AP Psych Exam Prep, AP Psychology Exam Review

Karl Wernicke

"Wernicke's area"; discovered area of left temporal lobe that involved language understanding: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense

In high school, it did not seem to make a difference how much Clive studied Spanish; he always earned poor grades. Now that Clive is in college, he is required to take Spanish again. According to the concept of learned helplessness, which of the following statements can be most expected from Clive as he starts the new Spanish class?

"Why study? There isn't anything I can do to improve my Spanish skills."

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (p. 82)

Wallace Stevens

"rage for order" idea says humans are prone to perceive patterns in random events and overestimate our intuition

refractory period

(1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (p. 79)

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

(SCN) A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms

Middle Adulthood

- 40s-60s - Physical decline is gradual - Skin loses some elasticity and wrinkles appear - Visual acuity decreases - Women experiences a gradual decline in fertility as they approach menopause (50 years old) - Both genders gain weight: abdominal area (male) and hips/thighs (women) - Hair begins to thin and gray

Late adulthood

- 60s - death - Last stage of physical change - Skin continues to lose elasticity - Reaction time slows further - Muscle strength diminishes - Smell, taste, hearing, and vision decline significantly - Brain may no longer functions at optimal levels → memory loss, dementia, Alzheimer's

infancy period

1 month-2 years old

Karen Horney began as a psychoanalytic theorist. However, she soon found classical Freudian ideas too restrictive in their emphasis on sexual and aggressive motives. 5 ways she widened and modified classical psychoanalysis are

1. Childhood as a period of anxious helplessness and hidden anger toward all powerful but indifferent adults. 2. Neurotic strategies to cope with the anxiety and anger that alienate the person from the true self; the neurotic person is not comfortable in his or her own skin but must avoid, attack, or completely comply with others. 3. Male envy of the ability of women to give birth (womb envy) and to breast-feed. 4. A desexualized Oedipus complex, in which the key issues are power and love rather than sexuality and guilt. 5. The importance of culture, not biology, in determining personality makeup and areas of conflict.

Neurotic needs differ from those experienced by psychologically more normal people. Such needs

1. evidence disproportionate intensity 2. are indiscriminately applied to others 3. evidence an extreme disregard for reality 4. show a tendency to provoke intense anxiety when unsatisfied.

René Descartes

17t century French philosopher. Famously known for writing "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). Wrote about concept of dualism.

John Locke

17th century English philosopher. Wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment .

Young adulthood (Erikson's stage of development)

20s to early 40s; intimacy vs. isolation; form close relationships or feel socially isolated

How many stages of adulthood (20 years) are there?

3 (early, middle, late) - each with their own rewards and challenges

Preschool (Erikson's stage of development)

3 to 6 years; initiative vs. guilt; initiate tasks or feel guilty about being independent

human genomes

30,000 genes needed to build a human

Initiative v. Guilt

3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves 3-6 years

with nearly __ neurons , each connecting with roughly __ other neurons, we end up with perhaps __ synapses

40 billion, 10,000 , 400 trillion

identity v. role confusion

5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction 13-25

Intimacy v. Isolation

6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness

Generativity v. Stagnation

7th stage in Erikson's model; in middle age, adults must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose

Phoneme

A basic or minimum unit of sound in a language.

Morpheme

A basic unit of meaning in a language.

Normal curve

A bell-shaped graphic representation of data showing what percentage of the population falls under each part of the curve

Centration (Piaget)

A child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose, but ignores his/her other features would be illustrating the Piagetian concept of

Which of the following responses was most likely acquired through classical conditioning?

A child's fear of dogs after the child has been bitten by a dog

Alzheimer's Disease

A chronic and progressive disorder of the brain that is the most common cause of degeneration dementia

flashbulb memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Rational-emotive therapy

A cognitive behavior therapy that emphasizes the importance of logical, rational thought processes.

Personal Fable

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them

Imaginary Audience

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

A conflict in which one has to choose between two equally unattractive options.

Multiple approach-avoidance conflict

A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects.

Approach-approach conflict

A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options.

Approach-avoidance conflict

A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made.

Aversive counterconditioning

A counterconditioning technique in which an aversive or noxious stimulus is paired with a stimulus with the undesirable behavior.

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method in which researchers study behavior in its natural context.

Experimental design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship

Polygraph

A device that records or graphs many measures of physical arousal, such as heart rate, breathing, perspiration, and blood pressure; often called a "lie detector."

Sociobiology

A discipline based on the premise that even day-to-day behaviors are determined by the process of natural selection - that social behaviors that contribute to the survival of a species are passed on via the genes from one generation to the next.

