on French forces. The combined power of the Spanish guerillas, the English, and the Portuguese resulted in the capture of Madrid in 1812, and pushed Napoleon's forces back into France by 1814.

Gordon Expedition

In 1884, a *British and Egyptian force commanded by General Charles Gordon marched up the Nile River into the Sudan*. At *Khartoum*, local Muslims besieged Gordon's men. *All 7,000 men in Gordon's force were killed.* Obviously, the British would get revenge!

Charles de Gaulle

In 1958, the *weak 4th French Republic was replaced with the 5th French Republic*, a *government with a very strong executive.* *De Gaulle* was so strong that he is often called the *"republican monarch."* He *worked hard to end American dominance over French foreign policy*, and *France's first atomic bomb was constructed* during his presidency (1958-1969).

The Great Game

In Asia, *Britain firmly controlled India during this era*. They *also controlled Pakistan and Afghanistan during this period*. They *competed for influence in the region with Russia in a diplomatic contest known as the "Great Game."*

Nuclear family

In Western culture, this refers to a mother and a father and their children together. Found in central and western Europe, it was when a couple would get married and live in their own house. The couples usually married later in life at the average age of 27. They married usually after holding a job for many years, to be financially stable.

Munich Beer Hall Putsch

It was a *1923 attempt by Hitler to seize control of the German government*, it *resulted in Hitler's arrest and imprisonment for treason.* In prison, Hitler wrote his plan for world conquest, *Mein Kampf.*

Popular Front

In the mid-1930s, France was faced with Fascist pressures like every other nation during the Depression. When rightist groups began to strongly influence the government, *leftist groups* known as the Popular Front combined, *including the Radical Socialists, United Socialists, and Communists*. *Leon Blum led the Popular Front*, and he *implemented the 40-hour work week, paid vacations, and nationalized the Bank of France*. The Right's slogan was "Better Hitler than Blum."

Intendants

Introduced by Charles III of Spain, they were *royal officials possessing broad military, administrative, and financial authority.* Basically, they were *bureaucrats*. They *performed the same function in France during the Bourbon monarchy in the 17th and 18th centuries.*

Act of Restraint of Appeals

It *disallowed judicial appeals to the papacy. In other words, the King's word was final*. Before this Act, people could appeal to the Pope over the King's head. The Act was passed during an extremely religious time, so King Henry could not be the one to force a bill on the people that separated them from the Church. So, *Parliament, perceived as the representative of the will of the people (though not really true), passed it, making it appear that it was something the people wanted, not just something the King was forcing on them.* The *Act successfully annulled (canceled) Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and legitimized his marriage to Anne Boleyn* (though not to Catholics, who considered Henry an adulterer). *Papal jurisdiction ended in England, and the Crown became the highest power.*

John Wesley

John Wesley was an important catalyst for popular religious revival in England. He went to Oxford University to prepare for the clergy, and while there organized a "scheme of religion." After he became a teacher, he created the Holy Club for students who thought like him. These students were the first Methodists, so called because of their methodical devotion.

Jean Racine

Keeping in theme with *classicism*, he *based* his *tragedies on Greek and Roman legends*. Many of his plays were *about women and passion*.

Preindustrial childhood

Kids these days don't know how good they've got it! For children in this time period, every day was a matter of life or death. It may sound dramatic, but infant mortality rates were high and children were at risk of catching colds and diseases that with today's medicine are preventable and treatable. One in five infants died, and one in three was likely to die in poorer areas. Then, if diseases weren't bad enough, the adults had little idea of how precious their children really were, as many were neglected, ignored, or abused. Almost no education existed, so many boys and even more girls never learned to read, though literacy was slowly increasing. Parents were urged not to become too emotionally involved with their children because of the likeliness of death. This emotional detachment often led to abuse. Susannah Wesley, mother of John Wesley, said her children were "taught to fear the rod." "Spare the rod, spoil the child" was a saying that lasted at least up through Mr. Carver's childhood!

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

King Charles VII of France (1403-1461) put this in place in 1438. It established French control over the papacy by allowing the King to appoint his own French bishops and to retain ecclesiastical revenues. This caused conflict between the popes and French kings that was unresolved until the Concordat of Bologna in 1516.

Cahier de doleances

Known as cahiers, they were the grievances created by the three estates that would be presented to Louis XVI. Nearly all of the complaints presented to the King were humble requests about reducing taxes and obligations, hunting for game, using the common lands, etc. Alas, the King did not act on their complaints, causing unrest in the countryside that helped lead to the Great Fear. (see #24)

New Economic Policy

Lenin: government had tried to *socialize too rapidly*. *Under the NEP*, peasants were *allowed to practice capitalistic farming again* (turn over a portion then sell for profit). With the profit motive, *production did improve*. Also, *small manufacturers and businessmen* could *make a profit*. *Communists disliked the NEP*, but didn't dare to wipe it out at first because of its success.

