AP Psych Exam Prep, AP Psychology Exam Review
Karl Wernicke
"Wernicke's area"; discovered area of left temporal lobe that involved language understanding: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense
In high school, it did not seem to make a difference how much Clive studied Spanish; he always earned poor grades. Now that Clive is in college, he is required to take Spanish again. According to the concept of learned helplessness, which of the following statements can be most expected from Clive as he starts the new Spanish class?
"Why study? There isn't anything I can do to improve my Spanish skills."
Endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (p. 82)
Wallace Stevens
"rage for order" idea says humans are prone to perceive patterns in random events and overestimate our intuition
refractory period
(1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (p. 79)
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN) A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms
Middle Adulthood
- 40s-60s - Physical decline is gradual - Skin loses some elasticity and wrinkles appear - Visual acuity decreases - Women experiences a gradual decline in fertility as they approach menopause (50 years old) - Both genders gain weight: abdominal area (male) and hips/thighs (women) - Hair begins to thin and gray
Late adulthood
- 60s - death - Last stage of physical change - Skin continues to lose elasticity - Reaction time slows further - Muscle strength diminishes - Smell, taste, hearing, and vision decline significantly - Brain may no longer functions at optimal levels → memory loss, dementia, Alzheimer's
infancy period
1 month-2 years old
Karen Horney began as a psychoanalytic theorist. However, she soon found classical Freudian ideas too restrictive in their emphasis on sexual and aggressive motives. 5 ways she widened and modified classical psychoanalysis are
1. Childhood as a period of anxious helplessness and hidden anger toward all powerful but indifferent adults. 2. Neurotic strategies to cope with the anxiety and anger that alienate the person from the true self; the neurotic person is not comfortable in his or her own skin but must avoid, attack, or completely comply with others. 3. Male envy of the ability of women to give birth (womb envy) and to breast-feed. 4. A desexualized Oedipus complex, in which the key issues are power and love rather than sexuality and guilt. 5. The importance of culture, not biology, in determining personality makeup and areas of conflict.
Neurotic needs differ from those experienced by psychologically more normal people. Such needs
1. evidence disproportionate intensity 2. are indiscriminately applied to others 3. evidence an extreme disregard for reality 4. show a tendency to provoke intense anxiety when unsatisfied.
René Descartes
17t century French philosopher. Famously known for writing "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). Wrote about concept of dualism.
John Locke
17th century English philosopher. Wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment .
Young adulthood (Erikson's stage of development)
20s to early 40s; intimacy vs. isolation; form close relationships or feel socially isolated
How many stages of adulthood (20 years) are there?
3 (early, middle, late) - each with their own rewards and challenges
Preschool (Erikson's stage of development)
3 to 6 years; initiative vs. guilt; initiate tasks or feel guilty about being independent
human genomes
30,000 genes needed to build a human
Initiative v. Guilt
3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves 3-6 years
with nearly __ neurons , each connecting with roughly __ other neurons, we end up with perhaps __ synapses
40 billion, 10,000 , 400 trillion
identity v. role confusion
5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction 13-25
Intimacy v. Isolation
6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness
Generativity v. Stagnation
7th stage in Erikson's model; in middle age, adults must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose
Phoneme
A basic or minimum unit of sound in a language.
Morpheme
A basic unit of meaning in a language.
Normal curve
A bell-shaped graphic representation of data showing what percentage of the population falls under each part of the curve
Centration (Piaget)
A child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose, but ignores his/her other features would be illustrating the Piagetian concept of
Which of the following responses was most likely acquired through classical conditioning?
A child's fear of dogs after the child has been bitten by a dog
Alzheimer's Disease
A chronic and progressive disorder of the brain that is the most common cause of degeneration dementia
flashbulb memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Rational-emotive therapy
A cognitive behavior therapy that emphasizes the importance of logical, rational thought processes.
Personal Fable
A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them
Imaginary Audience
A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
A conflict in which one has to choose between two equally unattractive options.
Multiple approach-avoidance conflict
A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects.
Approach-approach conflict
A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options.
Approach-avoidance conflict
A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made.
Aversive counterconditioning
A counterconditioning technique in which an aversive or noxious stimulus is paired with a stimulus with the undesirable behavior.
Naturalistic observation
A descriptive research method in which researchers study behavior in its natural context.
Experimental design
A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship
Polygraph
A device that records or graphs many measures of physical arousal, such as heart rate, breathing, perspiration, and blood pressure; often called a "lie detector."
Sociobiology
A discipline based on the premise that even day-to-day behaviors are determined by the process of natural selection - that social behaviors that contribute to the survival of a species are passed on via the genes from one generation to the next.
Volumetric thirst
A drop in extracellular fluid levels.
Osmotic thirst
A drop in intracellular fluid levels.
Psychoactive Drug
A drug that alters behavior, thought, or perception by altering biochemical reactions in the nervous system, thereby affecting consciousness
Stimulant
A drug that increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and elevates mood
Creativity
A feature of thought and problem solving that includes the tendency to generate or recognize ideas considered to be high-quality, original, novel, and appropriate.
Zygote
A fertilized egg
Gender stereotype
A fixed, overly simple, sometimes incorrect idea about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of males or females
Emotion
A four-part process that involves psychological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretation, and behavioral expression - all of which interact, rather than occurring in a linear sequence; helps organisms deal with important events.
bar graph
A graph that uses horizontal or vertical bars to display data with spaces between
Psychoanalysis
A lengthy insight therapy that was developed by Freud and aims at uncovering conflicts and unconscious impulses through special techniques, including free association, dream analysis, and transference.
Placenta
A mass of tissue that is attached to the wall f the uterus and connected to the developing fetus by the umbilical cord; it supplies nutrients and eliminates waste products
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
relearning
A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.
Blood-Brain Barrier
A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross
concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
prototype
A mental image or best example of a category.
algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.
echoic memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
iconic memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
hippocampus
A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Placebo effect
A nonspecific improvement that occurs as a result of a person's expectations of change rather than as a direct result of any specific therapeutic treatment.
Stress
A nonspecific, emotional response to real or imagined challenges or threats; a result of a cognitive appraisal by the individual
permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Produces immature, impulsive, dependent, and demanding children.
authoritarian parenting
A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children. Produces anxious and insecure children.
Personality
A pattern of relatively permanent traits, dispositions, or characteristics that give some consistency to people's behavior.
Substance Abuser
A person who overuses and relies on drugs to deal with everyday life
Self-efficacy
A person's belief about whether he or she can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior.
Vulnerability
A person's diminished ability to deal with demanding life events.
Gender Identity
A person's sense of being male or female
Stress
A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation.
Biofeedback
A process through which people receive information about the status of a physical system and use this feedback information to learn to control the activity of that system
Variable-ratio Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a predetermined but variable number of responses has occurred
Fixed-interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a specified interval of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once in the interval
Variable-interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after predetermined but varying amounts of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once after each interval
Fixed-ratio Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer(reward) is delivered after a specified number of responses has occurred
Longitudinal Study
A research approach that follows a group of people over time to determine change or stability in behavior.
Longitudinal Study
A research method that focuses on a specific group of individuals at different ages to examine changes that have occurred over time
Double-blind techniques
A research technique in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in the control and experimental groups.
Regression
A return to a prior stage after a person has progressed through the various stages of development; caused by anxiety.
Representative sample
A sample of individuals who match the population with whom they are being compared with regard to key variables such as socioeconomic status and age
Representative sample
A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn
Percentile score
A score indicating what percentage of the test population would obtain a lower score
Standard score
A score that expresses an individual's position relative to the mean, based on the standard deviation
heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
Traumatic stressor
A situation that threatens one's physical safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness.
Need for achievement
A social need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success
Gender
A socially and culturally constructed set of distinctions between masculine and feminine sets of behaviors that is promoted and expected by society
Deviation IQ
A standard IQ test score whose mean and standard deviation remain constant for all ages
Intimacy
A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to self-disclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person.
Dream
A state of consciousness that occurs during sleep, usually accompanied by vivid visual, tactile, or auditory imagery.
Cognitive Dissonance
A state of mental discomfort arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person's beliefs or between a person's beliefs and overt behavior.
Stressor
A stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaption.
cross-sectional study
A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.
Emotion
A subjective response, usually accompanied by a physiological change, which is interpreted n a particular way by the individual and often leads to a change in behavior
insight
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
Bloom's Taxonomy
A system for categorizing levels of abstraction of questions that commonly occur in educational settings. Includes the following competencies: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, and creation.
Morality
A system of learned attitudes about social practices, instituations, and individual behavior used to evaluate situations and behavior as right or wrong, good or bad
Language
A system of symbols, usually words, that convey meaning and a set of rules for combining symbols to generate an infinite number of messages.
Acute stress
A temporary pattern of stressor-activated arousal with a distinct onset and limited duration.
mental set
A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore contradictory evidence.
Raw score
A test score that has not been transformed or converted in any way
Behavior therapy
A therapy that is based on the application of learning principles to human behavior and that focuses on changing overt behaviors rather than on understanding subjective feelings, unconscious processes, or motivations; also known as behavior modification.
Systematic desensitization
A three-stage counterconditioning procedure in which people are taught to relax when confronting stimuli that forming elicited anxiety.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
A treatment for severe mental illness in which an electric current is briefly applied to the head in order to produce a generalized seizure.
Ex Post Facto Design
A type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher.
Cross-sectional Studies
A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ
Cross-sectional study
A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ on an important dimension
Descriptive Studies
A type of research method that allows researchers to measure variables so that they can develop a description of a situation or phenomenon
Family therapy
A type of therapy in which two or more people who are committed to one another's well-being are treated at once, in and effort to change the ways the interact.
Validity
Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict
Reliability
Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings
neural plasticity
Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically
Size constancy
Ability of the visual perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina.
Conservation
Ability to recognize that objects can e transformed in some way, visually or phycially, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume
Myopic
Able to see clearly things that are close but having trouble seeing objects at a distance; nearsighted.
Hyperopic
Able to see objects at a distance clearly but having trouble seeing things up close; farsighted
Accommodation
According to Piaget, the process by which existing mental structures and behaviors are modified to adapt to new experiences
Assimilation
According to Piaget, the process by which new ideas and experiences are absorbed and incorporated into existing mental structures and behaviors
An individual is having trouble with cognitive tasks related to learning and memory. Which of the following neurotransmitters is most likely to be involved with the problem?
Acetylcholine
short-term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Arousal
Activation of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the muscles and glands
long-term potentiation (LTP)
An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Locus of control
An individual's sense of where his or her life influences originate - internally or externally.
Client-centered therapy
An insight therapy, developed be Carl Rogers, that seeks to help people evaluate the world and themselves from their own perspective by providing them with a nondirective environment and unconditional positive regard; also known as person-centered therapy.
Psychoneuroimmunology
An interdisciplinary area of study that includes behavioral, neurological, and immune factors and their relationship to the development of disease
Motive
An internal mechanism that selects and directs behavior; often used in the narrower sense of a motivational process that has been learned, rather than biologically based.
Time-out
An operant conditioning procedure in which a person is physically removed from sources of reinforcement to decrease the occurrence of undesired behaviors.
Token economy
An operant conditioning procedure in which individuals who display appropriate behavior receive tokens that they can exchange for desirable items or activities.
Defense Mechanism
An unconscious way of reducing anxiety by distorting perceptions of reality.
Theory of mind
An understanding of mental states such as feelings, desires, beliefs, and intentions and of the causal role they play in human behavior
Socrates
Ancient Greek philosopher. Promoted introspection by saying, "Know thyself."
Aristotle
Ancient Greek philosopher. Wrote "Peri Psyches" ("About the Mind").
Social phobia
Anxiety disorder characterized by fear of, and desire to avoid, situations in which the person might be exposed to scrutiny by others and might behave in an embarrassing or humiliating way.
Specific phobia
Anxiety disorder characterized by irrational and persistent fear of a particular object or situation, along with a compelling desire to avoid it.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Anxiety disorder characterized by persistent and uncontrollable thoughts and irrational beliefs that cause the performance of compulsive rituals that interfere with daily life.
Panic Attack
Anxiety disorders characterized as acute anxiety, accompanied by sharp increases in autonomic nervous system arousal, that is not triggered by a specific event.
Phobic disorders
Anxiety disorders characterized by excessive and irrational fear of, and consequent attempted avoidance of, specific objects or situations.
Aggression
Any behavior intended to harm another person or thing.
Drug
Any chemical substance that, in small amounts, alters biological or cognitive processes or both
Reinforcer
Any event that increases the probability of a recurrence of the response that preceded it
Secondary Punisher
Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic negative value for an organism but acquires punishing qualities when linked with a primary punisher
Secondary Reinforcer
Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic value for an organism but that becomes rewarding when linked with a primary reinforcer
depressants (AKA sedative-hypnotics)
Any of a class of drugs that relax and calm a user and, in higher doses, induce sleep; also known as a depressant
Trait
Any readily identifiable stable quality that characterizes how an individual differs from other individuals.
Primary Punisher
Any stimulus or event that is naturally painful or unpleasant to an organism
Insight therapy
Any therapy that attempts to discover relationships between unconscious motivations and current abnormal behavior.
Self-perception Theory
Approach to attitude formation that assumes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behavior.
Receptive fields
Areas of the retina that, when stimulated, produce a change in the firing of cells in the visual system.
Decision making
Assessing and choosing among alternatives.
Anna O.
Austrian-Jewish woman (real name: Bertha Pappenheim) diagnosed with hysteria, treated by Josef Breuer for severe cough, paralysis of the extremities on the right side of her body, and disturbances of vision, hearing, and speech, as well as hallucinations and loss of consciousness. Her treatment is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis.
Reflex
Automatic behavior that occurs involuntarily in response to a stimulus and without prior learning and usually shows little variability from instance to instance
two-word stage
Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
babbling stage
Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
Abnormal Behavior
Behavior characterized as atypical, socially unacceptable, distressing to the individual or others, maladaptive, and/or the result of distorted cognitions
Superstitious Behavior
Behavior learned through coincidental association with reinforcement
Type A behavior
Behavior pattern characterized by competitiveness, impatience, hostility, and constant efforts to do more in less time
Type A
Behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations.
Type B
Behavior pattern characterized by relaxed, unstressed approach to life.
Type B behavior
Behavior pattern exhibited by people who are calmer, more patient, and less hurried than Type A individuals
Discrimination
Behavior targeted at individuals or groups and intended to hold them apart and treat them differently.
Prosocial Behavior
Behavior that benefits someone else or society but that generally offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may even involve some personal risk or sacrifice.
Altruism
Behaviors that benefit other people and for which there is no discernable extrinsic reward, recognition, or appreciation.
Metal retardation
Below-average intellectual functioning, as measured on an IQ test, accompanied by substantial limitations in functioning that originate before age 8
Xander can no longer stomach the taste of sushi after he vomited from eating a spoiled serving of it. However, the appearance of sushi does not make him sick. Which of the following best accounts for why Xander becomes sick upon tasting sushi but not seeing sushi?
Biological predisposition, because this example illustrates taste aversion.
Drive
Biologically instigated motivation.
hallucinogens (AKA psychedelic drugs)
Consciousness-altering drugs that affect moods, thoughts, memory, judgment, and perception and that are consumed for the purpose of producing those results
Substance Use Disorder
Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.
Responses extinguish fastest when they are learned through which type of reinforcement schedule?
Continuous
Chronic stress
Continuous stressful arousal persisting over time.
Wernicke's Area
Contorls language reception. Damage creates inability to comprehend language; usually in the left temporal lobe
Boca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Which dog is demonstrating stimulus discrimination in the following scenarios?
Cookie cowers when she hears the pop of fireworks, but not when she hears the pop of lightning.
the complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
DNA
Social Loafing
Decrease in effort and productivity that occurs when an individual works in a group instead of alone.