Volumetric thirst

A drop in extracellular fluid levels.

Osmotic thirst

A drop in intracellular fluid levels.

Psychoactive Drug

A drug that alters behavior, thought, or perception by altering biochemical reactions in the nervous system, thereby affecting consciousness

Stimulant

A drug that increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and elevates mood

Creativity

A feature of thought and problem solving that includes the tendency to generate or recognize ideas considered to be high-quality, original, novel, and appropriate.

Zygote

A fertilized egg

Gender stereotype

A fixed, overly simple, sometimes incorrect idea about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of males or females

Emotion

A four-part process that involves psychological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretation, and behavioral expression - all of which interact, rather than occurring in a linear sequence; helps organisms deal with important events.

bar graph

A graph that uses horizontal or vertical bars to display data with spaces between

Psychoanalysis

A lengthy insight therapy that was developed by Freud and aims at uncovering conflicts and unconscious impulses through special techniques, including free association, dream analysis, and transference.

Placenta

A mass of tissue that is attached to the wall f the uterus and connected to the developing fetus by the umbilical cord; it supplies nutrients and eliminates waste products

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

Blood-Brain Barrier

A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross

concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

hippocampus

A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Placebo effect

A nonspecific improvement that occurs as a result of a person's expectations of change rather than as a direct result of any specific therapeutic treatment.

Stress

A nonspecific, emotional response to real or imagined challenges or threats; a result of a cognitive appraisal by the individual

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Produces immature, impulsive, dependent, and demanding children.

authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children. Produces anxious and insecure children.

Personality

A pattern of relatively permanent traits, dispositions, or characteristics that give some consistency to people's behavior.

Substance Abuser

A person who overuses and relies on drugs to deal with everyday life

Self-efficacy

A person's belief about whether he or she can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior.

Vulnerability

A person's diminished ability to deal with demanding life events.

Gender Identity

A person's sense of being male or female

Stress

A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation.

Biofeedback

A process through which people receive information about the status of a physical system and use this feedback information to learn to control the activity of that system

Variable-ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a predetermined but variable number of responses has occurred

Fixed-interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a specified interval of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once in the interval

Variable-interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after predetermined but varying amounts of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once after each interval

Fixed-ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer(reward) is delivered after a specified number of responses has occurred

Longitudinal Study

A research approach that follows a group of people over time to determine change or stability in behavior.

Longitudinal Study

A research method that focuses on a specific group of individuals at different ages to examine changes that have occurred over time

Double-blind techniques

A research technique in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in the control and experimental groups.

Regression

A return to a prior stage after a person has progressed through the various stages of development; caused by anxiety.

Representative sample

A sample of individuals who match the population with whom they are being compared with regard to key variables such as socioeconomic status and age

Representative sample

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn

Percentile score

A score indicating what percentage of the test population would obtain a lower score

Standard score

A score that expresses an individual's position relative to the mean, based on the standard deviation

heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

Traumatic stressor

A situation that threatens one's physical safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness.

Need for achievement

A social need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success

Gender

A socially and culturally constructed set of distinctions between masculine and feminine sets of behaviors that is promoted and expected by society

Deviation IQ

A standard IQ test score whose mean and standard deviation remain constant for all ages

Intimacy

A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to self-disclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person.

Dream

A state of consciousness that occurs during sleep, usually accompanied by vivid visual, tactile, or auditory imagery.

Cognitive Dissonance

A state of mental discomfort arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person's beliefs or between a person's beliefs and overt behavior.

Stressor

A stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaption.

cross-sectional study

A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.

Emotion

A subjective response, usually accompanied by a physiological change, which is interpreted n a particular way by the individual and often leads to a change in behavior

insight

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Bloom's Taxonomy

A system for categorizing levels of abstraction of questions that commonly occur in educational settings. Includes the following competencies: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, and creation.

Morality

A system of learned attitudes about social practices, instituations, and individual behavior used to evaluate situations and behavior as right or wrong, good or bad

Language

A system of symbols, usually words, that convey meaning and a set of rules for combining symbols to generate an infinite number of messages.

Acute stress

A temporary pattern of stressor-activated arousal with a distinct onset and limited duration.

mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore contradictory evidence.

Raw score

A test score that has not been transformed or converted in any way

Behavior therapy

A therapy that is based on the application of learning principles to human behavior and that focuses on changing overt behaviors rather than on understanding subjective feelings, unconscious processes, or motivations; also known as behavior modification.

Systematic desensitization

A three-stage counterconditioning procedure in which people are taught to relax when confronting stimuli that forming elicited anxiety.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A treatment for severe mental illness in which an electric current is briefly applied to the head in order to produce a generalized seizure.

