AP LANG Literary Terms + Books

Jonathan Swift

A Modest Proposal: Preventing the children of poor people from being a burden to their parents or country, and for making them beneficial to the public

rhetorical question

A question posed with no expectation of receiving an answer. This device is often used in public speaking in order to launch or further discussion: "Do you know what one of the greatest pains is? One of the greatest pains in human nature is the pain of a new idea."

allusion

A reference to some famous literary work, historical figure, or event. For example, to say that a friend "has the patience of Job" means that he is as enduring as the Biblical figure of that name. Allusions must be used with care lest the audience miss their meaning.

description

A rhetorical mode used to develop an essay whose primary aim is to depict a scene, person, thing, or idea. Descriptive writing evokes the look, feel, sound, and sense of events, people, or things.

comparison/contrast

A rhetorical mode used to develop essays that systematically match two items for similarities and differences.

Joan Didion

Holy Water: Didion's fascination of where water comes from and how personal control over her environment factors into her obsession (living in California with occasional droughts)

Zora Hurston

How It Feels To Be Colored Me: Explored the identity and self-pride of the author. Talks about her childhood in Eatonville, Fl., where she was free from alienating feeling of difference.

Alice Walker

In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Walker describes Jean Toomer's exploration of the Reconstruction South. Toomer found women sexually abused and lost, but who he saw to hold power, spirituality and beauty of which they were not aware. They were waiting for these unknowns to be made known. In the meantime they did not appreciate any aspects of life. These black women were artists whose creative forces were abandoned to the hardships of life.

tone

In every writing, tone is the reflection of the writer's attitude toward subject and audience. The tone can be irony, sarcasm, anger, humor, satire, hyperbole, or understatement.

Maxine Hong Kingston

No Name Woman: An explanation of her Chinese cultural history in comparison with her emerging Americanized behavior. Includes examples of her mother's story to contrast life in China with life in America.

personification

Personification- Attributing human qualities to objects, abstractions, or animals: "Tis beauty calls and glory leads the way."

Stephen King

Reading to Write:King talks about the process of being a writer, the recurring word "zeal" and his song playing Tom Petty on saxophone

claim

The ultimate conclusion, generalization, or point, backed up by support, of an argument.

anecdote

a brief narrative offered in a text to capture the audience's attention or to support a generalization or claim.

metonymy

a term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy.

connotation

the implication of emotional overtones of a word rather than its literal meaning. Lion, used in a literal sense, denotes a beast (see denotation). But to say that Winston Churchill had "the heart of a lion" is to use the connotative or implied meaning of lion.

figurative language

Said of a word or expression used in a nonliteral way. For example. The expression "to go the last mile" may have nothing at all to do with geographical distance, but may mean to complete an unfinished task or job.

concrete

Said of words or terms denoting objects or conditions that are palpable, visible, or otherwise evident to the senses. Concrete is the opposite of abstract. The difference between the two is a matter of degrees. Illness, for example is abstract; ulcer is concrete; "sick to the stomach" falls somewhere between the two. The best writing usually expresses abstract propositions in concrete terms.

Barbara Ehrenreich

Serving in Florida: A social experiment where the author subjected herself to a minimum wage job to see if she can make a living off of it. Spoiler... she can't

David Sedaris

A Plague of Tics: Living with severe OCD as a child and how his parents and teachers dealt with it. He explains how, when he reaches college, the tics become worse because of his inability to rock back and forth, but the tics stopped after he took to drugs and alcohol.

emphasis

A rhetorical principle that requires stress to be given to important elements in an essay at the expense of less important elements. Emphasis may be given to an idea in various parts of a composition. In a sentence, words may be emphasized by placing them at the beginning or end or by judiciously italicizing them. In a paragraph, ideas may be emphasized by repetition or by the accumulation of specific detail.

complex sentence

A sentence with one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses

apostrophe

a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee."

periodic sentence

a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase of clause that cannot stand alone. For example: "Ecstatic with my AP scores, I let out a loud shout of joy!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. See loose sentence.