Overjustification effect
Decrease in likelihood that an intrinsically motivated task, after having been extrinsically rewarded, will be performed when the reward is no longer given.
Neuroses
Deeply ingrained, inflexible, and maladaptive behavior. Usually the person has little or no insight into their behavior. Closest current diagnostic term for Horney's theory is personality disorder. Range of spontaneity becomes inflexible. regardless of situation needs things to be a certain way. internal boundaries keeping someone more rigid, doing things to get approval the patterns of how they organize their experience.
Repression
Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.
Projection
Defense mechanism by which people attribute their own undesirable traits to others.
Reaction Formation
Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.
Displacement
Defense mechanism by which people divert sexual or aggressive feelings for one person onto another person.
Sublimation
Defense mechanism by which people redirect socially unacceptable impulses toward acceptable goals.
Denial
Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.
Rationalization
Defense mechanism by which people reinterpret undesirable feelings or behaviors in terms that make them appear acceptable.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily reexperiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma.
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Delusions of reference, delusions of persecution, delusions of grandeur, thought broadcasting, though insertion, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behaviour, catatonia
Major depressive disorder
Depressive disorder characterized by loss of interest in almost all of life's usual activities; a sad, hopeless, or discourage mood, sleep disturbance; loss of appetite; loss of energy; and feelings of unworthiness and guilt.
Inverted U function
Describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal.
Scientific Method
Designed to control biases and subjective judgement. A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.
stage 6: individual principles and conscience
Determined by abstract ethical principles pf equity an justice (post-conventional)
Projective Tests
Devices or instruments used to assess personality, in which examinees are shown a standard set of ambiguous stimuli and asked to respond to the stimuli in their own way.
Lateralization of emotion
Different influences of the two brain hemispheres on various emotions. The left hemisphere apparently influences positive emotions and the right hemisphere influences negative emotions.
Dissociative amnesia
Dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.
overt
Done or shown openly so patient knows they are being watched
Lucid Dream
Dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming while it is happening
opiates (AKA narcotics)
Drugs derived from the opium poppy, including opium, morphine, and heroin
effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
integrity vs despair
Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner both -18 months
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's stage between 6 and pubertyyears, when the child learns to be productive
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt 18-36 months
availability heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
Rape
Forcible sexual assault on an unwilling partner.
Non-rapid Eye Movement Sleep
Four distinct stages of sleep during which no rapid eye movements occur.
proposed that the phrenology, studying bumps on the skull, could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits
Franz Gall
Horney distinguished her theory of neurotic trends from Freud. Her answer is that in the center of psychic disturbances are unconscious strivings developed in order to cope with life despite fears, helplessness, and isolation. "neurotic trends."
Freud believed that the [neurotic] disturbances generate from a conflict between environmental factors and repressed instinctual impulses.
Oral Stage
Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.
Latency Stage
Freud's fourth stage of personality development, from about age 7 until puberty, during which sexual urges are inactive.
Genital Stage
Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).
Unconscious
Freud's level of mental life that consists of mental activities beyond people's normal awareness.
Consciousness
Freud's level of mental life that consists of those experiences that we are aware of at any given time.
Preconscious
Freud's level of the mind that contains those experiences that are not currently conscious but may become so with varying degrees of difficulty.
Anal Stage
Freud's second stage of personality development, from about age 2 to about age 3, during which children learn to control the immediate gratification they obtain through defecation and to become responsive to the demands of society.
Phallic Stage
Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals.
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
GABA
which neurotransmitters inhibits CNS activity in order to calm a person down during stressful times?
GABA
Which of the following is most closely associated with the idea of epigenetics?
Gene display based on environmental factors
Fixed-action patterns
Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus; replaced the older notion of instinct.
Stage 3: Good-Boy/Good-Girl Orientation
Good behavior is what pleases/helps others and is approved of by them = can earn approval by being nice. (conventional)
Four-year-old Scott fell down the stairs at his grandmother's house. Although he was not badly hurt, he was very frightened. Now, whenever his parents mention visiting his grandmother's house, he feels anxious and fearful. In classical conditioning terms, what are the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the scenario, respectively?
Grandmother's house; falling
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Graphical record of brain-wave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead
Heritability refers to the percentage of what?
Group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics
Androgynous
Having both stereotypically male and stereotypically female characteristics
Conscious motivation
Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire.
Unconscious motivation
Having the desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire.
What was one of the major findings of Thomas Bouchard's study of twins?
He discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult identical twins who had been separated near birth.
Kholberg's flaws
He only tested boys Girls look at situational factors Based on western cultures what they think should be done v what they actually do
Subgoal analysis
Heuristic procedure in which a problem is broken down into smaller steps, each of which has a subgoal.
Backward search
Heuristic procedure in which a problem solver works backward from the goal or end of a problem to the current position, in order to analyze the problem and reduce the steps needed to get from the current position to the goal.
Means-ends analysis
Heuristic procedure in which the problem solver compares the current situation with the desired goal to determine the most efficient way to get from one to the other.
Erikson criticisms
His research was based on clinical observations and lacked vigorous scientific method. He also was questioned over whether this also applied to women.
Cytokines
Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system.
Rationalization
Horney treated the defense of it pretty much as had other theorists, including Freud. It may be defined as self-deception by reasoning. Thus, when the person rationalizes, he or she invents a good reason for some action where the actual reason would be unacceptable to his or her self-esteem. For example, the compliant type offers as the reason for "giving in" to others the desire to make them happy when, in fact, he or she seeks to bring them under his or her control. Where an altruistic reason is consciously offered, a desire for dominance lurks.
Hawthorne effect
Humans work better when others are watching
During which task might the right hemisphere of the brain be most active?
Imagining what a dress would look like on a friend
Aphasia
Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
Dementia
Impairment of mental functioning and global cognitive abilities in otherwise alert individuals, causing memory loss and related symptoms and typically having a progressive nature
Social Interest
In Adler's theory, a feeling of openness with all humanity.
Libido
In Freud's theory, the instinctual (and sexual) life force that, working on the pleasure principle and seeking immediate gratification, energizes the id.
Superego
In Freud's theory, the moral aspect of mental functioning comprising the ego ideal (what a person would ideally like to be) and the conscience and taught by parents and society.
Ego
In Freud's theory, the part of personality that seeks to satisfy instinctual needs in accordance with reality.
Id
In Freud's theory, the source of a person's instinctual energy, which works mainly on the pleasure principle.
Interpretation
In Freud's theory, the technique of providing a context, meaning, or cause for a specific idea, feeling, or set of behaviors; the process of tying a set of behaviors to its unconscious determinant.
Collective Unconscious
In Jung's theory, a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that reside in the unconscious and are inherited from one's ancestors.
Archetypes
In Jung's theory, the emotionally charged ideas and images that are rich in meaning and symbolism and exist within the collective unconscious.
Hierarchy of needs
In Maslow's theory, the notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic.
Need for achievement (n Ach)
In Murray and McClelland's theory, a mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal.
Schema
In Piaget's view, a specific mental structure; an organized way of interacting with the environment and experiencing it- a generalization a child makes based on comparable occurences of various actins, usally physical, motor actions
Fulfillment
In Roger's theory of personality, an inborn tendency directing people toward actualizing their essential nature and thus attaining their potential.
Self
In Roger's theory of personality, the perception an individual has of himself or herself and of his or her relationships to other people and to various aspects of life.
Ideal Self
In Roger's theory of personality, the self a person would ideally like to be.
Sensation seekers
In Zuckerman's theory, individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people.
grammar
In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
morpheme
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).
Need
In drive theory, a biological imbalance (such as dehydration) that threatens survival if it is left unmet; believed to produce drives.
Excessive Self-Control
In her clinical practice, Horney found that the tendency for excessive self-control was so pervasive that she originally classed it among the ten neurotic trends or needs: the need to restrict one's life self-protectively within narrow borders. Individuals who are exerting excessive self-control are attempting to avoid emotions: They "will not allow themselves to be carried away, whether by enthusiasm, sexual excitement, self-pity or rage. In short, they seek to check all spontaneity" (Horney, 1945, p. 136).
Self-actualization
In humanistic theory, the final level of psychological development, in which one strives to realize one's uniquely human potential-to achieve everything one is capable of achieving
phoneme
In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Convergent thinking
In problem solving, the process of narrowing down choices and alternatives to arrive at a suitable answer.
Divergent thinking
In problem solving, the process of widening the range of possibilities and expanding the options for solutions.
Resistance
In psychoanalysis, an unwillingness to cooperate, which a patient signals by showing a reluctance to provide the therapist with information or to help the therapist understand or interpret a situation.
Working through
In psychoanalysis, the repetitive cycle of interpretation, resistance to interpretation, and transference.
Vasocongestion
In the sexual response cycle, engorgement of the blood vessels, particularly in the genital area, due to increased blood flow
Cognitive theories
In the study of motivation, an explanation of behavior that asserts that people actively and regularly determine their own goals and the means of achieving them through thought.
Egocentrism
Inability to perceive a situation or event except in relation to oneself; also know as self-centeredness
Functional fixedness
Inability to see that an object can have a function other than its stated or usual one.
The dual-processing model refers to which of the following ideas?
Incoming information is processed by both conscious and unconscious tracks.
secure attachment
Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of direct reinforcement and that is not necessarily demonstrated through observable behavior
. A researcher interested in determining the size of a particular area of the brain would be most likely to use what kind of test?
MRI
revealed enlarged ventricles in schizophrenic patients
MRI Scans
revealed a larger than average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who display perfect pitch
MRI scans
in __ brain scans , the persons head is put into a strong magnetic field which aligns the spinning atoms of brain molecules . then a radio wave pulse momentarily disorients the atoms. when the atom returns to their normal spin, they emit signals that provide a detailed picture of soft tissues, including the brain
MRI, magnetic resonance imaging
Homeostasis
Maintenance of a constant state of inner stability or balance
testosterone
Male sex hormone
Which region of the brain controls our breathing and heartbeat?
Medulla
mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)
Which of the following statements has been supported by the research of evolutionary psychologists?
Men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children.
Which of the following is true regarding the initiation of sexual activity?
Men are more likely to initiate sexual activity than women.
Concept
Mental category used to classify an event or object according to some distinguishing property or feature.
imagery
Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation supplied by rewards that come from the external environment
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that leads to behaviors engaged in for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself
Psychoneuroimmunology
Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system.
Skinner Box
Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response
Prejudice
Negative evaluation of an entire group of people, typically based on unfavorable (and often wrong) stereotypes about groups.
Taking a painkiller to relieve a toothache is behavior learned through which of the following processes?
Negative reinforcement
__ are the elementary components of the nervous system, the body's speedy electrochemical information system.
Neurons
Conditioned Stimulus
Neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response
Which of the following kinds of learning is involved when a person displays a new behavior after watching someone else perform it?
Observational learning
Survey
One of the descriptive methods of research; it requires construction of a set of questions to administer to a group of participants
Sexual orientation
One's erotic attraction toward member of the same sex (a homosexual orientation), the opposite sex (a heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (a bisexual orientation).
Madeline wants her son to be well-behaved when they go to church. For every five minutes he sits still, she gives him a piece of candy. What type of learning is Madeline employing?
Operant conditioning
chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
5. The neurotic need to exploit others and get the better of them
Others evaluated primarily according to whether they can be exploited or made use of; dread of being exploited or made to look "stupid."
language
Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
serial position effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
operational stage
Piaget uses this term to refer to the logical systems of thought which emerge from middle childhood (ages 7-11 most children can understand reverse subtraction and things like all horses are animals but not all animals are horses). Not yet capable of abstract thinking. Develop conservationism and mathematical transformation.
Formal operational stage
Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development (beginning at about age 12), during which the individual can think hypothetically, can consider future possibilites, and can use deductive logic
Preoperational stage
Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (lasting from about age 2 to age 6 or 7), during which the child begins to represent the world symbolically
preoperational stage
Piaget's second stage; the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. Children represent things with words and images and uses intuitive rather than logical reasoning. The children develop pretend play and egocentrism in this stage and lack conservation.
Concrete operational stage
Piaget's thrid stage of cognitive development (lasting from approximately age 6 or 7 to age 11 or 12), during which the child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment, rules, and higher-order symbolic systems
Which is the most influential of the endocrine glands?
Pituitary gland
Optic chiasm
Point at which half of the optic nerve fibers from each eye cross over and connect to the other side of the brain.
Mainstreaming
Practice of placing children with special needs in regular classroom settings, with the support of professionals who provide special education services
Ageism
Prejudice against the elderly and the resulting discrimination against them
Positive Reinforcement
Presentation of a stimulus after a particular response in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur
Brainstorming
Problem-solving technique that involves considering all possible solutions without making prior evaluative judgments.
Insomnia
Problems in going to sleep or maintaining sleep
Algorithm
Procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until the solution is found.
Stimulus Generalization
Process by which a conditioned response becomes associated with a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus
Higher-order Conditioning
Process by which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus
Transduction
Process by which a perceptual system analyzes stimuli and converts them into electrical impulses; also known as coding.
Coping
Process by which a person takes some action to manage, master, tolerate, or reduce environmental or internal demands that cause or might cause stress and that tax the individual's inner resources
Stimulus Discrimination
Process by which an organism learns to respond only to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli
Perception
Process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning.
Sensation
Process in which the sense organs' receptor cells are stimulated and relay initial information to higher brain centers for further processing.
Decentration
Process of changing from a totally self-oriented point of view to one tha recognizes other people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints
Standardization
Process of developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test and for establishing norms
Assessment
Process of evaluating individual differences among human beings by means of tests interviews, observations, and recordings of physiological.
Punishment
Process of presenting an undesirable or noxious stimulus, or removing a desirable stimulus, to decrease the probability that a preceding response will recur
Counterconditioning
Process of reconditioning in which a person is taught a new, more adaptive response to a familiar stimulus.
Transference
Psychoanalytic phenomenon in which a therapist becomes the object of a patient's emotional attitudes about an important person in the patient's life, such as a parent.
Dream analysis
Psychoanalytic technique in which a patient's dreams are described in detail and interpreted so as to provide insight into the individual's unconscious motivations.
Free association
Psychoanalytic technique in which a person is asked to report to the therapist his or her thoughts and feelings as they occur, regardless of how trivial, illogical, or objectionable their content may appear.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Psychological disorder that may become evident after a person has undergone extreme stress caused by some type of disaster; common symptoms include vivid, intrusive recollections or reexperiences of the traumatic event and occasional lapses of normal consciousness
Rosenhan
Psychopathology and Social Psychology; effects of labeling; Rosenhan and colleagues checked selves into mental hospitals with symptoms of hearing voices say "empty, dull and thud." Diagnosed with schizophrenia. After entered, acted normally. Never "cleared" of diagnosis. Roles and labels in treating people differently.
Group therapy
Psychotherapeutic process in which several people meet as a group with a therapist to receive psychological help.
Which of the following best describes genetic mutation?
Random errors in gene replication
Saccades
Rapid voluntary movements of the eyes.
Spontaneous Recovery
Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period
Set point
Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight.
Babinski reflex
Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched
Moro reflex
Reflex in which a newborn strectches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment
Grasping reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to grasp vigorously any object touching the palm or fingers or placed in the hand
Sucking reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth
Rooting reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to turn the head toward a light touch on lips or cheek
Primary Reinforcer
Reinforcer that has survival value for an organism; this value does not have to be learned
Learning
Relatively permanent change in an organism that occurs as a result of experiences in the environment
Negative Reinforcement
Removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur
3 animal research guidelines
Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction
lab study
Research conducted under controlled conditions and may include observation, interviews, surveys, or experiments.
John Garcia
Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
Harry and Margaret Harlow
Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food. Also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits. Artificial Mom
Conditioned Response
Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
baby hearing
Responsive to high pitches in a woman's voice and low pitches in a man's voice
implicit memory
Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory.)