Ex Post Facto Design

A type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher.

Cross-sectional Studies

A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ

Cross-sectional study

A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ on an important dimension

Descriptive Studies

A type of research method that allows researchers to measure variables so that they can develop a description of a situation or phenomenon

Family therapy

A type of therapy in which two or more people who are committed to one another's well-being are treated at once, in and effort to change the ways the interact.

Validity

Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

neural plasticity

Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically

Size constancy

Ability of the visual perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina.

Conservation

Ability to recognize that objects can e transformed in some way, visually or phycially, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume

Myopic

Able to see clearly things that are close but having trouble seeing objects at a distance; nearsighted.

Hyperopic

Able to see objects at a distance clearly but having trouble seeing things up close; farsighted

Accommodation

According to Piaget, the process by which existing mental structures and behaviors are modified to adapt to new experiences

Assimilation

According to Piaget, the process by which new ideas and experiences are absorbed and incorporated into existing mental structures and behaviors

An individual is having trouble with cognitive tasks related to learning and memory. Which of the following neurotransmitters is most likely to be involved with the problem?

Acetylcholine

short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

Arousal

Activation of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the muscles and glands

long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Locus of control

An individual's sense of where his or her life influences originate - internally or externally.

Client-centered therapy

An insight therapy, developed be Carl Rogers, that seeks to help people evaluate the world and themselves from their own perspective by providing them with a nondirective environment and unconditional positive regard; also known as person-centered therapy.

Psychoneuroimmunology

An interdisciplinary area of study that includes behavioral, neurological, and immune factors and their relationship to the development of disease

Motive

An internal mechanism that selects and directs behavior; often used in the narrower sense of a motivational process that has been learned, rather than biologically based.

Time-out

An operant conditioning procedure in which a person is physically removed from sources of reinforcement to decrease the occurrence of undesired behaviors.

Token economy

An operant conditioning procedure in which individuals who display appropriate behavior receive tokens that they can exchange for desirable items or activities.

Defense Mechanism

An unconscious way of reducing anxiety by distorting perceptions of reality.

Theory of mind

An understanding of mental states such as feelings, desires, beliefs, and intentions and of the causal role they play in human behavior

Socrates

Ancient Greek philosopher. Promoted introspection by saying, "Know thyself."

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher. Wrote "Peri Psyches" ("About the Mind").

Social phobia

Anxiety disorder characterized by fear of, and desire to avoid, situations in which the person might be exposed to scrutiny by others and might behave in an embarrassing or humiliating way.

Specific phobia

Anxiety disorder characterized by irrational and persistent fear of a particular object or situation, along with a compelling desire to avoid it.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by persistent and uncontrollable thoughts and irrational beliefs that cause the performance of compulsive rituals that interfere with daily life.

Panic Attack

Anxiety disorders characterized as acute anxiety, accompanied by sharp increases in autonomic nervous system arousal, that is not triggered by a specific event.

Phobic disorders

Anxiety disorders characterized by excessive and irrational fear of, and consequent attempted avoidance of, specific objects or situations.

Aggression

Any behavior intended to harm another person or thing.

Drug

Any chemical substance that, in small amounts, alters biological or cognitive processes or both

Reinforcer

Any event that increases the probability of a recurrence of the response that preceded it

Secondary Punisher

Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic negative value for an organism but acquires punishing qualities when linked with a primary punisher

Secondary Reinforcer

Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic value for an organism but that becomes rewarding when linked with a primary reinforcer

depressants (AKA sedative-hypnotics)

Any of a class of drugs that relax and calm a user and, in higher doses, induce sleep; also known as a depressant

Trait

Any readily identifiable stable quality that characterizes how an individual differs from other individuals.

Primary Punisher

Any stimulus or event that is naturally painful or unpleasant to an organism

Insight therapy

Any therapy that attempts to discover relationships between unconscious motivations and current abnormal behavior.

Self-perception Theory

Approach to attitude formation that assumes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behavior.

Receptive fields

Areas of the retina that, when stimulated, produce a change in the firing of cells in the visual system.

Decision making

Assessing and choosing among alternatives.

Anna O.

Austrian-Jewish woman (real name: Bertha Pappenheim) diagnosed with hysteria, treated by Josef Breuer for severe cough, paralysis of the extremities on the right side of her body, and disturbances of vision, hearing, and speech, as well as hallucinations and loss of consciousness. Her treatment is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis.