paradox

a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. The first scene of Macbeth, for example, closes with the witches' cryptic remark "Fair is foul, and foul is fair."

evidence

the logical bases or supports for an assertion or idea. Logical arguments consist of at least three elements: propositions, reasoning, and evidence. The first of these consists of the ideas that the writer advocates or defends. The logical links by which the argument is advanced make up the second. The statistics, facts, anecdotes and testimonial support provided by the writer in defense of the idea constitute the evidence. In a research paper, evidence consisting of paraphrases or quotations from the works of other writers must be documented in a footnote, endnote, or parenthetical reference. See also argumentation.

sarcasm

from the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intending to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it's simply cruel.

euphemism

from the Greek word for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

Susan Sontag

A Women's Beauty: Susan Sontag, one of leading critics, debates whether beauty of woman's external would influence her internal beauty. According to Susan, nowadays, people often view a woman as a combination of both inside and outside beauty. However, people are still amazed by woman "who is beautiful is also intelligent, talented, good". The idea of beauty as a central is derived from Christianity's point of view. The word "beauty" is often represented as woman's feminine side, just like "handsome" is often a representation of man's masculine and good look. Even though, "beauty" could be used for everyone, but people tend to refer to woman as a symbol of their feminine. In the essay, Susan points out how woman is often obsessed about the ideal of beauty. Therefore, woman often obsesses about how "beauty" are each parts of their body. On the other hand, the ideal of handsome for man could be imperfect like "blemish". In conclusion, Susan propose a suggestion in order to save woman from "beauty".

analogy

A comparison that attempts to explain one idea or thing by likening it to another. Analogy is useful if handled properly, but it can be a source of confusion if the compared items are basically unalike

ad populem argument

A fallacious argument that appeals to the passions and prejudices of a group rather than its reason. An appeal for instance, to support an issue because it's the "American Way" is an ad populem argument.

metaphor

A figurative image that implies the similarity between things otherwise dissimilar, as when the poet Robert Frost states "I have been acquainted with the night," meaning that he has survived despair.

hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time.

simile

A figure of speech which, like the metaphor, implies a similarity between things otherwise dissimilar. The simile, however, always uses the words like, as, or so to introduce the comparison: "As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion."

red herring

A side issue introduced into an argument in order to distract from the main argument. It is a common device of politicians: "Abortion may be a woman's individual right, but have you considered the danger of the many germ-infested abortion clinics?" Here the side issue of the dirty clinics clouds the ethical issue of the right or wrong of having an abortion.

cliché

A stale image or expression, and the bane of good expository writing. "White as a ghost" is a cliché; so is "busy as a bee." Some clever writers can produce an effect by occasionally inserting a cliché in their prose, but most simply invent a fresh image rather than cull one from the public stock.

process analysis

A type of development in writing that stresses how a sequence of steps produces a certain effect. For instance, explaining to the reader all of the steps involved in balancing a checkbook would be a process essay.

understatement

A way of deliberately representing something as less than it is in order to stress its magnitude. Also called litotes. A good writer will restrain the impulse to hammer home a point and will use understatement instead. An example is the following line from Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest: "To lose one parent, Mr. Worthing, may be regarded as a misfortune; to lose both looks like carelessness."

attitude

A writer's intellectual position or emotion regarding the subject of the writing. In essay sections, expect to be asked what the writer's attitude is and how his or her language conveys that attitude.

narration

An account of events as they happen. A narrative organizes material on the basis of chronological order or pattern, stressing the sequence of events and pacing these events according to the emphasis desired. Narration is often distinguished from three other modes of writing: argumentation, description and exposition.

ad hominem argument

An argument that attacks the integrity or character of an opponent rather than the merits of an issue. (Ad hominem is Latin for "to the man.") It is also informally known as "mud-slinging."

image/imagery

An image is a phrase or expression that evokes a picture or describes a scene. An image may be either literal, in which case it is a realistic attempt to depict with words what something looks like, or figurative, in which case the expression is used that likens the thing described to something else (e.g., "My love is like a red, red rose.").

argumentation

Argumentation is the writer's attempt to convince his reader to agree with him. It is based upon appeals to reason, evidence proving the argument, and sometimes emotion to persuade. Some arguments attempt to merely prove a point, but others go beyond proving to inciting the reader to action. At the heart of all argumentation lies a debatable issue.