Women's Rights

Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman), challenged the conservative Edmund Burke (Reflections on the Revolution in France), arguing that it was time for women to demand equal rights, particularly in education. Due to the revolution, women were allowed to inherit land, divorce, and obtain financial support from fathers for illegitimate children. However, they did not have any political rights because the majority of men in the National Assembly did not believe that women should have responsibilities beyond domestic duties. Another reason is because they blamed women for the corruption of man, i.e. Adam and Eve, when Eve cunningly and viciously seduced Adam into dooming mankind! Women were only educated in the domestic sensefindhow to care for their family and entertain guests, and Wollstonecraft challenged this. At the time, she was ridiculed, with one author even writing A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, arguing that if women have rights, why not animals, too? (see #37-39)

Weber Thesis (Max Weber)

Max Weber, an *early 20th century German sociologist, wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism* (1904). In the book, *Weber wrote that "capitalism in northern Europe evolved when the Protestant (particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment."* In other words, the *Protestant work ethic was the force that created dynamic capitalist societies in Northern Europe because of its emphasis on hard work and thrift.*

Georges Haussmann

Napoleon III very wisely hired this architect to *rebuild Paris*. His plans included *destroying many of the slums and widening the streets to make it harder for the people to erect barricades against the police and the army*. The city *gained a lot of parks and open spaces and improved sewer and water systems.* (HINT: HAUSSmann... House Man)

Napoleon's domestic accomplishments

Napoleon was very successful in his domestic policy. He created the Bank of France in 1800, which stabilized the nation's economy. The franc was the name of the currency. He also made an agreement with the Catholic Church, called the Concordat of 1801, which tied the state with the Catholic Church. His most significant accomplishment was the creation of the Civil Code in 1804. The major black mark on Napoleon's record was women's rights.

Communes

Northern Italian cities comprised of free men seeking political and economic independence from local nobles.

Bastille

On July 14, 1789, the mob stormed the Bastille to obtain powder and ammo. They also wanted to free political prisoners rumored to be held there. The attackers captured the fortress, killed the governor and put his head on a pike to parade around the city, but lost 98 lives in the process. It was a direct attack on the king's authority and it was the first time that blood was spilled. It led to the formation of communes to govern the cities, and to violence spreading to the countryside.

Austrian ultimatum

On July 23, 1914, the *Austrians handed the Serbs an ultimatum* (a series of demands). The Serbs were told to: *1.* Eliminate all anti-Habsburg publications, including schoolbooks. *2.* Dissolve all Serb nationalist organizations. *3.* Eliminate a list of officials and army officers named by Austria-Hungary. *The Serbs were given 48 hours to comply*! On July 25, the *Serbians gave their answer - they would rather die fighting than give in to the Austrian demands*. They then *mobilized for war against Austria. Austria mobilized against Serbia the same day.* *War was declared one month to the day after the assassination - July 28, 1914.* On *July 30, Tsar Nicholas II ordered full mobilization of Russian soldiers.* It was on!

Michelangelo

One of the greatest artists in human history, he was a major figure of the "High Renaissance" (the period where Rome dominated the art scene). Though he considered himself a sculptor and not a painter, his Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is considered one of the greatest works of art. His sculptures include David, Moses, and Pieta. Pope Julius II commissioned him to paint the Sistine Chapel, and when he expressed reservations about doing it, the Pope threatened to excommunicate (cut him off from receiving Church services) him!

Asiento

Put into effect by the Peace of Utrecht (1713), it is the name given to the Spanish slave trade. The treaty forced Spain to give control of its West African slave trade to Britain. Slavery was a very lucrative business during this time. This was a blow to the Spanish economy, which continued its inexorable decline.

Rococo

Rococo, also known as "Late Baroque," was a style developed and made famous in the late 18th century. Artists abandoned symmetry and created more "playful" works that were not as artistically expected. Rococo rooms were designed to be a work of art as a three dimensional space. Meaning, the room was the art and the ornate furniture, sculptures, ornamental mirrors, and tapestries made up the piece of work. The time of Rococo art is mostly associated with the reign of Louis XV and the beginning of the reign of Louis XVI.

Dmitri Mendeleev

Russian *chemist that developed the periodic table of the elements.* *Developed the periodic law* (elements show a regular pattern when they are arranged by atomic mass).

James Graham

Sexologist who created an electro-magnetic, musical, Grand State Celestial Bed. The Celestial Bed was designed to make the feeble fertile and to produce perfect babies. It was decorated with magnets and electrical devices. Graham was dismissed as a "quack," but only after a lot of suckers bought the bed in hopes of a little magic!

Catherine de Medici

She *dominated Charles IX's reign*. She was the *widow of Henry II*. After Henry II's death, she *played a large role in the brief reign of Francis II, and then ruled as the regent for her ten year old son, Charles IX*. She also *played a large part in the rule of her third son, Henry III, when he rose to power.* She *chose to harshly persecute the Huguenots, and was responsible for the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre*, in which thousands of Huguenots were killed across France. Her *motives were almost always political; for example, she warred against another Catholic dynasty, the Guise family, to keep the Valois in power, while also fighting the Huguenots.*

Angela Merici

She *founded the Ursuline order in 1535 to combat heresy through Christian education.* This was the *first religious order concentrating exclusively on teaching young girls.* The *goal was to re-Catholicize society by training future wives and mothers to raise their children as good Catholics.*

Lucrezia Borgia

She was another of Pope Alexander VI's children. She is infamous for allegedly poisoning her enemies, having multiple affairs, and because of the mysterious deaths of her first two husbands. It was common knowledge that she was the daughter of the Pope, and her immoral behavior tarnished the already less than pristine image of the papacy.