Reflex

Automatic behavior that occurs involuntarily in response to a stimulus and without prior learning and usually shows little variability from instance to instance

two-word stage

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

babbling stage

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

Abnormal Behavior

Behavior characterized as atypical, socially unacceptable, distressing to the individual or others, maladaptive, and/or the result of distorted cognitions

Superstitious Behavior

Behavior learned through coincidental association with reinforcement

Type A behavior

Behavior pattern characterized by competitiveness, impatience, hostility, and constant efforts to do more in less time

Type A

Behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations.

Type B

Behavior pattern characterized by relaxed, unstressed approach to life.

Type B behavior

Behavior pattern exhibited by people who are calmer, more patient, and less hurried than Type A individuals

Discrimination

Behavior targeted at individuals or groups and intended to hold them apart and treat them differently.

Prosocial Behavior

Behavior that benefits someone else or society but that generally offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may even involve some personal risk or sacrifice.

Altruism

Behaviors that benefit other people and for which there is no discernable extrinsic reward, recognition, or appreciation.

Metal retardation

Below-average intellectual functioning, as measured on an IQ test, accompanied by substantial limitations in functioning that originate before age 8

Xander can no longer stomach the taste of sushi after he vomited from eating a spoiled serving of it. However, the appearance of sushi does not make him sick. Which of the following best accounts for why Xander becomes sick upon tasting sushi but not seeing sushi?

Biological predisposition, because this example illustrates taste aversion.

Drive

Biologically instigated motivation.

hallucinogens (AKA psychedelic drugs)

Consciousness-altering drugs that affect moods, thoughts, memory, judgment, and perception and that are consumed for the purpose of producing those results

Substance Use Disorder

Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

Responses extinguish fastest when they are learned through which type of reinforcement schedule?

Continuous

Chronic stress

Continuous stressful arousal persisting over time.

Wernicke's Area

Contorls language reception. Damage creates inability to comprehend language; usually in the left temporal lobe

Boca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Which dog is demonstrating stimulus discrimination in the following scenarios?

Cookie cowers when she hears the pop of fireworks, but not when she hears the pop of lightning.

the complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

DNA

Social Loafing

Decrease in effort and productivity that occurs when an individual works in a group instead of alone.

Overjustification effect

Decrease in likelihood that an intrinsically motivated task, after having been extrinsically rewarded, will be performed when the reward is no longer given.

Neuroses

Deeply ingrained, inflexible, and maladaptive behavior. Usually the person has little or no insight into their behavior. Closest current diagnostic term for Horney's theory is personality disorder. Range of spontaneity becomes inflexible. regardless of situation needs things to be a certain way. internal boundaries keeping someone more rigid, doing things to get approval the patterns of how they organize their experience.

Repression

Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.

Projection

Defense mechanism by which people attribute their own undesirable traits to others.

Reaction Formation

Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.

Displacement

Defense mechanism by which people divert sexual or aggressive feelings for one person onto another person.

Sublimation

Defense mechanism by which people redirect socially unacceptable impulses toward acceptable goals.

Denial

Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.

Rationalization

Defense mechanism by which people reinterpret undesirable feelings or behaviors in terms that make them appear acceptable.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily reexperiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma.

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Delusions of reference, delusions of persecution, delusions of grandeur, thought broadcasting, though insertion, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behaviour, catatonia

Major depressive disorder

Depressive disorder characterized by loss of interest in almost all of life's usual activities; a sad, hopeless, or discourage mood, sleep disturbance; loss of appetite; loss of energy; and feelings of unworthiness and guilt.

Inverted U function

Describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal.

Scientific Method

Designed to control biases and subjective judgement. A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

stage 6: individual principles and conscience

Determined by abstract ethical principles pf equity an justice (post-conventional)

Projective Tests

Devices or instruments used to assess personality, in which examinees are shown a standard set of ambiguous stimuli and asked to respond to the stimuli in their own way.

Lateralization of emotion

Different influences of the two brain hemispheres on various emotions. The left hemisphere apparently influences positive emotions and the right hemisphere influences negative emotions.

Dissociative amnesia

Dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.

overt

Done or shown openly so patient knows they are being watched

Lucid Dream

Dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming while it is happening

opiates (AKA narcotics)

Drugs derived from the opium poppy, including opium, morphine, and heroin

effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

integrity vs despair

Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner both -18 months

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and pubertyyears, when the child learns to be productive

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt 18-36 months

availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Rape

Forcible sexual assault on an unwilling partner.

Non-rapid Eye Movement Sleep

Four distinct stages of sleep during which no rapid eye movements occur.

proposed that the phrenology, studying bumps on the skull, could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits

Franz Gall

Horney distinguished her theory of neurotic trends from Freud. Her answer is that in the center of psychic disturbances are unconscious strivings developed in order to cope with life despite fears, helplessness, and isolation. "neurotic trends."