Richard Rodriguez

Aria: Memoir of a Bilingual Child: Growing up in a household that barely speaks English while struggling with the social consequences of being immigrant. Highlights the difficulties in forgetting their native tongue of Spanish and what seemed familiar.

Banksy (HBO)

Banksy Does New York: A documentary showing a 30 day "internship" by the widely recognized street artist Banksy. He depicts social and political issues in his pieces and is never seen painting them. His pieces are controversial and aim to be on purpose, yet are appreciated and are sold for millions.

Ruta Sepetys

Between Shades of Gray : In 1941, fifteen-year-old Lina is preparing for art school, first dates, and all that summer has to offer. But one night, the Soviet secret police barge violently into her home, deporting her along with her mother and younger brother. They are being sent to Siberia. Lina's father has been separated from the family and sentenced to death in a prison camp. All is lost. Lina fights for her life, fearless, vowing that if she survives she will honor her family, and the thousands like hers, by documenting their experience in her art and writing. She risks everything to use her art as messages, hoping they will make their way to her father's prison camp to let him know they are still alive. It is a long and harrowing journey, and it is only their incredible strength, love, and hope that pull Lina and her family through each day.

Josiah Bunting

Class Warfare: Bunting recalls his experiences while working as a headmaster of a large boarding school. Among other things, he remembers four flags of scarlet, white, and gold, rectangular in shape that hung in both sides of the altar of the boarding school. These were memorial flags that commemorated graduates of the school who had died in four wars: World War 1, World War 2, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Believes everyone should have to serve in war.

Dave Cullen

Columbine : Analysis of the school shooting, giving insight of the background of the two shooters, how they prepared for the event, and the repercussions that the victims families faced post-tragedy. Written by Da

logical fallacy

Errors in reasoning used by speakers or writers, sometimes in order to dupe their audiences. Most logical fallacies are based on insufficient evidence ("All redheads are passionate lovers"); or irrelevant information ("Don't let him do the surgery; he cheats on his wife"); or faulty logic ("If you don't quit smoking, you'll die of lung cancer").

Benjamin Franklin & John Adams

Declaration of Independence : List of grievances addressed to the king of England, colonies stated what they wanted from the crown along as becoming a sovereign state. Formally voiced the Colonies choice to separate from its metropole. Did nothing but state that the colonies wanted to be separate, obviously the King denied their requests starting the revolutionary war.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions :Women's rights, given in the same format as the declaration of independence

subordination

Expressing in a dependent clause, phrase, or single word any idea that is not significant enough to be expressed in a main clause or an independent sentence 1. Lacking subordination: John wrote his research paper on Thomas Jefferson; he was interested in this great statesman. 2. With subordination: Because John was interested in Thomas Jefferson, he wrote his research paper on this great statesman.

essay

From the French word essai, or "attempt," the essay is a short prose discussion of a single topic. Essays are sometimes classified as formal or informal. A formal essay is aphoristic, structured, and serious. An informal essay is personal, revelatory, humorous, and somewhat loosely structured.

oxymoron

From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness."

Abraham Lincoln

Gettysburg Address: The Gettysburg Address is a speech delivered by Abraham Lincoln at the November 19, 1863, dedication of Soldier's National Cemetery, a cemetery for Union soldiers killed at the Battle Of Gettysburg during the American Civil War.

Maya Angelou

Graduation: Racial prejudice oh how white people are superior in intelligence. Demonstrates bigotry and how ingrained it's in society. Explains why the black population is deemed as inferior.