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
Right is defined in terms of individual rights/standards that have been agreed upon by society. Laws are not "frozen" but can be changed for society's good. (post-conventional)
triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions
Falsafiability
Scientific explanations are provisional, subject to revision or rejection based on new data and results in the self correcting nature of science. can be proven false
Stage of resistance
Second stage of the GAS, during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with a stressor.
Shaping
Selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually approach the desired response
Fight-or-flight response
Sequence of internal processes preparing an organism for struggle or escape.
Heuristics
Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, that act as guidelines for discovery-oriented problem solving.
A researcher is training laboratory rats to run a complex maze. Each time the rats learn a new part of the maze, they are rewarded with a pellet of food. Within a few hours, the rats have learned the entire maze. Which of the following did the researcher use to teach the rats the maze?
Shaping
Raul wants to teach his daughter Sonia to tie her shoes. First he praises her when she manipulates her shoelaces in any way. Then he praises her when she makes a simple knot. Once she does that consistently, he praises her only when she makes the knot and a loop. He continues the pattern until she can do all the steps required to tie her shoes. Raul's actions are an example of which of the following techniques?
Shaping
Group Polarization
Shifts or exaggeration in group members' attitudes or behavior as a result of group discussion.
Compartmentalization
Similar to blind spots, it involves pigeonholing one's life into rigid and exclusive categories: Thus, there is a compartment for friends, for enemies, for family, for outsiders, a compartment for professional activities separate from personal life, and so on). The important point is that anything that occurs in one compartment cannot contradict, influence, or support what transpires in another. It is, thus, as much a result of being divided by one's conflicts as a defense against recognizing them. A widely cited example is that of the man who ruthlessly runs his business affairs during the week, taking no real interest in the hurt or humiliation he causes his competitors, and on Sunday serves as the deacon of his church. Religion and business are in separate compartments, and so too, unfortunately, is his humanity. Horney herself may be viewed as someone who did it as well. Her professional life involved helping people overcome the very conflicts that she continued to express in her personal life.
William Dement
Sleep researcher who discovered and coined the phrase "rapid eye movement" (REM) sleep.
Langer & Rodin
Social Psychology; Helping behavior, personal responsibility; studied the effects of enhanced personal responsibility and helping behavior
Equity Theory
Social psychological theory that states that people attempt to maintain stable, consistent interpersonal relationships in which the ratio of member's contributions is balanced.
Sexual scripts
Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations.
Arbitrary Rightness
Some neurotics make important decisions arbitrarily—even those that have an impact on others—and then defend them with anything but thorough explanations. When questioned why a decision has been made, a typical answer would be, "Because I said so!' Horney felt that the most fertile type of personality for such arbitrary rightness was one with aggressive tendencies coupled with feelings of detachment from others. For example, a neurotic may end a family dispute by preemptively declaring that he will do what he has already decided to do since he is right. He then storms off, effectively ending the argument by absenting himself to pursue a course of action chosen more in spite than by reason.
Elusiveness
Sometimes the only way neurotics can avoid the inherent contradictions of their lives is through elusiveness—to avoid making any decisions whatsoever. Completely opposite to the arbitrarily right neurotic, the elusive neurotic seeks never to be pinned down to anything, never to state any issue or opinion clearly. "They have a bewildering capacity to becloud issues. It is often impossible for them to give a concrete report of any incident; should they try to do so the listener is uncertain in the end just what really did happen" (Horney, 1945, p. 138).
Bonding
Special process of emotional attachment that may occur between parents and babies in the minutes and hours immediately after birth
rods
Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.
shape detection
Specific combinations of temporal lobe activity occur as people look at shoes, faces, chairs and houses.
What is the purpose of the myelin sheath
Speed the transmission of information within a neuron
Which of the following is NOT a product of learning?
Squinting in bright light
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
Stage of sleep characterized by high-frequency, low-amplitude brain-wave activity, rapid and systematic eye movements, more vivid dreams, and postural muscle paralysis
Burnout
State of emotional and physical exhaustion, lowered productivity, and feelings of isolation, often caused by work-related pressures
Need
State of physiological imbalance usually accompanied by arousal
Factor analysis
Statistical procedure designed to discover the independent elements (factors) in any set of data
Unconditioned Stimulus
Stimulus that normally produces a measurable involuntary response
Tend-and-befriend model
Stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to threat by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support.
Edward Bradford Titchener
Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.
Health psychology
Subfield concerned with the use of psychological ideas and principles to enhance health, prevent illness, diagnose and treat disease, and improve rehabilitation
Psychophysics
Subfield of psychology that focuses on the relationship between physical stimuli and people's conscious experiences of them.
Teratogen
Substance that can produce developmental malformations (birth defects) during the prenatal period
Learned Helplessness
The behavior of giving up or not responding to punishment, exhibited by people or animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they have no control
Problem Solving
The behavior of individuals when confronted with a situation or task that requires insight or determination of some unknown elements.
Self-efficacy
The belief that a person can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior
animistic thinking
The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions
Sex
The biologically based categories of male and female
Homeostasis
The body's tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition, especially with regard to nutrients, water, and temperature.
Cannon-Bard theory
The counterproposal that an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time: one is not the cause of the other. Both were believed to be the result of cognitive appraisal of the situation.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The creation of a situation that unintentionally allows personal expectancies to influence participants
Latent Content
The deeper meaning of a dream, usually involving symbolism hidden meaning, and repressed or obscured ideas and wishes
Concordance rate
The degree to which a condition or traits shared two or more individuals or groups
Saturation
The depth and richness of a hue determined by determined by the homogeneity of the wavelengths contained in the reflected light; also known as purity.
Intrinsic motivation
The desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than for some external consequence, such as a reward.
Extrinsic motivation
The desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence, such as a reward.
Grammar
The linguistic description of how a language functions, especially the rules and patterns used for generating appropriate and comprehensible sentences.
amnesia
The loss of memory.
Visual cortex
The most important area of the brain's occipital lobe, which receives and further processes information from the lateral geniculate nucleus; also known as the striate cortex.
Embryo
The prenatal organism from the 5th through the 49th day after conception
Fetus
The prenatal organism from the 8th week after conception until birth
Extinction (classical conditioning)
The procedure of withholding the unconditioned stimulus and presenting the conditioned stimulus alone, which gradually reduces the probability of the conditioned response
Attributions
The process by which a person infers other people's motives or intensions by observing their behavior.
Impression Formation
The process by which a person uses behavior and appearance of others to form attitudes about them.
Overjustification
The process by which extrinsic (external) rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation.
Deindividuation
The process by which individuals lose their self-awareness and distinctive personality in the context of a group, which may lead them to engage in antinormative behavior.
Extinction (operant conditioning)
The process by which the probability of an organism's emitting a response is reduced when reinforcement no longer follows the response
dark adaptation
The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.
Social Cognition
The process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world in general.
Social Categorization
The process of dividing the world into "in" groups and "out" groups.
retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Self-actualization
The process of growth and the realization of individual potential; in the humanistic view, a final level of psychological development in which a person attempts to minimize ill health, be fully functioning, have a superior perception of reality, and feel a strong sense of self-acceptance.
encoding
The processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
parallel processing
The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Two-factor theory
The proposal claiming that emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both physical arousal (Factor 1) and an emotion-provoking stimulus (Factor 2).
James-Lange theory
The proposal that an emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion.
Hue
The psychological property of light referred to as color, determined by the wavelengths of reflected light.
Reasoning
The purposeful process by which a person generates logical and coherent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusions.
Object permanence
The realization of infants that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight
long-term memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
expectancy bias
The researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study.
storage
The retention of encoded information over time.
syntax
The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.
Why do researchers study the brains of nonhuman animals?
The same principles govern neural functioning in all species
Social Psychology
The scientific study of how people think about, interact with, influence, and are influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of other people.
Norms
The scores and corresponding percentile ranks of a large and representative sample of individuals from the population for which a test was designed
embryonic stage
The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month. Many vital organs develop. Sounds are heard and recognized.
semantics
The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.
Dependence
The situation that occurs when the drug becomes part of the body's functioning and produces withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
Karl goes to see Dr. Norton to help him overcome his fear of cats. Karl's fear began in childhood when he petted a cat and someone slammed a door. Every time Karl petted the cat, the door slammed. Now whenever Karl sees a cat, he becomes very anxious. In the development of Karl's fear of cats, what was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ?
The slamming of the door
Light
The small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye.
one-word stage
The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
Absolute threshold
The statistically determined minimum level of stimulation necessary to excite a perceptual system.
Attachment
The strong emotional tie that a person feels toward special other persons in his or her life
Cognitive Psychology
The study if the overlapping fields of perception, learning, memory, and thought, with a special emphasis on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge.
Psycholinguistics
The study of how language is acquired, perceived, understood, and produced.
Linguistics
The study of language, including speech sounds, meaning, and grammar.
Developmental Psychology
The study of the lifelong, often age-related, processes of change in the physical, cognitive, moral, emotional, and social domains of functioning; such changes are rooted in biological mechanisms that are genetically controlled, as well as in social interactions
Phonology
The study of the patterns and distributions of speech sounds in a language and the tacit rules for their pronunciation.
Thanatology
The study of the psychological and medical aspects of death and dying
Logic
The system of principles of reasoning used to reach valid conclusions or make inferences.
spacing effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Halo effect
The tendency for one characteristic of an individual to influence a tester's evaluation of other characteristics
Interpersonal Attraction
The tendency of one person to evaluate another person (or a symbol or image of another person) in a positive way.
Groupthink
The tendency of people in a group to seek concurrence with one another when reaching a decision, rather than effectively evaluating options.
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to attribute other people's behavior to dispositional (internal) causes rather than situational (external) causes.
Actor-observer Effect
The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional causes but to attribute one's own behavior to situational causes.
overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
mood-congruent memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
functional fixedness
The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.
difference threshold
minimum difference between any two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time
subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure function of genes. seeks to identify specific genes influencing behavior
molecular genetics
Bipolar disorder
mood disorder originally know as manic-depressive disorder because it is characterized by behavior that vacillates between two extremes; mania and depression.
Carol Gilligan
moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse
Lawrence Kohlberg
moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?
preconventional level of moral development
morality based on consequences to self
conventional level of moral development
morality based on fitting in to the norms of society
postconventional level of moral development
morality based on one's own individual moral principles (i.e., conscience)
Kohlberg critiques
morality lies in actions and emotion as well as thinking; his postconventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist, middle-class people
an opiate drug that elevates mood and eases pain, bound to receptors in areas linked with mood and pain sensations.
morphine
our body releases several types of neurotransmitter molecules similar to ___ in response to ___ and __
morphine, pain, exercise
survey
most common type of study in psychology because it is the cheapest
Clark Hull
motivation theory, drive reduction; maintained that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates
Walter B. Cannon
motivation; believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; did research that inserted balloons in stomachs
Robert Zajonc
motivation; believes that we invent explanations to label feelings
Masters & Johnson
motivation; human sexual response—studied how both men and women respond to and in relation to sexual behavior
Cognitive neural prosthetics are placed in the brain to help control parts of the
motor cortex
area of the brain at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntarily movements
motor cortex
George can move his hand to sign a document because the , ___ located in the ___ lobe of the brain, allows him to activate the proper muscles.
motor cortex, frontal
carries the information necessary to activate withdrawal of the hand from a hot object?
motor neuron
carry instructions from the central nervous system out to the body's muscles and glands
motor neurons
thalamus
motor sensory relay center for four of the five senses; and with a brain stem and composed of two egg-shaped structures; integrates in shades incoming sensory signals; Mnemonic-"don't smell the llamas because the llamas smell bad"
communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control
multiple sclerosis
if the myelin sheath degenerates, __ results
multiple sclerosis
random errors in gene replication
mutations
Some axons are encased in a , ___which enables faster transmission.
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next
myelin sheath
multiple sclerosis is a result of degeneration in the ___
myelin sheath
some axons are encased in __, a layer of fatty tissue that insulates them and speeds their impulses
myelin sheath
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
neuron
like batteries, _ generate electricity from chemical events.
neurons
nerve cells
neurons
neurons network with nearby __ which they can have short and fast connections
neurons
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Gazzaniga or Sperry
neuroscience/biopsychology; studied split brain patients
withdrawal
neurotic individuals who remain coldly aloof and detached. These people experience the world and other people essentially troublesome and unjustly demanding. Their solution is withdrawal from significant interaction with others.
unlocks tiny channels at the recieving site, and ions flow in, exciting or inhibiting the recieving neuron's readiness to fire.
neurotransmitter
within 1/10,000th of a second , the __ molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron
neurotransmitter
serotonin
neurotransmitter that affects sleep, arousal, mood, appetite; lack of it is linked with depression
acetylcholine (ACh)
neurotransmitter that causes contraction of skeletal muscles; lack of Ach linked with Alzheimer's disease;
dopamine
neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of neurons; linked with Huntington's disease
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
neurotransmitters
when an action potential reaches the knob-like terminals at an axon's end, it triggers the release of chemical messengers
neurotransmitters
__ networks within the cerebrum that form specialized work teams that enable our perceiving, thinking and speaking
newer neural
retroactive interference
newly learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
norepinephrine
noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response
Helps control alertness and arousal.
norepinephrine
frequency
number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given amount of time; determines hue of light and the pitch of a sound
inferential statistics
numerical data that allows one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe character of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Stanley Milgram
obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions
cohort effect
observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior naturally without trying to manipulate and control the situation
includes areas that receive information from the vision fields ( back of the head )
occipital lobes
motivated forgetting
occurs when frightening, traumatic events are forgotten because people want to forget them
transfer appropriate processing
occurs when initial processing of information is similar to the process of retrieval; the better the match, the better the recall
Von Restorff effect
occurs when recall is better for a distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list
it is the brain that enables what 4 things?
our humanity, feelings, thinking , and acting
gender identity
our sense of being male or female
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years
gate control theory
pain is only experienced in the pain messages can pass through a gate in the spinal cord on their route to the brain
Which branch of the nervous system calms a person?
parasympathetic
work together to keep us in steady internal state
parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems
produces the opposite effects of the sympathetic nervous system.conserves energy as it calms you by decreasing your heartbeat , lowering your blood sugar and so forth
parasympathetic nervous system
authoritative parenting
parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making
authoritative parenting
parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making. Produces self reliant and happy children
at the top and to the rear ( behind the frontal lobes) are the __ which receive sensory input for touch and body position
parietal lobes
pons
part of the brain involved in sleep/wake cycles; also connects cerebellum and medulla to the cerebral cortex
cerebellum
part of the brain that coordinates balance, movement, reflexes
medulla (also medulla oblongata)
part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature
hippocampus
part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
amygdala
part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors
may have intact memories, high score son intelligence test, and greta cake baking skills yet they not would be capable of planning ahead to begin baking the cake for a birthday party
people w/ damaged frontal lobes
split brain patients
people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Ernst Weber
perception; identified just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law
sensory memory
performs initial encoding; provides brief storage; also called sensory register
prenatal development
period of development from conception until birth
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
peripheral nervous system
Henry Murray
personality assessment; created the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances
Hans Eysenck
personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion
William Sheldon
personality; theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)
sociocultural psychology
perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior
psychoanalytic
perspective developed by freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware
behaviorism
perspective that defines psychology as the study of behavior that is directly observable or through assessment instruments
humanistic psychology
perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the idea that humans have free will
Why do researchers find the study of fraternal twins important?
They are the same age and are usually raised in similar environments, but they do not have the same genetic code.