Mary Tudor

She was the *wife of King Philip II of Spain and Queen of England* (r. 1553 - 1558). She was the *daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon.* During her rule of England, *she tried to restore links with the papacy, but she was unsuccessful.* *She had many Protestants killed, earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary" from her opponents.* Luckily for England, *she was unable to bear a child for Philip. If she had, England would have passed into Spanish hands.*

Edgar Degas - Dancer with a Fan

Sorry, cannot find the Degas picture in question. Just remember that he was obsessed with dancers/ballerinas.

Decline of Spain

Spain had been the *greatest power in Europe during the 16th century*, but it *declined in the 17th century*. Spain had *become wealthy by enslaving the Indians in the New World and exploiting them for gold and silver*. But, in *1588, the Spanish Armada was defeated by the English, and from that point on, Spain no longer controlled the seas*. As a result, Spain *eventually lost large parts of its empire to England and Holland*. Royal *expenditures increased, but income from the Americas dropped*. Spanish *kings were unfit during* the 17th century, and seemed to *lack the ability or will to reform*. Spain had *virtually no middle class*, and the *nobility thought that making money was virtually a sin*. Adding to Spain's problems was the fact that a *large portion of its possible labor force lived in monasteries and did not work in industry.*

Leningrad

The *Germans besieged the city for 900 days, killing about 1,000,000 civilians.*

Joseph Mallord William Turner

The Fighting Temeraire

Guise Family

The Guise family was *one of the three politically prominent families vying for power in France*, *along with the Bourbons and the Valois*. The *Guises used a front of devout Catholicism to combat the moderate policies of Valois line* of kings, Henry III in particular. They *played a large part in causing the wars of religion*, *helped to organize the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre*, and *catalyzed the Catholic revolt in Paris on the Day of Barricades*. In the end, *they were successful in ending the reign of the Valois family*, when Henry III was assassinated while preparing to retake Paris. *But, it was at the cost of losing their own leader, Henry I, Duke of Guise, and the Bourbons, not the Guise, replaced the Valois.*

Northern Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance spread to Northern Europe in the late 1400s. Northern writers interpreted Italian ideas and attitudes towards classical antiquity in terms of their own traditions. These writers in Holland, England, Germany, and France focused much more on Christianity than those in Italy. They stressed biblical and early Christian themes, attempting to make broad social reforms by combining the best features of the classical world with Christian culture.

Accomplishments of the National Assembly (1789-1791)

The National Assembly accomplished: 1. Created the Declaration of the Rights of Man. 2. Forced King Louis XVI to accept the new constitutional monarchy. This means lawmaking power was in the hands of the National Assembly. 3. New laws broadened women's rights (they now could seek divorce, inherit property, and obtain financial support for illegitimate children) despite their corrupting influence on men. 4. The patchwork of historical provinces were changed to 83 departments of equal size. 5. Economic freedom (no monopolies, guilds, and workers combinations) was granted. 6. Religious freedom was granted to French Jews and Protestants.

Francisco Goya

The Third of May, 1808 - see French Revolution.

Tabula rasa

The belief promoted by John Locke that at birth the human mind is a blank tablet. Then, the environment forms their beliefs and understandings. Human development is therefore determined by education and social institutions. He expressed this idea in an essay called An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Antinomian

The belief that *faith in God is the only requirement for entrance into Heaven*. This belief was central to Lutheran thought. Catholics, on the other hand, believe in faith and good works. *Lutherans emphasize doing good works because that's what good people do, not as a means to get into Heaven.*

Progress

The belief that *human beings can create a better society and better people than what already existed*. This belief was *strengthened by some modest improvements in economic and social life during the eighteenth century.*

Vernacular

The language spoken by ordinary people, it replaced Latin in literature during the Renaissance. The most important people behind the change in Italy were Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.

Condottieri

The mercenary soldier leaders of the professional, free companies contracted by the Italian city-states and the Papacy during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Family monarchy

The power of the husband and father was as absolute over the wife and kids as that of Napoleon was over his subjects. Women could not separate from their husbands (divorce did not exist) even if the husband cheated, but the husband could separate from his wife if she cheated (and she might get sent away to a nunnery)!

New National Convention (1795)

The* National Convention in the era after Robespierre's downfall was a lot more conservative than it had been before and represented the values of the moderate bourgeoisie.* The change was so drastic that once-*powerful groups like the sans-culottes and Jacobins were forced underground*, and "sans-culotte" even became a derisive term in France.

39 Articles

These *statements form the basis of the Anglican faith*. They *replaced the 42 Articles*. They were *created in 1563, during the reign of Elizabeth I, a religious moderate*. They were *intentionally broad and moderate, taking a position between Calvinism and Catholicism.* The Articles are *very important, because, even though they angered by extreme Catholics and Calvinists, they were accepted by the mass of the English people.* This *kept England from spiraling into religious warfare.*

Dadaism and surrealism

These were *art forms of the 1920s*, where artists attempted to *break all the rules.*

British Navigation Acts

These were a series of laws passed in England in the 17th century. The acts required that most goods imported from America into England and Scotland be carried on British-owned ships. The acts gave British merchants and shipowners a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies. The idea was to make sure the English colonies only traded with England rather than the Netherlands, France and other European countries. These acts formed a basis for British overseas trade for almost 200 years.

Habsburg-Valois Wars

These were a series of wars fought between Spain and its allies, including several Italian city-states and France between 1494 and 1559. The war began between Charles VIII of France, who quickly captured Naples, versus Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand of Aragon, and Isabella of Castille. The war ended with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), with the Spanish winning, but not an overwhelming victory. The wars are important because they kept the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain Charles V too busy fighting to pay full attention to stopping the Protestant Reformation. Also, since no total victor emerged from the war, Europe remained divided into separate nation states.