Mike Rose

I Just Wanna Be Average:Describes one man's struggle through an education system designed against his literary ambition and potential. Mike Rose is mistakenly placed in an educational system designed for the not so bright students. Describes the constant let downs by teachers and dangerous impacts on himself and fellow classmates. Rose is finally recognized, by his teacher, when scoring remarkably well during his sophomore biology class. The teacher checks his academic records and realizes the mistake that had been made. Rose is then transferred to a higher level program, but the mindset established in the previous program follows him there. Rose continues to face problems as he struggles to adapt to the new pace and workload, but same teaching and learning methods. Eventually Rose finds hope when his true potential is discovered by his English teacher, Mr. MacFarland.

Nicholas Carr

Is Google Making Us Stupid? :The simplicity of the internet has taken away desire to learn and the capability to absorb information. People skim articles and do not take the time to ponder questions instead they use the internet

Brent Staples

Just Walk On By: Black people, rather than having an individual identity, are victims of discrimination due to their skin color. Staples talks about the stereotypical view of education and race, as he is a well-educated man yet is feared by the public for his coloring.

Malcolm X

Learning to Read: His alma mater is books. Describes how Malcolm self taught himself to read and write in prison. He explains the prejudice behind being black, and why bigotry exists in America. He also discusses the methods that have to be implemented to stop racial prejudice and stereotyping.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Letters from Birmingham Jail: White supremacy and how protesters should not be afraid to be thrown into jail because it's what's politically correct.

Amy Tan

Mother Tongue: Emphasizes the idea that we all speak different languages unconsciously and that we are categorized by the way we speak. The author is a fictional writer who is "fascinated by language in daily life" and uses language as a daily part of her work as a writer.

James Baldwin

Notes of A Native Son:Capture a view of black life and black thought at the dawn of the civil rights movement and as the movement slowly gained strength through the words of one of the most captivating essayists and foremost intellectuals of that era. Writing as an artist, activist, and social critic, Baldwin probes the complex condition of being black in America. With a keen eye, he examines everything from the significance of the protest novel to the motives and circumstances of the many black expatriates of the time

satire

Often an attack on a person. Also the use of wit and humor in order to ridicule society's weaknesses so as to correct them. In literature, two types of satire have been recognized: Horatian satire, which is gentle and smiling; Juvenalian satire which is sharp and biting.

Nancy Mairs

On Being a Cripple: Mairs is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis and calls herself a cripple. She explains her reasoning behind it and the public view towards being disabled. Boo

Barbara Lazear Ascher

On Compassion: An explanation of how people aren't born compassionate and develop the trait over time due to their own life experiences. For example the homeless man in the coffee shop who is given food out of compassion from the owners.

Lars Eighner

On Dumpster Diving: Lars Eighner describes his experiences on the street and the art of Dumpster diving. Eighner describes the ways of identifying between good and rotten foods in the dumpster. Different locations allow for better yield as Eighner states when he recalls his time near a pizza store. Eighner continues with his tips about which consumers waste more and are ideal for scavenging from, which in this case were students. When it came to companions in local dumpsters, Eighner didn't mind. Although Eighner hated can scavengers, because the work was harmful to all the useful items in the dumpster, and the money was not worth the damage that it brought. Wasting good items from the dumpster was wrong in the scavenger ethics. In Eighner's case when scavenging through trash, he takes caution not to judge the consumers by their waste, whether its pills, documents, or other personal items. Eighner sums his knowledge into two basic

E. B. White

Once More to the Lake: In E.B. White's vivid 1941 personal essay 'Once More to the Lake', the lake serves as the setting for both the author's past and present. Early on, White reflects on his own childhood when his father would take him to the lake. He then explains that now he is taking his own son to that very same lake. Throughout the essay, White describes a dual existence that he experiences when spending time with his son at the lake. This dual existence is apparent whenever White has a hard time distinguishing himself from his own son. In some ways, White is lost to the setting, suffering an identity crisis. The essay moves in a non-linear (non-chronological) way as White weaves in and out of the past and present, following the flow of his mental process, or as what many would call stream-of-consciousness. By the essay's end, White has come full circle, accepting his own mortality. In his son's image, he no longer sees himself. He is clear that his son's maturation is a sign that White is getting closer to death.