Stage of exhaustion
Third stage of the GAS, during which the body depletes its resources in responding to an ongoing stressor.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
curiosity, skepticism, and humility
Three key attitudes of scientific inquiry are
Cynicism
To defend against the recognition of inner conflict, the neurotic may adopt cynicism, a cynical stance toward life and its traditional moral and ethical values. By treating such issues derisively (in a manner expressing contempt or ridicule.), the neurotic can forestall any conflict over deciding what his or her own position is. In effect, he or she adopts the attitude "Do what you please, so long as you don't get caught" (Horney, 1945, p. 140). Horney's feminist, culturally based modifications of Freudian theory: Oedipus complex as culturally rather than biologically determined. She saw it as resulting from jealousy and aggression within some families. For Horney, the roots of the Oedipal situation consisted largely of interpersonal Attitudes. She desexualized the Oedipal conflict and transferred the dynamics of its emotional constellation into the realm of disturbed interpersonal relations. The resulting picture may look exactly like what Freud describes as the Oedipus complex; passionate clinging to one parent and jealousy toward the other or toward anyone interfering with the claim of exclusive possession.... The dynamic structure of these attachments is entirely different from what Freud conceives as the Oedipus complex. They are an early manifestation of neurotic conflicts rather than a primarily sexual phenomenon.
cognitive psychology
perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking
evolutionary psychology
perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors
rods
photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray, and movement; used for vision in dim light
cones
photoreceptors that detect color and fine detail in bright-light conditions; not present in peripheral vision
___ studying bumps on the skull, could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits
phrenology
studying bumps on the skull
phrenology
suceeded in focusing attention on the localization of function
phrenology
In an effort to reveal genetic influences on personality, researchers use adoption studies mainly for what purpose?
To evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents
Group
Two or more individuals who are working with a common purpose or have some common goals, characteristics, or interests.
Catatonic type of schizophrenia
Type of schizophrenia characterized either by displays of excited or violent motor activity or by stupor.
automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Child abuse
physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatment of a child.
Aaron Beck
pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression.
Albert Ellis
pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions
Alfred Binet
pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)
Albert Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
which endocrine glands may explain unusually tall height in a 12-year-old?
pituitary
most influential endocrine gland
pituitary gland
releases certain hormones , one growth hormone that simulates physical development
pituitary gland
pea sized structure located in the core of the brain, where it is controlled by an adjacent brain area called __
pituitary gland; hypothalamus
the brain's ability to change or modify itself after damage, especially during childhood. process by which the brain does this is by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
plasticity
just above the medulla sits the __, which helps coordinate movements
pons
brain
portion of the CNS above the spinal cord; consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
spinal cord
portion of the CNS that carries messages to the PNS; connects brain to the rest of the body
occipital lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (p. 105)
parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (p. 105)
frontal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (p. 105)
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (p. 105)
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
the fluid outside an axon's membrane has mostly __ charged ions
positively
shaping
positively reinforcing closer and closer approximation of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior
response bias
preconceived notions of a person answering [a survey] which may alter the experiments purpose
in the forward part of the frontal lobes enables judgments, planning and processing of new memories
prefrontal cortex
set point
preset natural body weight, determined by the number of fat cells in the body
proactive interference
previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information
occipital lobes
primary area for processing visual information
motor projection areas
primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands
inferential statistics
procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data
polygenic inheritance
process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits
retrieval
process by which stored information is recovered from memory
rehearsal
process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinking about, or otherwise acting on or transforming information in order to keep that information active in memory
parietal lobes
processes sensory information including touch, temperature, and pain from other body parts
neurogenesis
production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life
psychologist
professional who studies behavior and uses behavioral principles in scientific research or in applied settings
hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
Dissociative disorders
psychological disorders characterized by a sudden but temporary alteration in consciousness, identity, sensorimotor behavior, or memory
Personality disorders
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and longstanding maladaptive behaviors that typically cause stress and/or social or occupational problems.
clinical psychologist
psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior
counseling psychologist
psychologist who treats people with adjustment problems
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
the left brain hemisphere is responsible for __ ,__,__,___, and __
reading ,writing ,speaking ,arithmetic reasoning, and understanding
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
automatic responses to stimuli
reflexes
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.
refractory period
period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
refractory period
elaborative rehearsal
rehearsal involving repletion and analysis, in which a stimulus may be associated with (linked to) other information and further processed
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
ACTH (arenocorticotropic hormone)
released by adrenal glands; triggered by norepinephrine to prolong the response to stress (used in the sympathetic nervous system)
thyroxine
released by thyroid; hormone that regulates the body's metabolism; OVERACTIVE-over-excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue, snap decisions, reduced concentration (hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desire to sleep, constantly tired, weight gain (hypothyroidism)
replicate
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
maintenance rehearsal
repetitive review of information with little or no interpretation
gonads
reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
placebo effect
response to the belief that the IV will have an effect, rather than the IV's actual effect, which can be a confounding variable
In operant conditioning, the concept of contingency is exemplified by an "if A, then B" relationship in which A and B, respectively, represent
response, reinforcement
Learned helplessness is most likely to result when
responses have no effect on the environment
positive- outside/negative -inside state is called the __
resting potential
An individual experiences brain damage that produces a coma. Which part of the brain was probably damaged?
reticular formation
inside the brainstem between your ears , lies the ___, a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousing
reticular formation
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
encoding specificity principle
retrieval cues that match original information work better
neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
reuptake
the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters
reuptake
Lewis Terman
revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life
The hypothalamus is a ___center for the brain.
reward
Carlos wants to lose weight but is having a hard time motivating himself to go to the gym after work because he enjoys watching movies after work instead. To increase his likelihood of going to the gym, Carlos should
reward himself immediately after going to the gym
Stage 4: Authority Orientation
right and wrong is determined by society's rules and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly (conventional)
Stage 1: Punishment Orientation
right and wrong is determined by what is punished (pre-conventional)
stage 2: naive reward orientation
right and wrong is determined by what is rewarded (pre-conventional)
photoreceptors
rods and cones
ethics
rules of proper and acceptable conduct that investigators use to guide psychological research
10. The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability
ruminations or recriminations regarding possible flaws; relentless driving for perfection; feelings of superiority over others because of being perfect.
which there is a negative charge inside an axon and a positive charge outside of it , the neutron is ___
said to have been resting potential
In phase one of a study, a researcher classically conditions a dog to salivate to the ringing of a bell. In the second phase, the researcher pairs a flashing light with the ringing of the bell. After several pairings of the light and the bell, the dog will
salivate when the light is flashed
Visual Information Processing
scene, retinal processing, feature detection, parallel processing, recognition
Gestalt psychology
school of psychological thought that argued that behavior cannot be studied in parts but must be viewed a s whole
structuralism
school of psychological thought that considered the structure and elements of conscious experience to be the proper subject matter of psychology
functionalism
school of psychological thought that was concerned with how and why the conscious mind works
conventional morality
second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior 9-13
Money most often modifies people's behavior because it is a powerful
secondary reinforcer
monism
seeing mind and body as different aspects of the same thing
dualism
seeing mind and body as two different things that interact
representative sample
selection of a part of the population which mirrors the current demographics
random sample
selection of a part of the population without reason; participation is by chance
6. The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige
self-evaluation dependent entirely on public acceptance; all things and people evaluated only in terms of prestige value.
8. The neurotic ambition for personal achievement
self-evaluation dependent on being the very best lover, athlete, writer, worker—particularly in one's own mind—recognition by others being vital too, however, and its absence resented.
olfaction
sense of smell
gustation
sense of taste
carries messages from the body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing
sensory neurons
information travels through the nervous system though what three types of neurons?
sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
serotonin
Juanita does not feel like getting out of bed, has lost her appetite , and feels tired for most of the day. which if the following neurotransmitters likely is in short supply for Juanita ?
serotonin
what neurotransmitters are most likely in undersupply is someone who is depressed
serotonin and norepinephrine
The first time four-year-old Savannah attempted to make her bed, her father praised her for covering the pillow with a blanket. After a few times, her father began praising Savannah for covering the pillow and tucking in the corners of the sheet. Finally, Savannah's father praised her when she covered the pillow, tucked in the corners of the sheet, and smoothed the blanket. The process described in this scenario is known as
shaping
The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations is called
shaping
visual acuity
sharpness of vision
graded potential
shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire
baby math
shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer
functional MRI (fMRI)
shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities
positron emission tomography (PET scan)
shows brain activity when radioactively tagged glucose rushes to active neurons
EEG (electroencephalogram)
shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp
neurons transmit messages when stimulated by __ or when triggered by __ from __ .
signals from our senses, chemical signals from neighboring neurons
our bodies neural information systems is complexity built from __ . its building blocks are called __
simplicity, neurons
parallel processing
simultaneously analyzing different elements of sensory information, such as color, brightness, shape, etc.
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
sleep stage when the eyes move about, during which vivid dreams occur; brain very active but skeletal muscles paralyzed
Hobson & McCarley
sleep/dreams/consciousness; pioneers of Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreams; sleep studies that indicate the brain creates dream states, not information processing or Freudian interpretations
fovea
small area of retina where image is focused
pupil
small opeing in iris that is smaller in bright light and larger in darkness
cochlea
snail-shaped fluid-filled tube in the inner ear involved in transduction
Leon Festinger
social cognition, cognitive dissonance; Study Basics: Studied and demonstrated cognitive dissonance
Kurt Lewin
social psychology; German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities
Phillip Zimbardo
social psychology; Stanford Prison Study; college students were randomly assigned to roles of prisoners or guards in a study that looked at who social situations influence behavior; showed that peoples' behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play
Darley & Latane
social psychology; bystander apathy, diffusion of responsibility
Robert Rosenthal
social psychology; focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students
Kenneth Clark
social psychology; research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; doll experiments-black children chose white dolls
Adolescence is a ______ ______ concept
socially constructed
mental operations
solving problems by manipulating images in one's mind
the peripheral nervous system has two components __ and __
somatic and automatic
enables voluntarily controls of our skeletal muscles
somatic nervous system
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement
somatosensory
Stimulation at a point on which of the following may cause a person to report being touched on the knee?
somatosensory cortex
Surgical stimulation of the somatosensory cortex might result in the false sensation of what?
someone tickling you
Lawrence Kohlberg
sought to describe the development of moral reasoning
what do axons do?
speak
Which of the following is most likely to be a function of the left hemisphere?
speech
support nourish and protect neurons
spidery glial cells
another part of the central nervous system that is a two way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain
spinal cord
the neural pathways governing our reflexes illustrate the __
spinal cords work
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them
split brains
hypnosis
state with deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility
A monkey's choosing a circle from an array of geometric shapes in order to be rewarded with a banana is an example of
stimulus discrimination
A child whose family owns a dog may refer to any four-legged animal as "dog." In learning theory, such behavior is known as
stimulus generalization
Tyler ate a cheeseburger from a fast food restaurant for dinner, and he was awake all night feeling sick. Now, just thinking about eating any fast food makes him feel nauseous, and he is certain that he will never want to eat it again. Tyler's aversion to fast food can best be explained by
stimulus generalization
when the brain is flooded with opiate drugs such as heroine and morphine, the brain may ___
stop producing its own natural opiates
long-term memory
storage mechanism that keeps a relatively permanent record of memory
Holmes & Rahe
stress and coping; used "social readjustment scale" to measure stress
Wilhelm Wundt
structuralism; in 1879 founded first psychology laboratory in world at University of Leipzig; introspection, basic units of experience
lens
structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus light rays onto the retina
twin studies
studies as identical and rhetorical twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior
experimental psychologist
studies behavior and thinking using the experimental method
community psychologist
studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
educational psychologist
studies how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
strain studies
studies of hereditability it be a behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another
family studies
studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative
developmental psychologist
studies psychological development across the lifespan
selection studies
studies that estimate the hereditability of a trait by breeding animals with another animal that has the same trait
psychobiologist
studies the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
psychologist
studies the science of behavior and mental processes
clinical psychologist
studies, assess, and treats people with psychological disorders
behavioral genetics
study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking
genetics
study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next
neuroscience
study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology
psychobiology
study that focuses on biological foundations of behavior and mental processes; overlaps with neuroscience
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting marked by emotional coldness, imposing rules and expecting obedience
Little Albert
subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear
control group
subjects and not exposed to a changing variable in an experiment
we are each composed of __ that are in turn composed of evens smaller subsystems
subsystems
we are tiny cells organize to form body organs. these organs from larger systems for digestion,circulation, and information processing
subsystems
Psychotic
suffering from a gross impairment in reality testing that interferes with the ability to meet the ordinary demands of life.
glial cells
supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste
Which division of the nervous system produces the startle response?
sympathetic
arouses and expends energy. makes you ready and alert for action
sympathetic nervous system
automatic nervous system is broken up into two subsystems called the ___ and the ___
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
synapse
the meeting point between a neuron
synapse
drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry at __, often by either exciting or inhabiting neuron's firing
synapses
places where neurons meet and greet their neighbors
synapses
neurotransmitters cross the __ to carry information to the next neutron
synaptic gap
synaptic cleft
synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next
double-blind procedure
technique in which neither the persons involved for those conducting the experiment know in what group to participate is involved
slow to warm up temperament
temperamental profile in which the child is inactive and moody and displays mild passive resistance to new routines and experiences
just above your ears are the ___ which includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primilarly from the opposite ear
temporal lobes
sensory adaptation
temporary decrease in sensitivity to a stimulus that occurs when stimulation is unchanging
Barnum effect
tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate.
ethnocentrism
tendency to believe that one's own group is the standard, the reference point by which other people and groups should be judged
the cell;s lengthy axon fiber passes the message through its __ to other neurons or muscles glands
terminal branches
axon terminal
terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters
achievement test
test designed to determine a person's level of knowledge in a given subject area
receives information from all the senses except smell and routes it to the higher brain region that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching
thalamus
sits atop the brainstem .a pair of egg shaped structures that act as the brain's sensory control center
thalamus
what sometimes referred to as the brain's train hub, because it directs incoming sensory messages (with the exception of smell) to their proper places in the brain?
thalamus
germinal stage
the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception where zygote attaches to uterine wall
feature detection
the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges
mental representation
the ability to form internal images of objects and events by age 2
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
memory
the ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or previously learned information or skills; the storage system that allows a person to retain and retrieve previously learned information
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
the absence of appropriate behaviors (expressionless faces, rigid bodies)
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
threshold of viability
the age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth (23-26 weeks)
informed consent
the agreement of participants to take part in an experiment and their acknowledgement that they understand the nature of their participation in the research, and have been fully informed about the general nature of the research, its goals, and methods
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
mean
the arithmetic average of a set of scores
insecure attachment
the attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Learned helplessness
the behavior of giving up or not responding, exhibited by people and animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they feel they have no control.