Freud believed that the [neurotic] disturbances generate from a conflict between environmental factors and repressed instinctual impulses.

Oral Stage

Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.

Latency Stage

Freud's fourth stage of personality development, from about age 7 until puberty, during which sexual urges are inactive.

Genital Stage

Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).

Unconscious

Freud's level of mental life that consists of mental activities beyond people's normal awareness.

Consciousness

Freud's level of mental life that consists of those experiences that we are aware of at any given time.

Preconscious

Freud's level of the mind that contains those experiences that are not currently conscious but may become so with varying degrees of difficulty.

Anal Stage

Freud's second stage of personality development, from about age 2 to about age 3, during which children learn to control the immediate gratification they obtain through defecation and to become responsive to the demands of society.

Phallic Stage

Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals.

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

GABA

which neurotransmitters inhibits CNS activity in order to calm a person down during stressful times?

GABA

Which of the following is most closely associated with the idea of epigenetics?

Gene display based on environmental factors

Fixed-action patterns

Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus; replaced the older notion of instinct.

Stage 3: Good-Boy/Good-Girl Orientation

Good behavior is what pleases/helps others and is approved of by them = can earn approval by being nice. (conventional)

Four-year-old Scott fell down the stairs at his grandmother's house. Although he was not badly hurt, he was very frightened. Now, whenever his parents mention visiting his grandmother's house, he feels anxious and fearful. In classical conditioning terms, what are the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the scenario, respectively?

Grandmother's house; falling

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Graphical record of brain-wave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead

Heritability refers to the percentage of what?

Group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics

Androgynous

Having both stereotypically male and stereotypically female characteristics

Conscious motivation

Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire.

Unconscious motivation

Having the desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire.

What was one of the major findings of Thomas Bouchard's study of twins?

He discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult identical twins who had been separated near birth.

Kholberg's flaws

He only tested boys Girls look at situational factors Based on western cultures what they think should be done v what they actually do

Subgoal analysis

Heuristic procedure in which a problem is broken down into smaller steps, each of which has a subgoal.

Backward search

Heuristic procedure in which a problem solver works backward from the goal or end of a problem to the current position, in order to analyze the problem and reduce the steps needed to get from the current position to the goal.

Means-ends analysis

Heuristic procedure in which the problem solver compares the current situation with the desired goal to determine the most efficient way to get from one to the other.

Erikson criticisms

His research was based on clinical observations and lacked vigorous scientific method. He also was questioned over whether this also applied to women.

Cytokines

Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system.

Rationalization

Horney treated the defense of it pretty much as had other theorists, including Freud. It may be defined as self-deception by reasoning. Thus, when the person rationalizes, he or she invents a good reason for some action where the actual reason would be unacceptable to his or her self-esteem. For example, the compliant type offers as the reason for "giving in" to others the desire to make them happy when, in fact, he or she seeks to bring them under his or her control. Where an altruistic reason is consciously offered, a desire for dominance lurks.

Hawthorne effect

Humans work better when others are watching

During which task might the right hemisphere of the brain be most active?

Imagining what a dress would look like on a friend

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

Dementia

Impairment of mental functioning and global cognitive abilities in otherwise alert individuals, causing memory loss and related symptoms and typically having a progressive nature

Social Interest

In Adler's theory, a feeling of openness with all humanity.

Libido

In Freud's theory, the instinctual (and sexual) life force that, working on the pleasure principle and seeking immediate gratification, energizes the id.

Superego

In Freud's theory, the moral aspect of mental functioning comprising the ego ideal (what a person would ideally like to be) and the conscience and taught by parents and society.

Ego

In Freud's theory, the part of personality that seeks to satisfy instinctual needs in accordance with reality.

Id

In Freud's theory, the source of a person's instinctual energy, which works mainly on the pleasure principle.

Interpretation

In Freud's theory, the technique of providing a context, meaning, or cause for a specific idea, feeling, or set of behaviors; the process of tying a set of behaviors to its unconscious determinant.

Collective Unconscious

In Jung's theory, a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that reside in the unconscious and are inherited from one's ancestors.

Archetypes

In Jung's theory, the emotionally charged ideas and images that are rich in meaning and symbolism and exist within the collective unconscious.

Hierarchy of needs

In Maslow's theory, the notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic.

Need for achievement (n Ach)

In Murray and McClelland's theory, a mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal.

Schema

In Piaget's view, a specific mental structure; an organized way of interacting with the environment and experiencing it- a generalization a child makes based on comparable occurences of various actins, usally physical, motor actions

Fulfillment

In Roger's theory of personality, an inborn tendency directing people toward actualizing their essential nature and thus attaining their potential.