Indulgences

These were remissions of the penalties for sin that a priest assigned to a confessor. So, *in other words, it is proof that you showed the priest that you were sorry for your sins by performing some act of contrition*. The Catholic Church often used these as fundraisers to pay for expensive projects, causing outrage amongst people in favor of reforming the Church.

"killing nurses"

These were wet nurses, women hired to suckle other people's children, who were accused of allowing the child under their care to die as soon as possible so the nurses could take on another.

September Massacres

They consisted of *several attacks on the prisons in Paris*. The massacres *began on September 2, 1792 and lasted five days*. The *first attack occurred when 24 non-juring priests being transported to a prison named L'Abbaye were attacked by a mob of angry citizens of Paris.* They *quickly and brutally killed all of the priests as they were trying to escape into the prison, and moved on to kill other prisoners as well*. *One noble was stripped, raped, her breasts were cut off, and the rest of her body was mutilated. After she was dead, one of the assassins ripped out her heart and ate it while another stuck her head on a pike and paraded it beneath the Queen's window*. During the massacres, *approximately 1200 prisoners died*, which was *half of the prison population in Paris*. Most historians believe that the *combination of the Brunswick Manifesto and fear of counterrevolution was the cause.*

Assembly of Notables

They were important noblemen and high-ranking clergy selected by the king to discuss matters of state. Louis XVI called together the Assembly in Feb. 1787 in an attempt to raise taxes on the aristocracy's land. He was hoping that the Assembly would agree to the land tax and then pressure the Parlement of Paris to accept it, too. But, the Assembly rejected it.

Long Parliament

This *Parliament lasted for 20 years!* Charles *called it into session because of the need for money to deal with the Scottish rebellion.* They *immediately dismissed Laud (and executed him in 1645) and another of Charles' ministers.* They *demanded that the King call Parliament into session at least every 3 years and that the King could not dismiss Parliament without their opinion* (the *Triennial Act*). Then, *Parliament presented the King with a list of 204 grievances, known as the Grand Remonstrance*. Soon *after, Charles charged 5 members of Parliament with treason and tried to arrest them*. The 5 *men were warned before the King arrived in person with 400 soldiers to arrest them; an outraged Parliament then demanded full control over the nation's military* (the Irish chose this time of chaos to rebel). *Charles refused and fled to Nottingham to raise his own army to fight Parliament.* This was the *beginning of the English Civil War.*

Peace of Frankfurt

This *treaty was very harsh toward France*. It: *a.* charged a massive war reparation of 5 billion francs. *b.* took Alsace-Lorraine away from France and made it part of Germany *c.* required the French to accept a German army of occupation until the reparations were paid *d.* recognized William I of Prussia as Emperor William I of Germany. *1871* - Germany was a unified nation! It was known as the *Second Reich* and lasted until 1919.

Bohemian Phase

This is *when Calvinists demanded more freedom from the Catholic Hapsburg emperor*. Occurring during this time was the *Defenestration of Prague*, and the *Bohemian rebels were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain*. As a result of all the fighting, *Bohemia became Catholic by 1635.*

Bubonic plague

This is a disease carried by rats and fleas. It causes swollen lymph nodes. The plague swept most of Europe from town to town, killing a third or more of the population. The disease would return periodically, though new quarantine procedures and the Asiatic brown rat helped reduce its impact.

Quattrocento

This is a term that refers to the cultural and artistic achievements of the 1400s (15th century). It encompasses works of the High Middle Ages and Early Renaissance.

Pluralism/Absenteeism

This refers to *how priests often held many offices at the same time, but rarely visited their offices or performed the spiritual responsibilities for them.* Instead, they would collect revenues from all of them and hire a poor priest, paying him just a fraction of the income to fulfill the spiritual duties of a particular church.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

This treaty ended the Seven Years' War between France and Britain in the colonies. France lost all its possessions on the mainland of North America. Canada and all French territory east of the Mississippi River passed to Britain, and France ceded Louisiana to Spain as compensation for Spain's loss of Florida to Britain. France also gave up most of its holdings in India, allowing Britain to dominate the subcontinent.

Solidarity

This was a *Polish trade union federation set up in 1980.* The union was *not under the Communist Party's control despite being a Warsaw Pact nation*. The *union proliferated immensely, soon having a membership of 9.5 million members*. The union *led the nation to elections and eventually the union leader Lech Walęsa became the President of Poland.*

Hussite Wars

This was a *series of battles between the Catholics of Bohemia (today Czech Republic) and the Hussites from 1419-1434.* The Hussites were a group of people who followed the teachings of John Huss, who had just been burned at the stake (after the church had promised him protection. Lies!). *They wanted change in the church and went to war for it*. After 15 years of warfare, *they ended with the Holy Roman Empire accepting Bohemia's virtual independence.8 This served as a model for all Germans, who later broke from the Church.

Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

This was a battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy during the War of the Third Coalition of the Napoleonic Wars. The French lost. 27 British ships defeated 33 French and Spanish ships off the coast of Spain. 22 French and Spanish ships were destroyed, and 0 of Britain's ships were ruined. This battle showed that the British Navy was far superior. The big hero was Lord Horatio Nelson, but he was mortally wounded during the battle.