Artificialism
the belief of the preoperational child that all objects are made by people
long-term potentiation
the biochemical processes that make it easier for the neuron to respond again when it has been stimulated
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. (p. 124)
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
endocrine glands
the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (p. 111)
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (p. 97)
menopause
the cessation of the ability to reproduce
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Synchronicity
the close coordination between the gazing, vocalizing, touching, and smiling of infants and caregivers. Baby laughs when mom laughs.
empirical investigation
the collecting of objective information firsthand by making careful measurements based on direct experience
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
ESP
the controversial claim that sensation can occur apart from sensory input
imagery
the creation or re-creation of a mental picture of a sensory or perceptual experience
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
three levels of analysis
the differing complementary views from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing a given phenomenon
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
motor development
the emergence of the ability to execute physical action
Appraisal
the evaluation of the significance of a situation or event as it relates to a person's well-being
introspection
the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
phenotype
the expression of genes
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
variability
the extent to which scores differ from one another
Hermann Ebbinghaus
the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well
Excitement phase
the first phase of the sexual response cycle during which there are increases in heart rate blood pressure and respiration
Margaret Floy Washburn
the first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. and synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
convolutions
the folds in the cerebral cortex that increase the surface area of the brain
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Resolution Phase
the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, following orgasm, during which the body returns to its resting, or normal state
cephalocaudal trend
the head-to-foot direction of motor development
pitch
the highness or lowness of a sound
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
chemical messengers which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues including the brain. influence our interest in sex food and aggression
the hormones created in the endocrine system
self-actualization
the human need to fulfill one's potential
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (p. 119)
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (p. 104)
Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (p. 80)
corpis callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (p. 114)
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
all-or-none principle
the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all
nonconscious
the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely unavailable to conscious awareness (e.g., fingernails growing)
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (p. 82)
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.
median
the measure of central tendency that is the data point with 50% of the scores above it and 50% below it
survey research
the measurement of public opinion through the use of sampling and questioning
midbrain
the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe
median
the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
primacy effect
the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series
recency effect
the more accurate recall of items presented at the end of a series
mode
the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
mode
the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
hindbrain
the most primitive of the three functional divisions of the brain, consisting of the pons, medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (p. 78)
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
memory span
the number of items a person can reproduce from short-term memory, usually consisting of one or two chunks
__ networks sustain basic life functions and enable memory, emotions,and basic drives.
the older brain
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (p. 87)
Prevalence
the percentage of a population displaying a disorder during any specified period.
percentile score
the percentage of scores at or below a certain score
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
nonparticipant
the person has no idea they are being studied
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (p. 120)
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
natural selection
the principle that those characteristics and behaviors that help organisms adapt, be fit, and survive will be passed on to successive generations, because flexible, fit individuals have a greater chance of reproduction
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
acomodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
sound localization
the process by which the location of sound is determined
consolidation
the process of changing a short-term memory to a long-term one
storage
the process of maintaining or keeping information readily available; the locations where information is held
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that is due to genetic causes
timbre
the quality of a sound determined by the purity of a waveform
zone of proximal development
the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or children with more skill
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
replication
the repetition of an experiment to test the validity of its conclusion
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (p. 77)
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurements of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
midbrain
the second level of the three organizational structures of the brain that receives signals from other parts of the brain or spinal cord and either relays the information to other parts of the brain or causes the body to act immediately; involved in movement
Plateau phase
the second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as the partners bodies prepare for orgasm
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
audition
the sense of hearing
audition
the sense or act of hearing
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
synapse
the space between two neurons where neurotransmitters are secreted by terminal buttons and received by dendrites
ganglion cells
the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain
range
the spread between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution
nervous system
the structures and organs that facilitate electrical and chemical communication in the body and allow all behavior and mental processes to take place
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (p. 131)
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (p. 124)
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
interference
the suppression of one bit of information by another
kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct-- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgement
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
state-dependent learning
the tendency to recall information learned while in a particular physiological state most accurately when one is in that physiological state again
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Young-Helmholtz Theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitation and by being rewarded or punished
Orgasm phase
the third phase of the sexual response cycle, during which autonomic nervous system activity reaches its peak and muscle contractions occur in spasms throughout the body, but especially in the genital area
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
After several trials during which a dog is given a certain kind of food at the same time that a specific tone is sounded, there is evidence of conditioning if the dog salivates when
the tone only is presented
heredity
the traits and features that are inherited from one's parents and ancestors
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
dependent variable
the variable in a controlled experiment that is expected to change due to the manipulation of the independent variable
independent variable
the variable in a controlled experiment that the experimenter directly and purposefully manipulates to see how the other variables under study will be affected
empiricism
the view that knowledge should be acquired through observation and often an experiment
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science and (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2
Piaget
theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment
oponent process theory
theory of color vision that proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in pairs: red and green, blue and yellow
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
chromosome
threadlike structure within the nucleus of cells that contain genes
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (p. 124)
Wechsler intelligence tests
three age individual IQ tests: WPPSI (children), WISC (children), WAIS (adults)
Ekman & Friesen
Universal Emotions (based upon facial expressions); Study Basics: Constants across culture in the face and emotion
Unconditioned Response
Unlearned or involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus
Bystander Effect
Unwillingness to help exhibited by witnesses to an event, which increase when there are more observers.
Which of the following is a partial reinforcement schedule that is most resistant to extinction?
Variable ratio
Phineas Gage
Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning
Opponent-process theory
Visual theory, proposed by Herring, that color is coded by stimulation of three types of paired receptors; each pair of receptors is assumed to operate in an antagonist way so that stimulation by a given wavelength produces excitation (increased firing) in one receptor of the pair and also inhibits the other receptor.
Trichromatic theory
Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory.
damage to the __ area of the brain disrupts understanding
Wernicke's
Emerging adulthood (18-20) is the product of what?
Western culture and current times
Which of the following operant conditioning concepts is an example of positive punishment?
While driving through the state of Mississippi, Lance was stopped for speeding and had to pay an expensive speeding ticket. As a result, he no longer goes over the speed limit when driving in Mississippi.
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
identified the ___that specializes in receiving information fro the kin senses and from the movement of body parts .
Wilder Penfield;cortile area
Which of the following is an example of gene- environment interaction?
Yeh Lin experiences flushing syndrome, which mostly occurs in those of Asian heritage.
gene
a DNA segment on a chromosome that controls transmission of traits
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution with no spaces between the bars
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
sympathetic nervous system
a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; "fight or flight"
parasympathetic nervous system
a branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body after sympathetic stimulation
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
frequency distribution
a chart or array of scores, usually arranged from highest to lowest, showing the number of instances for each score
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
difficult temperament
a child's general responsiveness marked by a more negative mood, intense responses, slow adaptation to change, and irregular patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination
easy temperament
a child's general responsiveness marked by positive mood, easy adaptation to change, and regularity and predictability in patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination
A mental image of a spatial layout is called
a cognitive map
theory
a collection of interrelated ideas and facts put forward to describe, explain, and predict behavior and mental processes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (p. 124)
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
schema
a conceptual framework that organizes information and allows a person to make sense of the world
variable
a condition or characteristic of a situation or a person that is subject to change (it varies) within or across situations or individuals
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
A cancer patient becomes nauseated following chemotherapy treatments. After a few treatments, the patient begins having a sick feeling whenever entering the treatment room. The treatment room has become
a conditioned stimulus
A person eats a hamburger at a restaurant and develops a very bad stomachache after finishing eating. As a result of the sudden illness, the person cannot eat hamburgers anymore. Just thinking about them makes the person feel sick to the stomach. In this scenario, the thought of a hamburger is
a conditioned stimulus
operational definition
a definition of a variable in terms of the set of methods or procedures used to measure or study that variable
standard deviation
a descriptive statistic that measures the variability of data from the mean of the sample
measure of central tendency
a descriptive statistic that tells which result or score best represents an entire set of scores
Case study
a descriptive study that includes an intensive study of one person and allows an intensive examination of a single case, usually chosen for its interesting or unique characteristics
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individuals or groups is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
autonomic nervous system
a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
limbic system
a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce and effect in an experiment
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (p. 78)
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Anxiety
a generalized feeling of fear and apprehension that may be related to a particular situation or object and is often accompanied by increased physiological arousal.
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slop of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
sample
a group of participants who are assumed to be representative of the population about which an inference is being made
Schizophrenic disorders
a group of psychological disorders characterized by a lack of reality testing and by deterioration of social and intellectual functioning and personality beginning before age 45 and lasting at least 6 months
Schizophrenia
a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
case study
a highly detailed description of a single individual or a vent
humanistic psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
receptor site
a location on a receptor neurons which is like a key to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter); allows for orderly pathways
correlate
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other
psychiatrist
a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
antagonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response. (p. 83)
agonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response. (p. 83)
3. The neurotic need to restrict one 's life within narrow borders
a necessity to be undemanding and contented with little; a need to remain inconspicuous, belittling one's potential.
motive
a need or want that causes someone to act
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (p. 78)
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. (p. 98)
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (p. 78)
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (p. 99)
dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (p. 78)
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (p. 80)
Reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (p. 80)
correlation coefficient
a number that expresses the degree and direction of the relationship between 2 variables, ranging from -1 to +1
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (p. 91)
2. The neurotic need for a "partner" who will take over one 's life
a partner who will fulfill all expectations the neurotic has in life; who will take responsibility for good and evil, success and failure. The neurotic so inclined has a tendency to overvalue "love" because love can solve everything.
insecure-avoidant attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return
relative refractory period
a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarize state and will only fire again if the incoming message open parentheses impulse) is stronger than usual; returning to arresting state
temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
introspection
a person's description and analysis of what he or she is thinking and feeling or what he or she has just thought about
nurture
a person's experiences in the environment
nature
a person's inherited traits, determined by genetics
physical dependence
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.
Mary Calkins
a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association (APA)
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).
methamphetamines
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
experiment
a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates and observes elements of a situation in order to test a hypothesis and make a cause-and-effect statement
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
debriefing
a procedure to inform participants about the true nature of an experiment after its completion
synaptic pruning
a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost
psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.
Mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
field study
a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Residual type of schizophrenia
a schizophrenic disorder in which the person exhibits inappropriate affect, illogical thinking, and/or eccentric behavior but seems generally in touch with reality.
Undifferentiated type of schizophrenia
a schizophrenic disorder that is characterized by a mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria of any one type.
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. These are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the person 's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.
CT (computed tomography) scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Also called CAT scan.) (p. 95)
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
axon
a single long, fiber that carries outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Double bind
a situation in which an individual is given two different and inconsistent messages.
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
Motive
a specific (usually internal) condition, usually involving some form of arousal, which directs an organism's behavior toward a goal.
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
normal curve
a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes that distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer near the extremes
Ecstacy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure. (p. 96)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (p. 95)
hypothesis
a tentative statement or idea expressing a causal relationship between two events or variables that is to be evaluated in a research study
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
adaptation
a trait or inherited characteristic that has increased in a population because it solved a problem of survival or reproduction
ex post facto study
a type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events
ex post facto study
a type of study that is based on a pre-existing condition so it has chosen subjects
color blindness
a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (p. 95)
myelin sheath
a white, fatty covering of the axon which speeds transmission of message
An individual is having trouble with cognitive tasks related to learning and memory. Which of the following neurotransmitters is most likely to be involved with the problem? a. Acetylcholine b. Dopamine c. Serotonin d. The endorphins e. GABA
a. Acetylcholine
What is the brief electrical charge that travels down an axon called? a. Action potential b. Resting potential c. All-or-none impulse d. Refractory period e. Myelination response
a. Action Potential
To walk across a street, a person would rely most directly on which division of the nervous system? a. Central nervous system b. Sympathetic nervous system c. Peripheral nervous system d. Autonomic nervous system e. Parasympathetic nervous sytem
a. Central nervous system
Which is the major criticisms of the evolutionary perspective in psychology? a. It analyzes after the fact using hindsight b. It attempts to extend a biological theory into a psychological realm c. There is very little evidence to support it d. It has been around long enough to "stand the test of time" e. It seems to apply in certain cultures but not in others
a. It analyzes after the fact using hindsight
Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how traits and behavioral tendencies have been shaped by what? a. Natural selection b. Genes c. Prenatal nutrition d. DNA e. Chromosomes
a. Natural selection
Which is the most influential of the endocrine glands? a. Pituitary glands b. Adrenal glands c. Dendrites d. Threshold glands e. Parasympathetic
a. Pituitary gland
cocktail party effect
ability to attend to only one voice among many
manifest content
according to Freud, the story of the dream.
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory.
acetylcholine
if __ is blocked , a happens during some kinds of anesthesia, the muscles cannot contract and we are paralyzed
acetylcholine
one of the best understood neurotransmitters, plays a role in learning and memory. when it released to our muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts
acetylcholine
one of the best-understood neurotransmitters, plays a role in learning and memory
acetylcholine
David McClelland
achievement motivation; developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation
What is the brief electrical charge that travels down an axon called?
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
action potential
a neuron fires an impulse called __ , a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon
action potential
if excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity or threshold, the combined signals trigger a __
action potential
neural impulse
action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin)
Postconventional morality (Kohlberg's theory of development)
actions are judged "right" because they flow from people's right or from self-defined, basic ethical principles
genes can be either __ or __.
active or inactive
we have 20,000 to 25,000 genes, they can be either __ or __ . __ turn on genes
active, inactive. environmental events
Accomodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
accomodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
post conventional morality
adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles 17/18 +
Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase energy and are released by the
adrenal glands
located on the top of the kidneys
adrenal glands
in a moment of danger, the __ nervous system orders the adrenal glands to release a chemical called __
adrenaline
this hormone increases the heart rate , blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing us with a surge of energy known as the fight or flight response
adrenaline
epinephrine
adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster
sensory neurons
afferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cords
refractory period
after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be
Teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
agonist
some opiate drugs are __ and produce a temporary high by amplifying normal sensations of arousal or pleasure
agonist
may be similar enough to a neurotransmitter to mind to its receptor and mimic its effect.
agonist molecules
population
all of the individuals in the group to which a study applies
the neuron's reaction is either a __ or __ response
all or none
The neuron's reaction is an __
all or none process
neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full- strength response) or not firing.
all or none response
two lima-beaned sized neutral clusters , are linked to aggression and fear
amygdala
the limbic system contains the __ ,___ and ___
amygdala , hypothalamus , and hippocampus
near-death experiences
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (p. 95)
Model:
an analogy or a perspective that uses a structure from one field to help scientists describe data in another field
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (p. 105)
action potential
an electrical current sent down the axon of a neuron and is initiated by the rapid reversal of the polarization of the cell membrane
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo
Drive theory (aka, drive-reduction theory)
an explanation of behavior that assumes that an organism is motivated to act because of a need to attain, reestablish, or maintain some goal that helps with survival
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
1. The neurotic need for affection and approval
an indiscriminate desire to please others and to be liked and approved of by others. The person's "center of gravity" is in others, not in self.
participant
an individual who takes part in an experiment and whose behavior is observed as part of the data collection process
genotype
an individual's genetic make-up
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Drive
an internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy a physiological need
behavior
an observable action
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
gestalt
an organized whole
gestalt
an organized whole. these psychologists emphasized ur tendency to integrate information into meaningful wholes
pseudoscience
an unscientific system which pretends to discover psychological information that his means are unscientific or deliberately fraudulent
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Which is one of the major criticisms of the evolutionary perspective in psychology?
analyzes after the fact using hindsight.
human factors psychology
and I/O psychology that explored how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
antagonist
bind to receptors but their effect is instead to block a neurotransmitters functioning.
antagonists
Agoraphobia
anxiety disorder characterized by marked fear and avoidance of being alone in a place from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing
Motivation
any internal condition, although usually an internal one, that initates, activates, or maintains an organism's goal directed behavior
confounding variable
anything that causes a difference between the IV and the DV other than the independent variable
industrial psychologist
applies psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
forensic psychologist
applies psychological concepts to legal issues
industrial/organizational psychologist
applies psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity and the quality of work life
normal distribution
approximate distribution of scores expected when a sample is taken from a large population, drawn as a frequency polygon that often takes the form of a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (p. 107)
hypothalamus
area of the brain that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors such as, eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, motivation; also body temperature
blind spot
area on retina with no receptor cells (where optic nerve leaves the eye)
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and communicating
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (p. 109)
school psychologist
assesses and counsels students, consults with educators and parents, and performs behavioral intervention when necessary
counseling psychologist
assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
in the __ areas of the brain the neurons are busy with higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, speaking, and many of the task that make us human
association
The most noticeable difference between human brains and other mammalian brains is the size of the
association areas
found in all four lobes.