Ken Kesey

One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest: A story about Randle Patrick McMurphy who fights against the martinet Nurse Ratched runs the psychiatric ward through abuse, medication and sessions of electroconvulsive therapy. Chief Bromden, The main character, views the story in a delusion thinking everyone's a machine. (The Combine)

George Orwell

Shooting an Elephant: A British police officer living in India has a mutual disrespect with its citizens. An elephant becomes aggravated and stomps a man to death; Orwell is forced to kill the animal. Themes include innocence, duty, and bravery.

Peter Singer

Singer's Solution to World Poverty: Spend all excess money on helping those who don't have the necessary resources to do it themselves. Singer uses children as a way to make people feel guilty about indulgence.

Malcolm Gladwell

Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not be Tweeted: Using the internet has become one of the most important factors in the way in which people live today; therefore, social media, like Facebook and YouTube, are some of the main ways that people communicate with one another. Before the age of technology, information was spread in person or by action. When society was faced with challenges like civil-rights movements, people could not simply click a button and believe that their problems were fixed. This passage strongly argues that there is a difference in the way activism was viewed during the sixties verses today. Traditional activism provided strong-ties while current activism favors weak-ties among people.

Toni Morrison

The Bluest Eye:Novel about a young black girl named Pecola who wishes for blue eyes because she thinks this will bring her love, beauty, and respect. Parents - Cholly and Pauline

Sherman Alexie

The Joy of Reading and Writing: Superman and Me: Sherman Alexie explains his life as an Indian boy and how learning to read shaped his entire world. Living in an Indian reserve, Alexie was expected to fail and remain uneducated.Alexie knew he was capable of more and was determined to break the mold. With perseverance and dedication Alexie was able to save his own life and break down the doors of the stereotype of being just another uneducated Indian boy. He places himself in the shoes of a hero. Superman had played a bigger role in his life than learning how to read, he had become a symbol of strength and courage for Alexie. The symbolism of superman is clarified when he says, "I am breaking down the door. In the way, I learned to read."

Tim O'Brien

The Things They Carried: Group of short stories about the symbolism behind war, truth, and bravery. Set during and after the Vietnam War. O'Brien does not agree with the way wars are fought, nor the way the draft impacts the war effort. O'Brien tries to elucidate the war for those who were unable to experience it or have misconceptions about it.

Jamaica Kincaid

The Ugly Tourist: Tourists are morally ugly, plus the physical ugliness of tourism

rhetoric

The art of using persuasive language. The art of analyzing all the choices involving language that a writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make in a situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective; the specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a situation.

slanting

The characteristic of selecting facts, words, or emphasis to achieve a preconceived intent: Favorable intent: "Although the Senator looks bored, when it comes time to vote he is on the right side of the issue." Unfavorable intent: "The Senator may vote on the right side of the issues, but he always looks bored."

unity

The characteristic of having all parts contribute to the overall effect. In writing, an essay or paragraph is described as having unity when all sentences develop one idea. The worst enemy of unity is irrelevant material. A good rule is to delete all sentences that do not advance or prove the thesis (in an essay) or the topic sentence (in a paragraph).

conclusion

The final paragraph or paragraphs that sum up an essay and bring it to a close. Effective conclusions vary widely, but some common tacks used by writers to end their essays include summing up what has been said, suggesting what ought to be done, specifying consequences that are likely to occur, restating the beginning, or taking the reader by surprise with an unexpected ending. Most important of all, however, is to end the essay artfully and quietly without staging a grand show for the reader's benefit.