Kingdom of the Netherlands

To keep France from becoming a threat again, the statesmen at the Congress of Vienna merged the Dutch Republic with the Austrian Netherlands to create the Kingdom of the Netherlands. They had hoped it would be powerful enough to deter future French aggression. It failed. Too many cultural, religious, linguistic, and demographic differences divided them (the Dutch were urban, while the south was rural). In 1831, Belgium won its independence from the Netherlands.

Madonna and Child - Bellini

Visually similar, original not available on Quizlet.

Vittorio Orlando

Vittorio Orlando had a simple goal - *gain the Austrian Tyrol, Trent, and Trieste*. The Allies had promised it to them in return for their switching sides in 1915.

William II

WII was a *very strongly opinionated man*, and he *decided that he wanted direct control over the government*. Bismarck felt that the *Kaiser shouldn't have anything to do with actually governing the country*. *During WI's reign, when WI was opposed to something Bismarck wanted, Bismarck threatened to resign and WI would beg him to stay and gave him what he wanted*. *Bismarck tried the same tactic with WII. WII said, "see ya!"* *WII worked very hard to build up the military.* However, unlike Bismarck, who made sure that the other nations were told that Germany did not plan to extend its borders, WII seemed much more belligerent! In a few short years, *WII managed to alienate every country in Europe except Austria.* His *goal - build a navy even bigger than that of Britain.* He felt that it was Germany's time for a "place in the sun." Of course, *Britain, which had dominated the seas for centuries, felt threatened and began an arms race with Germany.* This is *****one of the causes of WWI*****. By 1913, Germany spent 75% of its budget on the military, and *William II was just dying for a war to prove Germany's superiority.*

Battle of Waterloo

Waterloo, Belgium, June 18, 1815. The Seventh Coalition defeated French forces led by Napoleon. Waterloo marked the end of the rule of Napoleon as the emperor of France and the Hundred Days. Two giant forces of the Seventh Coalition had been set up in the northeast border of France. Napoleon wanted to attack these forces before they could get any more help. It nearly worked. The Seventh Coalition successfully entered France and reinstated Louis XVIII to power. Napoleon gave up the throne and surrendered to the British government.

The Third of May, 1808 - Goya

When the French captured Madrid in 1808, word of their planned disposal of the government leaked to the public. The citizens of Madrid revolted on May 2nd, 1808. In response, the French commander said, "The population of Madrid, led astray, has given itself to revolt and murder. French blood has flowed. It demands vengeance. All those arrested in the uprising, arms in hand, will be shot." On May 3, the French troops rounded up and shot hundreds of the Spanish revolters. The Third of May, 1808 was a painting by Francisco Goya that depicted the massacre.

Don Quixote

Written *by Miguel de Cervantes*, the novel is *regarded as the greatest Spanish novel ever written* and one of the great masterpieces of all time. Cervantes *ridiculed Spanish society*; his main *character travels the countryside looking for adventures and military heroics*. The phrase "tilting at windmills" to suggest futility comes directly from the novel, and *suggests Spain's plight during the 17th century.*

The Imitation of Christ

Written by *Thomas á Kempis* from 1418-1427, *it urges Christians to take Christ as their model and seek perfection in a simple way of life*. This book has been copied into more languages than any other book after the Bible.

Prince Talleyrand

You might remember him as the foreign minister who refused to meet with American delegates during the XYZ Affair. He possessed great diplomatic skill, brilliantly taking advantage of a rift between Britain/Austria and Prussia/Russia to weasel France's way back into influence.

Primogeniture

a system where a father passes on his whole estate to his eldest son when he passes away. The daughters and younger males received none of it.

Munich Beer Hall Putsch

a *1923 attempt by Hitler to seize control of the German government*, it resulted in *Hitler's arrest and imprisonment for treason*. In prison, Hitler wrote his plan for world conquest, *Mein Kampf.*

Confederation of the Rhine

a confederation of fifteen German states, minus Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. Napoleon named himself the "protector" of the Confederation. It replaced the Holy Roman Empire, which had been around for 1000 years.

Chiaroscuro

a technique of using light and shadow to create an illusion of depth and greater realism.

Low Church Anglicanism

a term given to the *structure of the English church that more closely resembles Protestantism*. It holds that *if something is not mentioned in the Bible, then it should not be done.* This is the *form of Anglicanism brought on by Cranmer during the reign of Edward VI.*

(Antonio) Vivaldi

famous *Venetian priest, baroque composer and violinist.* He is considered *one of the greatest composers of the baroque period and had much influence in Europe throughout his life.*

King Leopold II

of *Belgium* hired *Henry M. Stanley, an English adventurer and journalist, to sign treaties with natives in the Congo to gain his own personal territory*. In 1884-85, *the Berlin Conference set rules for imperialism, including that a nation had to actually hold a territory to claim it.* This was done *to prevent warfare between European nations over African lands.* In addition, the Conference *authorized the establishment of the Congo Free State under the personal rule of Leopold II*. The *Congo became notorious for Leopold's awful treatment of his subjects, including forced labor in the production of rubber, ivory, and minerals.* His treatment was so bad, that *Belgium seized control over the Congo from Leopold* in 1908! *Millions had been killed (estimates range from 2 to 15 million) and millions more mutilated*. On the plus side, he did build roads and schools!