association areas
preferential looking
assumes that the longer an infant spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant prefers that stimulus over others
Freud's Cupboard Theory
attachment to caregiver is side-effect of ability to provide basic satisfaction (food)
controls the glands and muscles of our internal organs , influencing such functions as glandular activity , heartbeat and digestion . usually operates on its on
automatic nervous system
the action potential travels down the __ which branches into junctions with hundreds or thousands of other neurons or with the body's muscles and glands
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
axon
Opiate drugs such as morphine are classified as what? a. Antagonists, because they block neurotransmitter receptors for pain b. Agonists, because they mimic other neurotransmitters' pain-diminishing effects c. Excitatory neurotransmitters, because they activate pain-control mechanisms d. Sympathetic nervous system agents, because they prepare the body of challenge e. Parasympathetic nervous system agents, because they calm the body
b. Agonists, because they mimic other neurotransmitters' pain-diminishing effects
Damage to the hippocampus would result in what? a. Difficulties with balance and coordination b. Memory problems c. The false sensation of burning in parts of the body d. Emotional outbursts e. Death
b. Memory problems
Which of the following statements has been supported by the research of evolutionary psychologists? a. Women are attracted to men who appear virile b. Men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children c. The connection between sex and pleasure is mostly determined by culture d. The same factors determine sexual attraction in both males and females e. Most adults are attracted to partners that in the same way remind them of their parents
b. Men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children
An individual experiences brain damage that produces a coma. Which part of the brain was probably damaged? a. Corpus callosum b. Reticular formation c. Frontal Lobe d. Cerebellum e. Limbic System
b. Reticular formation
what part of the brain processes visual information
back of the brain
When Klüver and Bucy surgically lesioned the amygdala of a rhesus monkey's brain, what was the impact on the monkey's behavior?
became less aggressive
Preconventional morality (Kohlberg's stage of development)
before age 9; morality focuses on self-interest: obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards
study our difference and weigh the effects and interplay of heredity an environment
behavior geneticists
what can estimate the heritability of a trait
behavior geneticists
What is the study of specific genes and teams of genes that influence behavior called?
behavior genetics
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Mary Cover-Jones
behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned
Edward Thorndike
behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence
John B Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
B.F. Skinner
behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons
Law of Effect
behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened (Thorndike)
Sir Francis Galton
believed that intelligence and most other physical and mental characteristics of humans were inherited and biologically based
by studying links between __ and __, biological psychologist are announcing discoveries about the interplay of our biology and our behavior and mind at an exhilarating pace
biolocal activity and psychological events
Maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
Psychologists working from a ___study the links between biology and behavior. •
biological perspective
___ are announcing discoveries about the interplay of our biology and our behavior and mind at an exhilarating pace.
biological psychologists
___the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
biological psychology
to understand our behavior , we need to study how these __,__ and __ systems work and interact
biological, psychological and social
Charles Darwin
biologist; developed theory of evolution; transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on The Beagle
We are ___ in which biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors interact to influence behavior
biopsychosocial systems,
we are __ systems
biosychosocial
vestibular sense
body sense of equilibrium and balance
kinesthesis
body sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual parts of the body
In Ivan Pavlov's experiments in classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was
both an unconditioned and a conditioned response
poison that can form in improperly canned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh release
botulin
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
from the simplicity of neurons talking to other neurons arises the complexity of the central nervous system's __ and __
brain and spinal cord
levels-of-processing approach
brain encodes information in different ways or on different levels; deeper processing leads to deeper memory
phrenology has been discredited, but which of following ideas has its origins in phrenology ?
brain function localization
the brain's oldest and innermost region is the __.it begins where the spinal cord swells slightly after entering the skull
brainstem
statistics
branch of mathematics that deals with collecting, classifying, and analyzing data
dendrites
branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons
great amplitude
bright colors, loud sounds
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
nerve
bundles of axons
Conventional morality (Kohlberg's theory of development)
by early adolescence; focuses on caring for others and upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules
When Kliver and Bucy surgically lesioned the amygdala of a rhesus monkey's brain, what was the impact of the monkey's behavior? a. Lost its ability to coordinate movement b. Died because its heartbeat became irregular c. Became less aggressive d. Lost its memory of where food was stored e. Sank into an irreversible coma
c. Became less aggressive
What is the study of specific genes and teams of genes that influence behavior called? a. Molecular genetics b. Evolutionary psychology c. Behavior genetics d. Heritability e. Natural selection
c. Behavior genetics
What was the major findings of Thomas Bouchard's study of twins? a. It demonstrated that peer influence is more important than parental influence in the development of personality traits b. It proved that the influence of parental environment becomes more and more important as children grow into adults c. He discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult identical twins who had been separated near birth d. Fraternal twins showed almost as much similarity as identical twins when they reached adulthood e. It provided evidence that heritability is less important than researchers previously suspected.
c. He discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult identical twins who had been separated near birth
A researcher interested in determining the size of a particular area of the brain would be most likely to use what kind of test? a. Lesion b. EEG c. MRI d. fMRI e. PET scan
c. MRI
Why do researchers study the brains of nonhuman animals? a. It is not ethical to study human brains b. Human brains are too complex to study meaningfully c. The same principles govern neural functioning in all species d. It is too expensive to study human brains e. The technology is still being developed for the study of human brains
c. The same principles govern neural functioning in all species
Why do researchers find the study of fraternal twins important? a. They share similar environments and the same genetic code b. Data collected concerning their similarities is necessary for calculating heritability c. They are the same age and are usually raised in similar environments but they do not have the same genetic code d. Results allow us to determine exactly how disorders ranging from heart disease to schizophrenia are inherited e. They are typically raised in less similar environments than nontwin siblings
c. They are the same age and are usually raised in similar environments but they do not have the same genetic code
optic nerve
carries impulses from the eye to the brain
. A split-brain patient has a picture of a dog flashed to his right hemisphere and a cat to his left hemisphere. He will be able to identify the
cat using his right hand
soma
cell body
each neuron consist of a __ and its branching fibers called __
cell body, dendrites
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking. (p. 104)
To walk across a street, a person would rely most directly on which division of the nervous system?
central nervous system
the brain and the spinal cord
central nervous system
what are the two main branches of the human bodies nervous systems
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
A gymnast falls and hits her head on the floor. She attempts to continue practicing, but has trouble maintaining balance. What part of her brain has probably been affected?
cerebellum
enables nonverbal learning and memory. helps judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminates sounds and textures. coordinate voluntary movement with assistance from the pons
cerebellum
extending from the rear of the brainstem is the baseball sized __, meaning little brain, which is what its two wrinkle halves resemble
cerebellum
hemispheres that come as a pair
cerebral
the newest highest regions of the brain ( two halves of the brain)
cerebral Hemisphere
thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells that cover the cerebral hemisphere . the brains thinking crown, the body's ultimate control and information processing center
cerebral cortex
thin surface layer that contains billions of nerve cells
cerebral cortex
what makes us distinctively human mostly arises from the complex functions of our __
cerebral cortex
the hemisphere that contributes 85 percent of the brains weight
cerebrum
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers released by terminal buttons into the synapse
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (p. 80)
Hormones are __released into the __
chemical messengers; bloodstream
excitatory neurotransmitter
chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire
inhibitory neurotransmitter
chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing
endorphins
chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain; may induce feelings of pleasure
hormone
chemical that carries messages that travel through the bloodstream to help regulate bodily functions
agonist
chemical that mimics or facilitates the actions of a neurotransmitter
antagonist
chemical that opposes the actions of a neurotransmitter
If the combined received signals exceed a minimum threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse (the action potential) down its axon by means of a __.
chemistry-to-electricity process
Lev Vygotsky
child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research
Anna Freud
child psychoanalysis; emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle
thread like structure made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chromosomes
the plans for your own book of run to __ chapters ( __) . __ donated by your mothers egg and __ donated by your fathers sperm
chromosomes . 46, 23
demand characteristics
clues participants discover about the purpose of a study that suggest how they should respond
Elizabeth Loftus
cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony
Tolman
cognition; studied rats and discovered the "cognitive map" in rats and humans
fluid intelligence
cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning that tends to diminish with age
The graph above depicts the results of an experiment in which rats learned to navigate a maze in one of three conditions. According to the results, the food reward given to group C revealed
cognitive mapping
is taking the first small steps by relating specific brain states to conscious experiences
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition including perception, thinking, memory, and language
cognitive neuroscience
Jean Piaget
cognitive psychology; created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)
iris
colored part of the eye that regulates size of pupil
Premack principle
commonly occurring behavior can reinforce a less frequent behavior
neurotic trends into three categories
compliance, aggression, and withdrawal.
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
Computer-enhanced X-rays used to create brain images are known as
computed tomography scans
neuropsychologist
concerned with the relationship between brain/nervous system and behavior
Robert Rescorla's contingency model of classical conditioning states that
conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another
Solomon Asch
conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length
James-Lange theory of emotion
conscious experience of emnotion results from one's awareness of physiological arousal
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
conscious experience of emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time
explicit memory
conscious memory that a person is aware of
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
consciousness
today's science explores the biology of __
consciousness
Stanford-Binet intelligence tests
constructed by Lewis Terman, originally used ratio IQ (MA/CA x 100); now based on deviation from mean
frontal lobes
control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; speech (Broca's area); controls movement of muscles
Broca's Area
controls language expression-area of the frontal lobe in left hemisphere that directs muscle movements invloved in speech
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
a wide band of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres and carries messages between them
corpus callosum
in 1961 , neurosurgeons attempted to fix epileptic seizures by severing the __
corpus callosum
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
creates a computerized image using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves
computerized axial tomography (CT scan)
creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain
man made in the image and likeness of God. Genesis "creation" account.
creationism
During which task might the right hemisphere of the brain be most active? a. Solving a mathematical equation b. Reading c. Making a brief oral presentation to a class d. Imagining what a dress would look like on a friend e. Solving a logic problem
d. Imagining what a dress would look like on a friend
Surgical stimulation of the somatosensory cortex might result in the false sensation of what? a. Music b. Flashes of colored light c. Someone whispering your name d. Someone tickling you e. A bad odor
d. Someone tickling you
In an effort to reveal genetic influences on personality, researchers use adoption studies mainly for what purpose? a. To compare adopted children with nonadopted children b. To study the effect of a prior neglect on adopted children c. To study the effect of a child's age at adoption d. To evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents e. To consider the effects of adoption on a child's manners or values
d. To evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents
psychiatrist
deals with psychological disorders and sometimes provides medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
nature-nurture controversy
deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior
each neuron is itself a miniature __ performing complex calculations as it receives signals from hundreds, even thousands of other neurons
decision making device
habituation
decreased responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
A neuron receives signals through its branching __, and sends signals through its axons.
dendrites
bushy fibers that receive info and conduct it towards the cell body
dendrites
neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
dendrites
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes
monocular cues
depth cues that are based on one eye
binocular cues
depth cues that are based on two eyes
ex post facto study
describes differences between groups of participants that differ naturally on a variable such as race or gender
flashbulb memories
detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence
Hermann Rorschach
developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary
Piaget critiques
development is more continuous; missed conceptual abilities
Harry Harlow
development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort
Gibson & Walk
developmental psychology; "visual cliff" studies with infants
Mary Ainsworth
developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
developmental psychology; wrote "On Death and Dying": 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. denial, 2. anger, 3. bargaining, 4. depression, 5. acceptance)
Judith Langlois
developmental psychology;: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression
Howard Gardner
devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic
David Rosenhan
did study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia; showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting
Lloyd and Margaret Peterson
did work on short-term memory
Generally speaking, heritability is the extent to which
differences among people are accounted for by genes.
Francis Galton
differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
Samuel became ill after eating pepperoni pizza and refuses to eat it now. However, he still enjoys plain pizza. Samuel's eating behavior illustrates
discrimination
Dissociative identity disorder
dissociative disorder characterized by the existence within an individual of two or more distinct personalities, each of which is dominant at different times and directs the individual's behavior at those times; commonly known as multiple personality disorder.
genetic mapping
dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be characterized and ordered so that the fragments reflect their respective locations on specific chromosomes
somatic nervous system
division of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary actions
peripheral nervous system
division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
hindbrain
division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles
engineering psychologist
does research on how people function best with machines
4. The neurotic need for power, for control over others, and for a facade of omnipotence
domination over others craved for its own sake; essential disrespect for Others; indiscriminate adoration of strength and contempt for weakness; belief in the power of reason and intelligence; extreme value placed on foresight and prediction; tendency to relinquish wishes and to withdraw because of dread of failure.
Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
dopamine
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
You are aware that a dog is viciously barking at you, but you are not aware of the type of dog. Later, you are able to describe the type and color of the dog. This ability to process information without conscious awareness best exemplifies which of the following?
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
dual processing
small amplitude
dull colors, soft sounds
When is cognitive development the most active?
during adulthood
When do primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature?
during puberty
Brain plasticity refers to which of the following? a. Healthy human brain tissue b. The ability of the brain to transfer information from one hemisphere to the other c. How a brain gets larger as a child grows d. A wide variety of functions performed by the human brain e. A wide variety of functions performed by the human brain
e. A wide variety of functions performed by the human brain
Heritability refers to the percentage of what? a. Group variation in a trait that can be explained by environment b. Traits shared by identical twins c. Traits shared by fraternal twins d. Traits shared by adopted children and their birth parents e. Group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics
e. Group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics
The peripheral nervous system a. Connects the brain to the spinal cord b. Calms the body after an emergency c. Is limited to the control of voluntary movement d. Controls only the arms and the legs e. Is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain and the spinal cord
e. Is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain or the spinal cord
Which region of the brain controls our breathing and heartbeat? a. Pons b. Corpus callosum c. Parietal lobe d. Hippocampus e. Medulla
e. Medulla
What is the purpose of the myelin sheath? a. Make the transfer of information across a synapse more efficient b. Increase the amount of neurotransmitter available in the neuron c. Reduce the antagonist effect of certain drugs d. Establish a resting potential in the axon e. Speed the transmission of information within a neuron
e. Speed the transmission of information within a neuron
Which of the following does a PET scan best allow researchers to examine? a. The presence of tumors in the brain b. Electrical activity on the surface of the brain c. The size of the internal structures of the brain d. The location of strokes e. The functions of various brain regions
e. The functions of various brain regions
functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
bulimia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by pattern 9of eating binges followed by purging (e.g., vomiting, laxatives, exercise)
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder most common in adolescent females characterized by weight less than 85% of normal, restricted eating, and unrealistic body image
Edward L. Thorndike argued that responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, and that responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated. This became known as the law of
effect
motor neurons
efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands
your mental activity is emitting telltale __,__ and __ that would enable neuroscientists to observe your brain at work
electrical , metabolic, and magnetic signals
your brains billion of neurons sweeps in regular waves across the surface
electrical activity
ions
electrically charged particles found both inside and outside a neuron; negative ions are found inside the cell membrane in a polarized neuron
an amplified read out of electrical activity waves
electroencephalogram
Paul Ekman
emotion; found that facial expressions are universal
Stanley Schachter
emotion; stated that in order to experience emotions, a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it
separation anxiety
emotional distress is seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. Skin temperature drops when stranger is present
Daniel Goleman
emotional intelligence
pituitary gland
endocrine gland that produces a large amount of hormones; it regulates growth and helps control other endocrine glands; located on underside of brain; sometimes called the "master gland"
pineal gland
endocrine gland that produces melatonin that helps regulate sleep/wake cycle
adrenal glands
endocrine glands located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which prepare the body for "fight or flight"
body's slow chemical communication system which consist of a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endocrine system
interconnected with your nervous system is a second communication system called __
endocrine system
"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
endorphins
morphine elevates mood and eases pain, and is most similar to what?
endorphins
terminal buttons (axon terminals)
ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters
can can defined as every external influence upon us from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
environment
what triggers gene activity
environments
Which of the following refers to an effect of life experience that leaves a molecular mark that affects gene expression?
epigenetics
affirms that the environment influences gene expressions and that this occurs without a DNA change
epigenics
meaning in addition to or above and beyond genetics
epigenics
studying the molecular mechanisms by which environments trigger genetic expressions .
epigenics
in 1961 , neurosurgeons believed that __ were caused by an amplification of abnormal brain activity bouncing back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres
epileptic seizures
correlational research
establish the relationship between two variables
David Weschler
established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS); also WISC and WPPSI
Konrad Lorenz
ethology (animal behavior); studied imprinting and critical periods in geese
environment
every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (p. 124)
study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
evolutionary psychology
developmental psychology
examines how people are continually developing--physically, cognitively, and socially--from infancy through old age
in the neurons chemistry - to - electricity process, ions are __
exchanged
most signals are __ somewhat like pushing a neuron's accelerator.
excitatory
experimenter bias
expectation of the person conducting an experiment which may be affect the outcome
observer bias
expectations of an observer which may distort an authentic observation
just noticeable difference (JND)
experience of the difference threshold
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes in an active agent.