audience

The group for whom a work is intended. For a writer, the audience is the reader who the writer desires to persuade, inform, or entertain. Common sense tells us that a writer should always write to the level and needs of the particular audience for whom the writing is meant. For example, if you are writing for an unlettered audience, it is pointless to cram your writing with many literary allusions whose meanings will likely be misunderstood.

syntax

The order of words in a sentence and their relationships to each other. Good syntax requires correct grammar as well as effective sentence patters, including unity, coherence, and emphasis.

point of view

The perspective from which a piece of writing is developed. In nonfiction the point of view is usually the author's. In fiction the point of view can be first- or third-person point of view. In the first-person point of view, the author becomes part of the narration and refers to himself as "I." In the third-person point of view the narrator simply observes the action of the story. Third- person narrative is either omniscient (when the narrator knows everything about all of the characters) or limited (when the narrator knows only those things that might be apparent to a sensitive observer.)

mood

The pervading impression made on the feelings of the reader. For instance, Edgar Allan Poe often created a mood of horror in his short stories. A mood can be gloomy, sad, joyful, bitter, frightening, and so forth. A writer can create as many moods as his emotional range suggests.

voice

The presence or the sound of self chosen by the author. Most good writing sounds like someone delivering a message. The aim in a good student writing is to sound natural. Of course, the voice will be affected by the audience and occasion for writing. Voice is closely related to style.

coherence

The principle of clarity and logical adherence to a topic that binds together all parts of a composition. A coherent essay is one whose parts--sentences, paragraphs, pages--are logically fused into a single whole. Its opposite is an incoherent essay--one that is jumbled, illogical, and unclear.

parallelism

The principle of coherent writing requiring that coordinating elements be given the same grammatical form, as in Daniel Webster's dictum, "I was born an American; I will live an American; I will die an American."

causal relationship (cause and effect relationship)

The relationship expressing, "If X is the cause, then Y is the effect," or "If Y is the effect, then X caused it"—for example, "If the state builds larger highways, then traffic congestion will just get worse because more people will move to the newly accessible regions," or "If students plagiarize their papers, it must be because the Internet offers them such a wide array of materials from which to copy."

inversion

The reversal of the normal order of words in a sentence to achieve some desired effect, usually emphasis. Inversion is a technique long used in poetry, although most modern poets shun it as too artificial. For examples of inversion, see Shakespeare's "That Time of Year" (Sonnet 73).

pacing

The speed at which a piece of writing moves along. Pacing depends on the balance between summarizing action and representing action in detail. Syntax can also affect pacing.

irony

The use of language in such a way that apparent meaning contrasts sharply with the real meaning. One famous example (in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar) is Antony's description of Brutus as "an honorable man." Since Brutus was one of Caesar's assassins, Antony meant just the opposite. Irony is a softer form of sarcasm and shares with it the same contrast between apparent and real meaning. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language: (1) In verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is what does happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor.

style

The way a writer writes. The expression of an author's individuality through the use of words, sentence patterns, and selection of details Any of the choices writers make while writing—about diction, sentence length, structure, rhythm, and figures of speech—that make their work sound like them. The tone of a particular work can be due in part to a writer's style. James Baldwin is known for his distinctive style, one aspect of which is the mixing of formal, sometimes biblical, language and an everyday, conversational style, as in this sentence from "Notes of a Native Son" (p. 39 in 50 Essays): "I had declined to believe in that apocalypse which had been central to my father's vision; very well, life seemed to be saying, here is something that will certainly pass for an apocalypse until the real thing comes along."Advice to fledgling writers: Develop a style that combines sincerity with clarity.

Dave Barry

Turkeys in the Kitchen: Speaks of a man's use in the kitchen. Provides insight on stereotypical male and female behaviors during the holidays (in this case, Thanksgiving).

objective and subjective writing

Two different attitudes toward description. In objective writing the author tries to present the material fairly and without bias; in subjective writing the author stresses personal responses and interpretations. For instance, news reporters should be objective whereas poetry can be subjective.