Self

In Roger's theory of personality, the perception an individual has of himself or herself and of his or her relationships to other people and to various aspects of life.

Ideal Self

In Roger's theory of personality, the self a person would ideally like to be.

Sensation seekers

In Zuckerman's theory, individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people.

grammar

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

morpheme

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

Need

In drive theory, a biological imbalance (such as dehydration) that threatens survival if it is left unmet; believed to produce drives.

Excessive Self-Control

In her clinical practice, Horney found that the tendency for excessive self-control was so pervasive that she originally classed it among the ten neurotic trends or needs: the need to restrict one's life self-protectively within narrow borders. Individuals who are exerting excessive self-control are attempting to avoid emotions: They "will not allow themselves to be carried away, whether by enthusiasm, sexual excitement, self-pity or rage. In short, they seek to check all spontaneity" (Horney, 1945, p. 136).

Self-actualization

In humanistic theory, the final level of psychological development, in which one strives to realize one's uniquely human potential-to achieve everything one is capable of achieving

phoneme

In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Convergent thinking

In problem solving, the process of narrowing down choices and alternatives to arrive at a suitable answer.

Divergent thinking

In problem solving, the process of widening the range of possibilities and expanding the options for solutions.

Resistance

In psychoanalysis, an unwillingness to cooperate, which a patient signals by showing a reluctance to provide the therapist with information or to help the therapist understand or interpret a situation.

Working through

In psychoanalysis, the repetitive cycle of interpretation, resistance to interpretation, and transference.

Vasocongestion

In the sexual response cycle, engorgement of the blood vessels, particularly in the genital area, due to increased blood flow

Cognitive theories

In the study of motivation, an explanation of behavior that asserts that people actively and regularly determine their own goals and the means of achieving them through thought.

Egocentrism

Inability to perceive a situation or event except in relation to oneself; also know as self-centeredness

Functional fixedness

Inability to see that an object can have a function other than its stated or usual one.

The dual-processing model refers to which of the following ideas?

Incoming information is processed by both conscious and unconscious tracks.

secure attachment

Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs in the absence of direct reinforcement and that is not necessarily demonstrated through observable behavior

. A researcher interested in determining the size of a particular area of the brain would be most likely to use what kind of test?

MRI

revealed enlarged ventricles in schizophrenic patients

MRI Scans

revealed a larger than average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who display perfect pitch

MRI scans

in __ brain scans , the persons head is put into a strong magnetic field which aligns the spinning atoms of brain molecules . then a radio wave pulse momentarily disorients the atoms. when the atom returns to their normal spin, they emit signals that provide a detailed picture of soft tissues, including the brain

MRI, magnetic resonance imaging

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a constant state of inner stability or balance

testosterone

Male sex hormone

Which region of the brain controls our breathing and heartbeat?

Medulla

mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

Which of the following statements has been supported by the research of evolutionary psychologists?

Men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children.

Which of the following is true regarding the initiation of sexual activity?

Men are more likely to initiate sexual activity than women.

Concept

Mental category used to classify an event or object according to some distinguishing property or feature.

imagery

Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation supplied by rewards that come from the external environment

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that leads to behaviors engaged in for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself

Psychoneuroimmunology

Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system.

Skinner Box

Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response

Prejudice

Negative evaluation of an entire group of people, typically based on unfavorable (and often wrong) stereotypes about groups.

Taking a painkiller to relieve a toothache is behavior learned through which of the following processes?

Negative reinforcement

__ are the elementary components of the nervous system, the body's speedy electrochemical information system.

Neurons

Conditioned Stimulus

Neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response

Which of the following kinds of learning is involved when a person displays a new behavior after watching someone else perform it?

Observational learning

Survey

One of the descriptive methods of research; it requires construction of a set of questions to administer to a group of participants

Sexual orientation

One's erotic attraction toward member of the same sex (a homosexual orientation), the opposite sex (a heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (a bisexual orientation).

Madeline wants her son to be well-behaved when they go to church. For every five minutes he sits still, she gives him a piece of candy. What type of learning is Madeline employing?

Operant conditioning

chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

5. The neurotic need to exploit others and get the better of them

Others evaluated primarily according to whether they can be exploited or made use of; dread of being exploited or made to look "stupid."

language

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

operational stage

Piaget uses this term to refer to the logical systems of thought which emerge from middle childhood (ages 7-11 most children can understand reverse subtraction and things like all horses are animals but not all animals are horses). Not yet capable of abstract thinking. Develop conservationism and mathematical transformation.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development (beginning at about age 12), during which the individual can think hypothetically, can consider future possibilites, and can use deductive logic

Preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (lasting from about age 2 to age 6 or 7), during which the child begins to represent the world symbolically

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage; the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. Children represent things with words and images and uses intuitive rather than logical reasoning. The children develop pretend play and egocentrism in this stage and lack conservation.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's thrid stage of cognitive development (lasting from approximately age 6 or 7 to age 11 or 12), during which the child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment, rules, and higher-order symbolic systems

Which is the most influential of the endocrine glands?