When a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, a resulting decrease in the conditioned response is called
extinction
Whenever Sarah's mother answered the phone, Sarah would yell for her mother's attention and her mother would end the phone conversation. Then Sarah's mother began ignoring Sarah's yelling and eventually Sarah stopped behaving that way. The change in Sarah's behavior is an example of
extinction
An individual's fear of dogs that is lost as the individual is exposed to dogs in nonthreatening situations is referred to by behaviorists as a fear that has been
extinguished
bipolar cells
eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
can reveal the brain's functioning as well as its structures
fMRI ( functional MRI
detects blood rushing to the back of the brain
fMRI machine
suggest which brain areas are most active wen people feel pain or rejection , listen to angry voices, think about scary things,feel happy, or become sexually excited
fMRI studies
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
preconventional morality
first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior. 2-9
menarche
first menstrual period
each hemisphere cortex is divided into four lobes , separated by prominent __ or __
fissures or folds
Baby Vision
focus of attention on the face, not the body, preference for sights and sounds that are familiar. 7-10 inches. Infants prefer face like images
selective attention
focused awareness of only a limited amount of all you are capable of experiencing
educational psychologist
focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place
social psychologist
focuses on how the individual's behavior and mental processes are affected by interactions with other people
psychometrician
focuses on methods of acquiring and analyzing data
health psychologist
focuses on psychological factors in illness
opponent-process theory of emotion
following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion; on repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger
parathyroid
for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
schema
framework of basic ideas about people, objects and events based on past experience in long-term memory
developed from separate fertilized eggs
fraternal twins
Damage to which of the following could interfere with the ability to plan for the future?
frontal lobe
__ damage can also alter personality and remove a person inhibitions. what is an example ,
frontal lobe , phineas gage
lying just behind the forehead are the ___which are involved in speaking , muscle movements, making plans and judgements
frontal lobes
mirror neurons
frontal loe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
each hemisphere cortex is divided into four lobes called
frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
Depressive disorders
general category of mood disorders in which people show extreme and persistent sadness, despair, and loss of interest in life's usual activities.
descriptive statistics
general set of procedures used to summarize, condense, and describe sets of data
small segments of the giant DNA molecules
genes
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor such as the environment depends on another factory such as hereditary
genes and environment interact
every cell nucleus in your body contains the __ for your entire body
genetic master code
complete instructions for making an organism and consist of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosomes
genome
endocrine system
glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which regulate body and behavioral processes
in more complex animal brains , the proportion of __ to neurons increases
glia
provide nutrients, insulating myelin, and guide neural connections
glial cells
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
glutamate
Andrene is having difficulties with her roommate. A problem-focused coping strategy for Andrene would be
going directly to her roommate to see if they can work things out
frequency polygon
graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
group of abnormalities that occur in the babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy
moral development
growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically
Max Wertheimer
had an enormous influence on the development of psychology as well as on specific subfields including sensation, perception, and experimental psychology
Neurotic affectionate approval
having to create an environment where everyone likes the person regardless of the situation
Cerrebellum
he "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (p. 98)
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Hospice
help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortably environment (usually outside of a hospital setting)
sports psychologist
helps athletes improve their focus, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure
refers to the extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes
heritability
short wavelength
high frequency
Which of the following's primary function is processing memories?
hippocampus
processes conscience memories.
hippocampus
short-term storage
holds information for processing; fragile; also called short term memory or working memory
behaviorist
holds the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without references to mental processes
insulin
hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too much-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes
parathormone
hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids
have discovered the common sequence within human DNA
human genome researchers
Carl Rogers
humanistic psychology; Contributions: founded client-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard,
Abraham Maslow
humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence
What part of the brain triggers the release of adrenaline to boost heart rate when you're afraid?
hypothalamus
Which of the following brain areas is responsible for regulating thirst?
hypothalamus
just below the thalamus is the __. important link in command chain governing bodily maintenance. help maintain a steady internal state
hypothalamus
which communicates with the pituitary, in turn controls the endocrine system?
hypothalamus
developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two. genetically identical and share the same conception and uterus
identical twins
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
Irreversibility
in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action
Egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
Piaget Stage 2: Preoperational Stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. Develop pretend play and egocentrism.
Piaget Stage 1: sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. they develop object permanence and stranger anxiety.
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12-adulthood) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts like love, fairness. Develop abstract logic and potential for moral reasoning. Hypothetical reasoning Analogical/ Abstract Rasoning Deductive Reasoning Reflective Abilities
significant difference
in an experiment, a difference that is unlikely to have occurred because of chance alone and is inferred to be most likely due to the systematic manipulations of variables by the researcher
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
experimental group
in an experiment, the group of participants to whom a treatment is given
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
in classical conditioning the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally -naturally and automatically -triggers a response
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
in classical sonditioning the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth
positive psychology
in emerging Theo psychology that focuses on positive experiences; includes subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to boorish
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
neonatal period
in humans, the neonatal (newborn) period extends through the first month after birth
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement
reinforcer
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
gender
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
scientific method
in psychology, the techniques used to discover knowledge about human behavior and mental processes
amnesia
inability to remember information (typically, all events within a specific period), usually due to physiological trauma
aphasia
inability to understand or use language
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. a positive reinforcer is any stimlus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
neuron
individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system; it has three functions: receive information, process it, send to rest of body
novelty-preference procedure
infants focus first on the face, not the body
7. The neurotic need for personal admiration
inflated image of self; need to be admired not for what one possesses or presents in the public eye but for the imagined self.
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
top-down processing
information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations to construct perceptions
bottom-up processing
information processing that begins at the sensory receptors and works up to perception
Human APA Ethical Guidelines
informed consent protect them from physical harm or discomfort keep their identity confidential fully debrief people
instinct
inherited, automatic species-specific behaviors
some signals are __, more like pushing its brake
inhibitory
Zajonc & Markus
intelligence and development; discovered that first born and only children tend to have higher IQs than latter born children
Robert Yerkes
intelligence, comparative; Yerkes-Dodson law: level of arousal as related to performance
Raymond Cattell
intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test)
Robert Sternberg
intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)
Charles Spearman
intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)
when the endorphin drug is withdrawn,the brain may then be deprived of any form of opiate , causing __
intense discomfort
lie between the sensory input and the motor input, where information is processed in the brains internal communication system
interneurons
Harry Stack Sullivan
interpersonal psychoanalysis; groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System, a configuration of personality traits
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
assimilation
interpreting out new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
electrically charged atoms
ions
The peripheral nervous system
is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain and the spinal cord.
neurotransmitters do not operate in __ and their effects vary with __ they stimulate
isolation, receptors
Noam Chomsky
language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language
Benjamin Whorf
language; his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think
corpus callosum
large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s
forebrain
largest, most complicated, and most advanced of the three divisions of the brain; comprises the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cortex
Late adulthood (Erikson's stage of development)
late 60s and up; integrity vs. despair; feel sense of satisfaction or failure
In a classic study, a group of rats learned to run through a maze to obtain food, and another group of rats explored the maze without receiving food. Some time later, the researcher compared the two groups of rats to determine if both groups would find the food at the end of the maze. According to the researcher, the untrained rats found the food at the end of the maze as quickly as the trained rats as a result of
latent learning
In a two-phase study, participants were randomly assigned to either group A or group B. All participants were subjected to a series of irritating air puffs directed at the face. In the first phase of the study, participants in group A pressed a button that stopped the air puffs. Participants in group B pressed a button that had no effect on the air puffs. In the second phase of the study, both groups had buttons that, if pressed, would stop the air puffs. The study most directly explores the concept of
learned helplessness
Individuals who believe that an unpleasant experience is unavoidable and therefore do nothing to change the course of events are exhibiting
learned helplessness
crystallized intelligence
learned knowledge and skills such as vocabulary, which tends to increase with age
observational learning
learning by observing others - also called social learning
aversive conditioning
learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Martin Seligman
learning; Positive Psychology; learned helplessness theory of depression; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness
Wolpe
learning; systematic desensitization
recent studies of people with damaged frontal lobes have revealed that not only have they become __, but their __ may seem unrestrained by normal emotions
less inhibited, moral judgments
unconscious
level of consciousness that includes unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts not directly available to conscious awareness
preconscious
level of consciousness that is outside awareness but contains feelings and memories that can easily be brought into conscious awareness
photoreceptors
light sensitive cells (rods and cones) that convert light to electrochemical impulses
retina
light-sensitive surface on back of eye containing rods and cones
between the oldest and newest brain area lies the___. means border
limbic system
what do dendrites do?
listen
___—the idea that various brain regions have particular functions.
localization of function
phrenology succeeded in focusing attention on the __
localization of function
the idea that various brain regions have particular functions
localization of function
Broca's area
located in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech
Wernicke's area
located in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and making meaningful sentences
thyroid gland
located in neck; regulates metabolism by secreting thyroxine
decay
loss of information from memory as a result of disuse and the passage of time
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events and experiences occurring from the time of an amnesia-causing event forward
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory of events and experiences that preceded an amnesia-causing event
long wavelength
low frequency
temporal lobes
main area for hearing, understanding language (Wernicke's area), understanding music; smell
the right hemisphere excels in __ , helps us ___ and helps__
making inferences, modulate our speech to make meaning clear, orchestrate our sense of self
chunks
manageable and meaningful units of information organized in such a way that it can be easily encoded, stored, and retrieved
Latin Placebo
means I shall please
slight swelling where the spinal cord enters the skull . her lies the control of your heartbeat and breathing
medulla
dominant genes
member of a gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait
recessive gene
member of the gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with the same gene
animals or people who lose their hippocampus to surgery or injury lose their ability to form new __ and __
memories of facts and events
implicit memory
memory a person is not aware of possessing
procedural memory
memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks
declarative memory
memory for specific information
semantic memory
memory of ideas, rules, words, and general concepts about the world
episodic memory
memory of specific personal events and situations (episodes) tagged with information about time
Damage to the hippocampus would result in what?
memory problems
Hermann Ebbinghaus
memory; studied memorization of meaningless words
Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome
three-stage process which describes the body's reaction to stress: 1) alarm reaction, 2) resistance, 3) exahaustion
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
threshold
synaptic vesicles
tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of one neuron; assist in transferring mineral impulse from one neuron to another neuron by releasing specific neurotransmitters
lesion
tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (p. 94)
Infancy (Erikson's stage of development)
to 1 year; trust vs. mistrust; develop basic trust
forebrain
top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality
brainstem
top of the spinal column
Gordon Allport
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary
placenta
transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus
cornea
transparent covering of the eye
psychoanalyst
treats mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious
compliance
try to please and pacify others.
indicator
turning a subjective variable into an objective quatifiable thing to study
identical twins
twins from a single fertilized egg (zygote) with the same genetic makeup; also called monozygotic (MZ) twins
fraternal twins
twins from two separate fertilized eggs (zygotes); share half of the same genes
identical twins (monozygotic twins)
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. (p. 125)
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
Paranoid type of schizophrenia
type of schizophrenia characterized by hallucinations and delusions of persecution or grandeur (or both), and sometimes irrational jealousy.
Disorganized type of schizophrenia
type of schizophrenia characterized by severely disturbed thought processes, frequent incoherence, disorganized behavior, and inappropriate affect.
placebo
typically a pill that is used as a control in the experiment; a sugar pill
aggression
typically hostile or display aggression toward others
single-blind procedure
when the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment
(cerebral) cortex
wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement
put in order: fetus, zygote, embryo
zygote, embryo, fetus
Opiate drugs such as morphine are classified as what?
Agonists, because they mimic other neurotransmitters'pain-diminishing effects
cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Motivation
All the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaing physical and psychological activities.
Prototype
An abstraction, an idealized pattern of an object or idea that is stored in memory and used to decide whether similar objects or ideas are members of the same class of items.
Generalized anxiety disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by persistent anxiety occurring on more days than not for at least 6 months, sometimes with increased activity of the autonomic nervous system, apprehension, excessive muscle tension, and difficulty in concentrating
Social Need
An aroused condition that directs people to behave in ways that allow them to feel good about themselves and others and to establish and maintain relationships
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating (and a fear of not being able to stop eating) followed by purging
intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Stressor
An environmental stimulus that affects an organism in physically or psychologically injurious ways, usually producing anxiety, tension, and physiological arousal
Fixation
An excessive attachment to some person or object that was appropriate only at an earlier stage of development
Humanistic theory
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth
Operant Conditioning
Conditioning in which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of the behavior;
Immune system
Bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats.
Psychosurgery
Brain surgery used in the past to alleviate symptoms of serious mental disorders.
damage to the __ area of the brain disrupts speaking
Broca's
In general, damage to ___disrupts speaking, while damage to ___ disrupts understanding of language
Broca's area, wernicke's area
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; aka Pavlovian conditioning
Approach-avoidance conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose an alternative that has both attractive and unappealing aspects
Approach-approach conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives
examines the brain by taking X-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage
CT ( computer tomography )
Which of the following statements best describes the role of biological processes in classical conditioning?
Certain species are biologically predisposed to learn particular associations that enhance their survival.
Social Facilitation
Change in behavior that occurs when people believe they are in the presence of other people.
belief perseverance
Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
Body Language
Communication of information through body positions and gestures.
Obedience
Compliance with the orders of another person or group of people.
Scoring the Horney trends measure
Each scale score is measured by adding your responses to the subset of questions for that scale - the questions for each scale are listed below. Higher scores represent more of a tendency for that scale. Compliant scale - Questions 2,3,9,13,17,20,25,28,32,35 Max score - 60 Aggressive scale - 4,7,8,11,12,14,16,18,21,23,24,26,29,31,33 Max score - 90 Detached - 1,5,6,10,15,19,22,27,30,34 Max score - 60
telegraphic speech
Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.
Temperament
Early-emerging and long-lasting individual differences in disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of emotional reactions
The theorist who conducted pioneering research on latent learning and cognitive maps was
Edward Tolman
Demand characteristics
Elements of an experimental situation that might cause a participant to perceive the situation in a certain way or become aware of the purpose of the study and thus bias the participant to behave in a certain way, and in so doing, distort results.
a species changes over time in order to adapt to its surrounding.
Evoultionary biology
Expectancy Theories
Explanations of behavior that focus on people's expectations about reaching a goal and their need for achievement as energizing factors
Delusions
False beliefs that are inconsistent with reality but are held in spite of evidence that disproves them.
covert
False reason for why the psychologist is there
Oedipus Complex
Feelings of rivalry with the parent of the same sex and sexual desire for the parent of the other sex, occurring during the phallic stage and ultimately resolved through identification with the parent of the same sex.
Alarm reaction
First stage of the GAS, during which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor.
For every twenty cell phones that Tom sells, he will get a $50 bonus. The bonuses are an example of which of the following types of reinforcement schedules?