Great Trek

of 1835-37, the *Boers moved into the interior*, where *they established the Orange Free State and Transvaal*, both of which were *independent republics*. When *diamonds were discovered* in 1869, the great British *imperialist Cecil Rhodes announced his intention to create a belt of British African possessions* reaching *from the Cape of Good Hope to Egypt.*

William Gladstone

the *Liberals, led by Prime Minister William Gladstone, controlled Parliament from 1868 to 1874*. Gladstone's *leadership is known as the "Great Ministry."* The *Liberals introduced competitive examinations for civil service, provided the expansion of elementary education, granted unions the right to organize and strike, and introduced the secret ballot in the Ballot Act of 1872*. They did not, however, abandon their *laissez-faire attitude toward business*. From 1881-1885, *Gladstone and the Liberals passed the Reform Bill of 1884, which extended the right to vote to most farm workers.* The *major issue for Gladstone*, though, *was the Irish Question*, which he worked on during his 2nd administration (1881-85), 3rd administration (1886), and 4th administration (1892-94).

Nazi Party

the *National Socialist German Workers Party*, it *rejected socialism and relied on rightist thugs to gain power.* The *Nazi Brown Shirts* (SA or Storm Troopers) *shut down meetings of their opponents with violence.* Even though "socialist" is part of its name, it is a *fascist political concept and is very far from socialism and communism*.

Nazi Party

the *National Socialist German Workers Party*, it *rejected socialism* and relied on rightist thugs to gain power. The *Nazi Brown Shirts* (SA or Storm Troopers) *shut down meetings of their opponents with violence.* Nazism was characterized by *extreme nationalism and racism*. Nazism was an extremely *conservative political ideology - anti-Semitic, anti-democratic, anti-labor, anti-intellectual, and anti-Marxist*. It did *reject free-market capitalism* in favor of government programs to bring economic recovery.

Populism

the *idea of a socialist revolution led by peasants.* The Populist Movement was *led by Alexander Herzen*. The movement *failed*, however, because the *peasants did not trust the intellectuals leading the movement, and the peasants turned on them.*

Charles X

the King of France after Louis XVIII. He ruled from 1824-1830. He was coronated in the old royal style, and his reign was a constant attempt to restore the Ancien regime. He tried to restrict the press and even to compensate the nobles for their losses in the Revolution! That did not go over well with the liberals and bourgeois! They decide to take him down!

Mercantilism

the central *goal of this economic system was to build up the nation's supply of gold by exporting goods to other lands and earning gold from their sale.* Part of mercantilism was a *reliance on foreign colonies to be a market for the mother country's exports.* With the *wealth of the nation increased in this way, its power could then be increased - use the gold to create armies!*

Liberalism

the crazy idea that more people should have more freedom and political rights; it was encouraged by the American and French Revolutions. Don't think they believed that the people should rule - liberals still considered the masses to be barely above animals! But, they did believe that middle-class intellectuals should have a say and that the people had basic human rights. They were a threat to those in power because there are a lot more middle-class intellectuals than there were people in the old ruling class. Finally, they believed in economic freedom - the government could not put restraints on the free market system.

"Natural History"

the observational study of plants and animals. It includes studies like zoology, ecology, and botany. During the Age of Enlightenment, natural history as a topic became extremely popular with the upper class in Europe.

First Estate

the political class of the 100,000 clergymen in France.

Second Treatise of Civil Government

written by *John Locke*, it argued that *governments exist to protect the natural, God-given rights of the people* - *life, liberty, and property*. If a *government fails to protect the natural rights of the people, then the people have a right to rebel.* Locke was no democrat - he believed that *property qualified a person to vote and hold public office.* He felt that *those with property were educated and would make decisions that would respect the natural rights of all the people.* His ideas had a *huge impact on the American colonies* (Jefferson wrote the natural rights almost verbatim into the Declaration of Independence).

Lorenzo Valla

An Italian Humanist and educator. He proved the Donation of Constantine (emperor Constantine the Great supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope) was a fraud and was not written in the supposed 4th century but in fact the 8th century proving it false. This application of scholarship showed that papal claims to secular authority over much of Europe were unfounded.

Doge

An Italian military leader (it literally translates to "duke"). It usually is applied to the elected leader of both Venice and Genoa.

Raphael Santi

An Italian painter and architect during the High Renaissance, and was a master of art along with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. He made many famous paintings in his short life (37 years) including The School of Athens. He created this artwork in Rome, where he lived from 1508 to his death.

Henry VII

He became the King of England in 1485 by supposedly picking up the royal crown at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He established the Tudor dynasty as the ruling family of England, which lasted until 1603. Also, he is one of the European "new monarchs" who worked to reduce the power of the nobility and centralize royal power.

Thomas More

He coined the term "utopia," which literally means "nowhere." His book, Utopia, describes an ideal socialistic society that was free from corruption, greed, and want. Children, as well as adults, received a good education and developed into nearly perfect people because they all lived by reason. More believed that the key to reform of the individual was the reform of social institutions. He was executed for speaking out against Henry VIII's divorce of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.

Leonardo Bruni

He served as the chancellor of Florence in the early 14th century, wrote History of the Florentine People, the first modern history book, and was the first to use the term "humanism."

Jerome Bosch

He was a Flemish painter who frequently used religious themes, but combined them with peasant folk legends and colorful imagery. Many of his paintings reflect the confusion and the anguish often associated with the lives of the peasantry at the conclusion of the Middle Ages.