Pituitary gland

Optic chiasm

Point at which half of the optic nerve fibers from each eye cross over and connect to the other side of the brain.

Mainstreaming

Practice of placing children with special needs in regular classroom settings, with the support of professionals who provide special education services

Ageism

Prejudice against the elderly and the resulting discrimination against them

Positive Reinforcement

Presentation of a stimulus after a particular response in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur

Brainstorming

Problem-solving technique that involves considering all possible solutions without making prior evaluative judgments.

Insomnia

Problems in going to sleep or maintaining sleep

Algorithm

Procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until the solution is found.

Stimulus Generalization

Process by which a conditioned response becomes associated with a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus

Higher-order Conditioning

Process by which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus

Transduction

Process by which a perceptual system analyzes stimuli and converts them into electrical impulses; also known as coding.

Coping

Process by which a person takes some action to manage, master, tolerate, or reduce environmental or internal demands that cause or might cause stress and that tax the individual's inner resources

Stimulus Discrimination

Process by which an organism learns to respond only to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli

Perception

Process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning.

Sensation

Process in which the sense organs' receptor cells are stimulated and relay initial information to higher brain centers for further processing.

Decentration

Process of changing from a totally self-oriented point of view to one tha recognizes other people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints

Standardization

Process of developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test and for establishing norms

Assessment

Process of evaluating individual differences among human beings by means of tests interviews, observations, and recordings of physiological.

Punishment

Process of presenting an undesirable or noxious stimulus, or removing a desirable stimulus, to decrease the probability that a preceding response will recur

Counterconditioning

Process of reconditioning in which a person is taught a new, more adaptive response to a familiar stimulus.

Transference

Psychoanalytic phenomenon in which a therapist becomes the object of a patient's emotional attitudes about an important person in the patient's life, such as a parent.

Dream analysis

Psychoanalytic technique in which a patient's dreams are described in detail and interpreted so as to provide insight into the individual's unconscious motivations.

Free association

Psychoanalytic technique in which a person is asked to report to the therapist his or her thoughts and feelings as they occur, regardless of how trivial, illogical, or objectionable their content may appear.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Psychological disorder that may become evident after a person has undergone extreme stress caused by some type of disaster; common symptoms include vivid, intrusive recollections or reexperiences of the traumatic event and occasional lapses of normal consciousness

Rosenhan

Psychopathology and Social Psychology; effects of labeling; Rosenhan and colleagues checked selves into mental hospitals with symptoms of hearing voices say "empty, dull and thud." Diagnosed with schizophrenia. After entered, acted normally. Never "cleared" of diagnosis. Roles and labels in treating people differently.

Group therapy

Psychotherapeutic process in which several people meet as a group with a therapist to receive psychological help.

Which of the following best describes genetic mutation?

Random errors in gene replication

Saccades

Rapid voluntary movements of the eyes.

Spontaneous Recovery

Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period

Set point

Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight.

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

Moro reflex

Reflex in which a newborn strectches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

Grasping reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to grasp vigorously any object touching the palm or fingers or placed in the hand

Sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

Rooting reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to turn the head toward a light touch on lips or cheek

Primary Reinforcer

Reinforcer that has survival value for an organism; this value does not have to be learned

Learning

Relatively permanent change in an organism that occurs as a result of experiences in the environment

Negative Reinforcement

Removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur

3 animal research guidelines

Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction

lab study

Research conducted under controlled conditions and may include observation, interviews, surveys, or experiments.

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Harry and Margaret Harlow

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food. Also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits. Artificial Mom

Conditioned Response

Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

baby hearing

Responsive to high pitches in a woman's voice and low pitches in a man's voice

implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory.)

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Right is defined in terms of individual rights/standards that have been agreed upon by society. Laws are not "frozen" but can be changed for society's good. (post-conventional)

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions

Falsafiability

Scientific explanations are provisional, subject to revision or rejection based on new data and results in the self correcting nature of science. can be proven false

Stage of resistance

Second stage of the GAS, during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with a stressor.

Shaping

Selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually approach the desired response

Fight-or-flight response

Sequence of internal processes preparing an organism for struggle or escape.

Heuristics

Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, that act as guidelines for discovery-oriented problem solving.