Fixed ratio
Stereotypes
Fixed, overly simple and often erroneous ideas about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of groups of people; stereotypes assume that all members of a given group are alike.
Debriefing
Informing participants about the true nature of a experiment after its completion.
Rosenthal & Jacobson
Intelligence and learning, self-fulfilling prophecy; Study Basics: Researchers misled teachers into believing that certain students had higher IQs. Teachers changed own behaviors and effectively raised the IQ of the randomly chosen students
Circadian Rhythms
Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night
transmit and process information within the brain and spinal cord.
Interneurons
Emiko's cat often meows for food. Emiko decides to eliminate the behavior by feeding the cat only when it does not meow. Over the next few weeks, she sometimes ignores the cat when it meows. Other times, she feeds the cat when it meows. Which of the following is the most reasonable prediction to make about the cat's meowing for food?
It will increase due to a variable schedule of reinforcement.
Which of the following is the best example of the learning principle of reinforcement?
James drank coffee before he took and passed a difficult test with a high grade, so now he drinks coffee before every test he takes because he believes doing so will help him score well on the tests.
representativeness heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
Collective Unconscious
Jung's theory of a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that are inherited ideas and images, called archetypes, are emotionally charged and rich in meaning and symbolism
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Kelly, a first-year student at a local university, is surprised at how easily she can locate the building and classroom for each of her classes on the first day of school. Kelly attributes her success to the campus tour she took the previous spring. Which of the following concepts best supports Kelly's belief?
Latent learning
Antisocial personality disorder
Personality disorder characterized by egocentricity, and behavior that is irresponsible and that violates the rights of other people, a lack of guilt feelings, an inability to understand other people and a lack of fear of punishment.
which scanning techniques measures glucose consumption as an indicator of brain activity?
PET
scan which depicts brain activity by showing each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel , the sugar glucose
PET ( positron emission tomography)
Learned helplessness
Pattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after an organism learns its responses are ineffective.
General adaption syndrome (GAS)
Pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor.
Attitudes
Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person's past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature.
led to the discovery of specialized language brain areas.
Paul Broca Carl Wernicke
Dichromats
People who can distinguish only two of the three basic colors.
Trichromats
People who can perceive all three primary colors and thus can distinguish any hue.
Monochromats
People who cannot perceive any color, usually because their retinas lack cones.
Self-serving Bias
People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors.
Conformity
People's tendency to change attitudes or behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people or with social norms.
Subliminal perception
Perception below the threshold of awareness.
Types
Personality categories in which broad collections of traits are loosely tied together and interrelated.
Conditioning
Systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned
sensory development
Taste, touch and hearing are well developed at birth Vision is the least well developed.
working memory
Temporarily holds current or recent information for immediate or short-term use; Information is maintained for 20-30 seconds while active processing (e.g., rehearsal) takes place
For extinction to occur, which of the following must be true of the conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ?
The CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS, and the CR loses strength.
Withdrawal Symptoms
The Reaction experienced when a substance abuser stops using a drug with dependence properties
Brain plasticity refers to which of the following?
The ability of brain tissue to take on new functions
creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Emotional intelligence
The ability to understand and control emotional responses.
priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
Semantics
The analysis of the meaning of language, especially of individual words.
Symptom substitution
The appearance of one overt symptom to replace another that has been eliminated by treatment.
proximodistal trend
The center-outward direction of motor development.
Tolerance
The characteristic of requiring higher and higher doses of a drug to produce the same effect.
cornea
The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye
Nonverbal Communication
The communication of information by cues or actions that include gestures, tone of voice, vocal inflections, and facial expressions.
rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
Photoreceptors
The light-sensitive cells in the retina- the rods and cones.
Conflict
The emotional state or condition that arises when a person must choose between two or more competing motives, behaviors, or impulses
semantic encoding
The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
visual encoding
The encoding of picture images.
acoustic encoding
The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Electromagnetic Radiation
The entire spectrum of waves initiated by the movement of charged particles.
Resilience
The extent to which people are flexible and respond adaptively to external or internal demands
Brightness
The lightness or darkness of reflected light, determined in large part by the light's intensity.
Abnormal psychology
The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.
Sensorimotor stage
The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development (covering roughly the first 2 years of life), during which the child develops some motoer coordination skills and a memory for past events
Sexual response cycle
The four stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women.
Which of the following does a PET scan best allow researchers to examine?
The functions of various brain regions
Consciousness
The general state of being aware of and responsive to events in the environment, as well as one's own mental processes
Secondary Sex Characteristics
The genetically determined physical features that differentiate the sexes but are not directly involved with reproduction
Heritability
The genetically determined proportion of a trait's variation among individuals in a population
sensory memory
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Color Blindness
The inability to perceive different hues.
fixation
The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.
Dark adaptation
The increase in sensitivity to light that occurs when the illumination level changes from high to low, causing chemicals in the rods and cones to regenerate and return to their inactive state.
Reactance
The negative response evoked when there is an inconsistency between a person's self-image as being free to choose and the person's realization that someone is trying to force him or her to choose a particular occurrence.
Janice cleaned out the office refrigerator without being asked. The operant conditioning concept of positive reinforcement is illustrated in which scenario?
The next day, her boss gave her a gift certificate to a local coffee shop. As a result, Janice now regularly cleans out the office refrigerator.
Instinct theory
The now-outmoded view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate factors. Was flawed because it overlooked the effects of learning and because it employed instincts merely as labels, rather than as explanations for behavior.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Intelligence
The overall capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment
Manifest Content
The overt story line, characters, and setting of a dream-the obvious, clearly discernible events of the dream
Puberty
The period during which the reproductive system matures; it begins with an increase in the production of sex hormones, which signals the end of childhood
Adolescence
The period of extending from the onset of puberty to early adulthood
Display rules
The permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society.
memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Children who are consistently praised for receiving high grades in school will likely continue to work for high grades. Using an operant conditioning explanation of this phenomenon, which of the following is true?
The praise functions as a positive reinforcer.
volley principle
The theory holding that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.
Gender Schema Theory
The theory that children and adolescents use gender as an organizing theme to classify and interpret their perceptions about the world and themselves
fetal stage
The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth. Developing human organism with all bodily organs
Critical Period
The time in to development of an organism when it is especially sensitive to certain environmental influences; outside of that period the same influences will have far less effect
Psychotherapy
The treatment of emotional or behavior problems through psychological techniques.
Mediation
The use of a variety of techniques including concentration, restriction of incoming stimuli, and deep relaxation to produce a state of consciousness characterized by a sense of detachment.
Collectivism
The view, common in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East, that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction.
Individualism
The view, common in the Euro-American world, that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction.
framing
The way something is said or phrased.
Syntax
The way words and groups of words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Social Influence
The ways people alter the attitudes or behaviors of others, either directly or indirectly.
Herman von Helmholtz
Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.
Opponent-process theory
Theory of emotion which theorizes that emotions have paris. When one is triggered, the other is suppressed.
Cognitive appraisal theory
Theory of emotion which theorizes that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Theory suggesting that there are two routes to attitude change: the central route, which focuses on thoughtful consideration of an argument for change, and the peripheral route, which focuses on less careful, more emotional, and even superficial evaluation.
Signal Detection Theory
Theory that holds that an observer's perception depends not only on the intensity of a stimulus but also on the observer's motivation, the criteria he or she sets for determining that a signal is present, and on the background noise.
Observational Learning Theory
Theory that suggests that organisms learn new responses by observing the behavior of a model and then imitating it; aka. Social learning theory
Psychodynamically
Therapies that use approaches or techniques derived from Freud, but that reject or modify some elements of Freud's theory.
the brain's attempt to mend itself by producing new brain cells
neurogenesis
Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how traits and behavioral tendencies have been shaped by what?
natural selection
principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
natural selection
has indeed selected advantageous variations from the new gene combinations produced at each human conception and the mutations that sometimes result
nature
Human genome (DNA) researchers have discovered that __
nearly every other human is your genetically identical twin.
increasing level of stimulation above the threshold will not increase the __
neaural impluses intensity .
9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence
necessity never to need anybody, or to yield to any influence, or to be tied down to anything; necessity to avoid any closeness that involves the danger of enslavement.
A four-year-old child frequently pulled on the dog's tail to gain attention. To reduce this undesirable behavior, the parent took away one hour of television viewing every time the child pulled the dog's tail. Within one week, the undesirable behavior was significantly reduced. The above scenario illustrates
negative punishment
a resting axon's fluid interior has mostly __ charged ions
negatively
Because he is afraid of public speaking, Scott withdraws from a class that requires an oral presentation and enrolls in another class without a presentation requirement. He continues the pattern, switching classes each semester to avoid giving presentations. Scott's behavior has been
negatively reinforced
Carl Jung
neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; dream studies/interpretation
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
Alfred Adler
neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: inferiority complex, organ inferiority; Studies: birth order influences personality
Karen Horney
neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"
efferent neuron
nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons
afferent neuron
nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons
interneurons
nerve cell that transmits messages between sensory and motor neurons
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
electrical cables formed of bundles of axons and link the central nervous system with the body's sensory receptors ,muscles , and glands
nerves
body's speed of electrochemical information system
nervous system
reticular formation (RF) (RES)
netlike system of neurons that weaves through limbic system and plays an important role in attention, arousal, and alert functions; arouses and alerts higher parts of the brain; anesthetics work by temporary shutting off RF system
learning to play violin, speak a foreign language, solve a math problem - occurs as experience strengths __
neural connections
as myelin is laid down up to about age 25, __,__ and __ grow
neural efficiency, judgement, self-control
send up sensory information, and __ send back motor control information
neural fibers and descending fibers
the brains neurons cluster into groups called __
neural networks
limbic system
neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (p. 98)
One reason that identical twins might show slight differences at birth is
one twin's placenta may have provided slightly better nourishment.
psychoanalyst
one who uses psychoanalysis to treat psychological problems
a particular brain pathway may use only ___ , and particular neurotransmitters may affect __ and __
only one or two neurotransmitters, specific behaviors and emotions
token economy
operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers (tokens) to increase appropriate behavior; learners can exchange tokens for desired rewards
researchers soon confirm that the brain does indeed produce its own naturally occurring __
opiates
help explain good feelings such as "runners high" , the pain killing effects of acupuncture, and the indifference to pain in some severely injured people
opiates (endorphins)
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
pancreas
organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones insulin and glucagon
encoding
organizing sensory information so it can be processed by the nervous system
Primary sexual characteristics
organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Conscousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
cognitive-appraisal theory of emotion
our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in
eclectic
use of techniques and ideas from a variety of approaches
Edward Titchener
used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements
self-fulfilling prophecy
when a researcher's expectations unknowingly create a situation that affects the results
polarization
when the neuron is at rest; condition of neuron when the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of Enron; is necessary to generate the neuron signal in release of this polarization
mutation
unexpected changes in the gene replication process that are not always evident in phenotype and create unusual and sometimes harmful characteristics of body or behavior
fluid filled brain areas in some patients who have schizophrenia
ventricles
science
way of getting knowledge about the world based on observation
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
we determine our emotion based on our physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our explanation for that arousal
resting potential
when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message)
Early Adulthood
- 20 - early 40s - physical maturation is complete - height and weight may increase slightly - physical abilities are at their peak (muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning) - many women have children during this time (additional weight gain and breast changes)
Cognitive development in adulthood
- Cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early and middle adulthood - Crystallized intelligence (information, skills, and strategies) hold steady as we age and could improve - In late adulthood, we begin to experience a decline in our fluid intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, memory) - Mental and physical activity delay cognitive decline and reduce mild cognitive impairment and dementia
Psychosocial Development during adulthood
- Healthy aging - we need to have and continue to find meaning throughout our lives - Early and middle adulthood is found through work and family life (Erikson - Generativity and intimacy) - Adults define themselves by their careers - Positive relationships with significant others in adult years contribute to a state of well-being - Affected by having a stable marriage - Adult children have a positive effect on parental well-being -Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
What is the most important reason for the delay in entering adult roles?
- changing cultural expectations - Young people are delaying marriage and work as they change majors and jobs multiple times
How were children viewed in the pre-industrial society?
- children were considered adults when they reached physical maturity - we have an extended time between childhood and adulthood called adolescence
Psychosocial development during adolescence?
- continue to improve and alter their sense of self as they relate to others (Identity vs. Role Confusion by Erikson) - some teens adopt the values their parents expect for them - some develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group
What happens to early maturing girls?
- may be teased or overtly admired - cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies - higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders
What happens to late blooming boys and girls?
- may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical development - Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys → higher risk for depression and conflict with parents and more likely to be bullied
How does the way teens think change?
- move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. - Known by Piaget as Operational Thought
Who created the first modern hospice in England (1967)?
Cicely Saunders
Who created the 5 stages of Grief?
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
Who founded the first modern hospice in US (1974)?
Florence Wald
sensorimotor stage
Piaget's first stage; the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Infants lack object permanence until about 8 months. They also develop stranger anxiety in this stage.
formal operational stage
Piaget's fourth stage; the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract events. They become capable of solving hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
emerging adulthood
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
secondary sex characteristics
non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
self-concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
What is the primary influence on our development in adolescence?
peers
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
aggression
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
Secondary sexual characteristics
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs (development of breasts and hips in girls/development of facial hair)
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning at about 8 months of age
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
spermarche
the first ejaculation
Why is hospice beneficial?
- provides care for 1.65 million Americans and their families - Beneficial for the patient and their family - Hospice patients tend to live longer than non-hospice patients - Able to die in the comfort of their own home
Adolescent brain
- remains underdeveloped - Up until puberty, brain cells continue to bloom in the frontal region - Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing
What happens to early maturing boys
- tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers - more popular, confident, and independent - greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity
Teen thinking is characterized by...
- the ability to consider multiple points of view - imagine hypothetical situations - debate ideas and opinions - Form new ideas - Not uncommon to question authority or challenge societal norms
Cognitive empathy/Theory-of-mind
- the ability to take the perspective of other and feel concern for others - Begins to increase in adolescence - An important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance - Girls develop cognitive around 13, and boys 15 - Teens with supportive fathers who are easy to talk to about their worries were found to have better cognitive empathy
Menarche
- the beginning of menstrual periods (12-13 years old)
spermarche
- the first ejaculation (13-14 years old)
Adrenarche and Gonadarche
- the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands - occurs during puberty
Adolescence
- the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood (12-18 years) - in USA, seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them - peers are a primary influence on our development in adolescence
Adulthood
- when she/he becomes self supporting, chooses a career, gets married, or starts a family - varies by person and culture - adult life has been delayed in western cultures
Toddlerhood (Erikson's stage of development)
1 to 3 years; autonomy vs. shame and doubt; exercise will and do things for themselves or doubt abilities
5 stages of grief
1) Denial 2) Anger 3) Bargaining 4) Depression 5) Acceptance - Stages can occur in different order - Not all people experience all the stages - The more a dying person fights death, the more likely they are to remain in the denial phase
Middle adulthood (Erikson's stage of development)
40s to 60s; generativity vs. stagnation; sense of contributing to world or feel a lack of purpose
Elementary school (Erikson's stage of development)
6 years to puberty; industry vs. inferiority; apply themselves to tasks or feel inferior
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage; the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Children in this stage begin to grasp conservation, and they are able to understand mathematical transformations.
Adolescence (Erikson's stage of development)
teen years into 20s; identity vs. role confusion; refine sense of self or become confused
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
gender role
a set of expected behaviors for males or for females
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Healthy aging
activities, social connectedness, and the role of a person's culture
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
The way we view death is influenced by what?
culture and individual backgrounds
social identity
the "we" aspect of out self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2-weeks after fertilization through the second month
menarche
the first menstrual period
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
egocentrism
the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.