Michael Pollan

Why Bother? : Environmentalist campaigning. Why should one person bother to change the world when there will always be those who don't. If one person actively seeks to make a difference, others will follow. Suggestions to improve the quality of life include growing your own food, making a compost pile, not eating meat, and practicing the Sabbath.

William Buckley

Why Don't We Complain?: Explains reasons why people do not complain about ordinary things that they are unhappy with. Buckley writes this essay to reflect on his own experiences about accepting inconveniences that could be easily fixed by saying something.

transition

Words, phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs that indicate connections between the writer's ideas. These transitions provide landmarks to guide the reader from one idea to the next so that the reader will not get lost. The following are some standard transitional devices: Time: soon, immediately, afterward, later, meanwhile, in the meantime Place: nearby, on the opposite side, further back, beyond Result: as a result, therefore, thus, as a consequence Comparison: similarly, likewise, also Contrast: on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, by, yet, otherwise Addition: furthermore, moreover, in addition, and, first, second, third, finally Example: for example, for instance, to illustrate, as a matter of fact, on the whole, in other words

exposition

Writing whose chief aim is to explain. Rather than showing, as in narration, exposition tells. A majority of essays contain some exposition because they need to convey information, give background, or tell how events occurred or processes work.

synecdoche

a part of something used to refer to the whole—for example, "50 head of cattle" referring to 50 complete animals

generalization

a statement that asserts some broad truth based upon a knowledge of specific cases. For instance, the statement "Big cars are gas guzzlers" is a generalization about individual cars. Generalizations are the end products of inductive reasoning, where a basic truth may be inferred about a class after experience with a representative number of its members. One should, however, beware of rash or faulty generalizations—those made on insufficient experience or evidence. It was once thought, for example, that scurvy sufferers were malingerers, which led the British navy to the policy of flogging the victims of scurvy aboard its ships. Later, medical research showed that the lethargy of scurvy victims was an effect rather than the cause of the disease. The real disease was found to be a lack of vitamin C in their diet

aphorism

a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

loose sentence

a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. See periodic sentence.

colloquialism

a word or expression acceptable in informal usage but inappropriate in formal discourse. A given word may have a standard as well a colloquial meaning. Bug, for example, is standard when used to refer to an insect; when used to designate a virus, i.e. "She's at home recovering from a bug," the word is a colloquialism.

parody

a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.

example

an instance that is representative of an idea or claim or that otherwise illustrates it. The example mode of development is used in essays that make a claim and then prove it by citing similar and supporting cases.

appeal to pathos

appeal to emotion, an appeal to feelings rather than to strict reason; a legitimate ploy in an argument as long as it is not excessively or exclusively used.

appeal to logos

appeal to logic

appeal to ethos

one of three strategies for persuading audiences—appeal to ethics

allegory

the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or generalization about human existence.

genre

the major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term: within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

anaphora

the repetition of a group of words at the beginning of successive clauses

begging the question

the situation that results when a writer or speaker constructs an argument on an assumption that the audience does not accept.

rhetorical modes

this flexible term describe the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently set up as expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to re- create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse.

diction

word choice. Diction refers to the choice of words a writer uses in an essay or other writing. Implicit in the idea of diction is a vast vocabulary of synonyms - different words that have more or less equivalent meanings. If only one word existed for every idea or condition, diction would not exist. But since we have a choice of words with various shades of meaning, a writer can and does choose among words to express ideas. The diction of skilled writers is determined by the audience and occasion of their writing.

abstract

words or phrases denoting ideas, qualities, and conditions that exist but cannot be seen. Love, for example, is an abstract term; so are happiness, beauty, and patriotism. The opposite of abstract terms are concrete ones—words that refer to things that are tangible, visible, or otherwise physically evident. Hunger is abstract, but hamburger is concrete. The best writing blends the abstract with the concrete, with concrete terms used in greater proportion to clarify abstract ones. Writing two steeped in abstract words or terms tends to be vague and unfocused.