Hans Holbein the Younger

He was an outstanding portrait and religious painter of the Northern Renaissance. He infamously painted the portrait of Anne of Cleves, Henry VIII's fourth wife, which inaccurately depicted Anne's "beauty." Henry had never seen Anne before marrying her, seeing only his portrait. He was displeased when he laid eyes on her, saying, "Methinks she resembles a mare!"

Baldassare Castiglione

He was the author of The Courtier, a book that sought to train the young man into the courtly ideal of a gentleman. According to him, the educated man of the upper class should have a broad background in academic subjects, being able to solve difficult mathematic equations, compose sonnets, write poetry well, wrestle, and ride a horse, for example. The book was incredibly influential, and it shaped the behavior of the upper class for centuries.

Oligarchy

It refers to rule by a small group of people. In the case of the Renaissance, it is usually applied to the rule by the wealthy merchant class.

Spanish Inquisition

It was a Catholic Church court in Spain, set up by Ferdinand and Isabella to ensure that the Jews and Muslims had converted to Catholicism sincerely (these people were called conversos; converted Jews were called marranos and converted Muslims were called moriscos). People who refused to convert or whose conversion was not trusted were tortured, usually on the rack. Public executions of those who refused to change their heretical ways were called auto-de-fe, which involved being burned alive. Approximately 5,000 people were killed in this manner.

Renaissance Causes

The Renaissance was prompted by economic, political, historical, and intellectual causes. Economic - Northern Italy was very wealthy as a result of the growth of towns via trade with the Near East (spices and silk) and northern Europe (wool, cloth, and international banking). This wealth gave people leisure to pursue new ideas and money to sponsor the arts and scholars. Political - the city-states were very competitive, and this competition included showing off through sculpture, architecture, and sponsorship of the arts and scholarship. The city that could hire Michelangelo was clearly the best! Historical - Northern Italian cities were often built upon the ruins of ancient Roman ones, and those ruins aroused intellectual curiosity. Intellectual - The appearance in the Italian cities of refugees fleeing the Ottoman takeover of the Byzantine Empire (which collapsed in 1453) brought new ideas, including the study of Greek, to Italy.

Florentine Academy

also known as the Platonic Academy, this was a group of scholars who met in a country house to study the works of Plato. The Medici family of Florence financially supported the Academy (more on them later). The leading member of the Academy was Pico della Mirandola (more on him later!).

Giovanni Boccaccio

he wrote the Decameron. This great work is one of the foundations of the Italian language, along with Petrarch's sonnets and Dante's Divine Comedy. The Decameron is set during the Black Death, and it is composed of 100 stories told over 10 days. It describes "ambitious merchants, lecherous friars, and cuckolded husbands, and portrays a frankly acquisitive, sensual, and worldly society." Many view the Decameron as a subtle condemnation of the Church, which was under attack for its failures to aid the people during the plague. Unlike Medieval literature, it does not show contempt for the world.

Dante

(1265-1321). He was a Florentine writer who wrote Divine Comedy, a trilogy describing his journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. (It is written in first person). The work is considered a transition piece between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance because it is still focused on God, as it is an allegory of the soul's journey toward God. (The Italian Renaissance did not abandon religion, but focused more on secularism). It is modern in the sense that it was written in vernacular - the spoken language of the people - instead of Latin. It is considered one of the greatest works in the history of literature, and was the work that standardized the Italian language.

Petrarch

(1304-1374). He was a poet and humanist of the 14th century who named the revitalization of Greco-Roman culture the "Renaissance." He defined the period after the Germanic invasions of Rome in the 5th century until this "rebirth" the "Dark Ages." He was one of the first scholars after the Dark Ages to study Greek and Roman texts. Perhaps best known for his sonnets addressed to his idealized beloved Laura, he wrote 207 sonnets, and his style was copied for the next 300 years. He is called "The Father of Humanism."

Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples

A French theologian and humanist, his ideas were a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. He was a prolific translator of the Bible. He completed a translation of the Old Testament in 1528. His completed translation of the Christian Bible in 1530 was the first in the French language. He challenged the belief in the tradition of a single, authoritative Bible.

Renaissance man

A person who is highly educated and has developed skills in a vast array of subjects, culture, and sport. The people of higher class sought to do the things above during the renaissance, because of the new view of enjoying life on earth, so they would be the best they could be.

Cinquecento

A term used to describe the Italian Renaissance in the 1500s (16th century), including its styles of art, music, literature, and architecture.

Court of Star Chamber

An English court of law made up of Privy Counselors and common-law judges that supplemented the activities of common-law and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. Court sessions were held in secret, accused persons could not see evidence against them, torture could be used to extract confessions, and a jury was not called. The court apparently got its name from the stars painted on the ceiling of the room. Over time it evolved into a political weapon and represented the misuse and abuse of power of the English monarchy and courts. Henry VII used this to take power away from the nobility and centralize his authority.

Leonardo Da Vinci

An Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He was considered a genius in his time. He is most famous for his paintings, especially the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper, which are two of the most reproduced and most religious paintings of all time, respectively. He also constructed designs for submarines, tanks, and cranes.

Erasmus

He was a Dutch author who wrote In Praise of Folly, a book that questions elaborate church rituals that are not mentioned in the Bible, the worship of saints, and the practice of monasticism. He believed that human life had value in and of itself, rather than merely as a preparation for the afterlife. His ideas were a major part of the foundation of Protestant beliefs. It is said, "______ laid the egg that Luther hatched."

Montaigne

He was a French author who wrote the Essays, inventing the essay as a literary form. He is beloved by students around the world for this great achievement. He is known as the finest representative of early modern skepticism. He was a humanist who tried to learn more about himself. This self-knowledge and understanding teaches men and women how to live in accordance with nature and God. His tolerant mind was surprisingly civilized for a man of that time period, believing that no culture is greater than another. He was known for his rejection of dogma, his secularism, and his skepticism.

Donatello

He was one of the early Renaissance sculptors, and one of the greatest. He is famous for the first nude statue of the Renaissance, the David, and for St. George. He revived the classical figure of the nude body with its balance and self-awareness. He was a member of the workshop of Lorenzo Ghiberti (Gates of Paradise), and worked for the Medici family from 1433 to 1443.

Pope Alexander VI

He was pope from 1492 to 1503. During this time, he asserted papal control over the Papal States through the military and political aid of his son, Cesare Borgia. He wrote the Treaty of Tordesillas, which enforced a line of demarcation between Portuguese and Spanish territories in the New World. He was probably the most corrupt pope ever. He bribed the College of Cardinals to get elected. Known by his birth name Rodrigo Borgia before ascending to the papacy, he had four kids, including the infamous Cesare Borgia and Lucrezia Borgia. His enemies claimed that he had a child with his daughter, but, even though this would be pretty cool, there's no historical evidence to support this. He engaged in simony (buying and selling church positions) and allegedly had several older clergymen poisoned so he could sell their positions. He even commissioned an artist to paint his mistress as the Virgin Mary and hung the portrait above his bedchamber!

Pope Julius II

He was pope from 1503 to 1513. He is known as the "Warrior Pope." He used his power and influence to unite Italy against its foreign invaders, even leading armies into battle swinging a mace! As pope, he rebuilt St. Peter's Basilica, paid Michelangelo to create the dome, commissioned Michelangelo's Moses, forced Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and sponsored Raphael's frescoes in the Vatican.

Pope Leo X

He was pope from 1513 to 1521. Not known for his piety, he said, "now that we have gained the papacy, let us enjoy it!" He was the son of Lorenzo de Medici. As pope, he sponsored the arts and frequently hosted orgies at the Vatican. He is known for approving the sale of indulgences. His personal moral depravity led Martin Luther to revolt against the Catholic Church. He could have stopped the Protestant Reformation by making a few reforms, but he failed to do so. It took him two years to excommunicate Luther, and by that time it was too late. He was quite busy fighting France, siding with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. He signed a treaty with France in 1516 known as the Concordat of Bologna. This agreement surrendered papal control of selection of French bishops and abbots in return for the bishops' and abbots' first year's income.

Francesco Jimenes de Cisneros

He was the leader of the Spanish church, was the Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition, and reformed the Spanish church and clergy so that the Protestant Reformation had very little impact on Spain.

Machiavelli

He wrote The Prince, a book about how to get, keep, and increase political power. The ruthless Cesare Borgia inspired him. He argued that in a corrupt world a strong government was necessary. Since humans are by nature selfish, they must be strictly controlled. He believed that it was better for a ruler to be feared than loved, but it would be preferable to be both feared and loved. He focused on the way things actually are instead of how they should be.

Charles V

Ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 to 1556. He was King of Spain, the Netherlands, much of Italy, ruler of most of the New World, and Holy Roman Emperor. Much of his reign was focused on the Italian Wars against the French kings Francis I and Henry II. He is also famous for his opposition to the Protestant Reformation. During his reign of the Holy Roman Empire, the German princes limited his power. In 1521, as Holy Roman Emperor, he called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms (not to eat worms, the diet was a form of deliberative assembly), promising safe conduct if he would appear, but later banned his works and called for his arrest and punishment. Luther escaped, Prince Frederick of Saxony protected him, and he was soon tied up in other concerns. He saw himself as the defender of the Catholic faith, but failed the stop the Protestant Reformation.

Virtú

The qualities desirable for a man. As defined by the Florentines, it includes being an active citizen and having leadership ability. It could be displayed in speech, art, politics, and warfare.

Pope Clement VII

another member of the Medici family, he was pope from 1523 to 1534. He was not a good political leader. His refusal to annul the marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon led to the separation of England from the Catholic Church. England became a Protestant nation in the early 1530s. He mistakenly allied himself with France against Emperor Charles V, and this led to the invasion, pillage, and sack of Rome by Charles in 1527. He was arrested and held prisoner!

Humanism

is the study of ancient Greek and Roman literature, grammar, poetry, rhetoric, and history. It emphasized the importance of education, secularism, and the worth of the individual. They used the Latin classics to learn what they revealed about human nature, and also emphasized the contributions of human beings, including their achievements, interests, and capabilities. Northern ones (or Christian ones) differed from Italian ones because they were interested in an ethical way of life, and used this as a means to improve the church. They believed that the best elements of classical and Christian cultures should be combined.

Papal Nephew

this term is applied to refer to the Pope's illegitimate children. Though the Pope is considered theologically and doctrinally perfect, he is still a man and capable of sin. The Catholic Church, however, asks its bishops, including the Pope, to abstain from sex, so children are obviously impossible. No wife/mate = no kids! Alas, the Renaissance Popes had lots of sex, but they couldn't openly acknowledge the existence of their own children. These children were supposedly their nephews, and many of them were given influential positions and high salaries. Though the masses were ignorant, they were not stupid, so these actions led to the moral discrediting of the Church.