A researcher is training laboratory rats to run a complex maze. Each time the rats learn a new part of the maze, they are rewarded with a pellet of food. Within a few hours, the rats have learned the entire maze. Which of the following did the researcher use to teach the rats the maze?

Shaping

Raul wants to teach his daughter Sonia to tie her shoes. First he praises her when she manipulates her shoelaces in any way. Then he praises her when she makes a simple knot. Once she does that consistently, he praises her only when she makes the knot and a loop. He continues the pattern until she can do all the steps required to tie her shoes. Raul's actions are an example of which of the following techniques?

Shaping

Group Polarization

Shifts or exaggeration in group members' attitudes or behavior as a result of group discussion.

Compartmentalization

Similar to blind spots, it involves pigeonholing one's life into rigid and exclusive categories: Thus, there is a compartment for friends, for enemies, for family, for outsiders, a compartment for professional activities separate from personal life, and so on). The important point is that anything that occurs in one compartment cannot contradict, influence, or support what transpires in another. It is, thus, as much a result of being divided by one's conflicts as a defense against recognizing them. A widely cited example is that of the man who ruthlessly runs his business affairs during the week, taking no real interest in the hurt or humiliation he causes his competitors, and on Sunday serves as the deacon of his church. Religion and business are in separate compartments, and so too, unfortunately, is his humanity. Horney herself may be viewed as someone who did it as well. Her professional life involved helping people overcome the very conflicts that she continued to express in her personal life.

William Dement

Sleep researcher who discovered and coined the phrase "rapid eye movement" (REM) sleep.

Langer & Rodin

Social Psychology; Helping behavior, personal responsibility; studied the effects of enhanced personal responsibility and helping behavior

Equity Theory

Social psychological theory that states that people attempt to maintain stable, consistent interpersonal relationships in which the ratio of member's contributions is balanced.

Sexual scripts

Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations.

Arbitrary Rightness

Some neurotics make important decisions arbitrarily—even those that have an impact on others—and then defend them with anything but thorough explanations. When questioned why a decision has been made, a typical answer would be, "Because I said so!' Horney felt that the most fertile type of personality for such arbitrary rightness was one with aggressive tendencies coupled with feelings of detachment from others. For example, a neurotic may end a family dispute by preemptively declaring that he will do what he has already decided to do since he is right. He then storms off, effectively ending the argument by absenting himself to pursue a course of action chosen more in spite than by reason.

Elusiveness

Sometimes the only way neurotics can avoid the inherent contradictions of their lives is through elusiveness—to avoid making any decisions whatsoever. Completely opposite to the arbitrarily right neurotic, the elusive neurotic seeks never to be pinned down to anything, never to state any issue or opinion clearly. "They have a bewildering capacity to becloud issues. It is often impossible for them to give a concrete report of any incident; should they try to do so the listener is uncertain in the end just what really did happen" (Horney, 1945, p. 138).

Bonding

Special process of emotional attachment that may occur between parents and babies in the minutes and hours immediately after birth

rods

Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.

shape detection

Specific combinations of temporal lobe activity occur as people look at shoes, faces, chairs and houses.

What is the purpose of the myelin sheath

Speed the transmission of information within a neuron

Which of the following is NOT a product of learning?

Squinting in bright light

Rapid Eye Movement Sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by high-frequency, low-amplitude brain-wave activity, rapid and systematic eye movements, more vivid dreams, and postural muscle paralysis

Burnout

State of emotional and physical exhaustion, lowered productivity, and feelings of isolation, often caused by work-related pressures

Need

State of physiological imbalance usually accompanied by arousal

Factor analysis

Statistical procedure designed to discover the independent elements (factors) in any set of data

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that normally produces a measurable involuntary response

Tend-and-befriend model

Stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to threat by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support.

Edward Bradford Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.

Health psychology

Subfield concerned with the use of psychological ideas and principles to enhance health, prevent illness, diagnose and treat disease, and improve rehabilitation

Psychophysics

Subfield of psychology that focuses on the relationship between physical stimuli and people's conscious experiences of them.

Teratogen

Substance that can produce developmental malformations (birth defects) during the prenatal period

Learned Helplessness

The behavior of giving up or not responding to punishment, exhibited by people or animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they have no control

Problem Solving

The behavior of individuals when confronted with a situation or task that requires insight or determination of some unknown elements.

Self-efficacy

The belief that a person can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior

animistic thinking

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions

Sex

The biologically based categories of male and female

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition, especially with regard to nutrients, water, and temperature.

Cannon-Bard theory

The counterproposal that an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time: one is not the cause of the other. Both were believed to be the result of cognitive appraisal of the situation.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

The creation of a situation that unintentionally allows personal expectancies to influence participants

Latent Content

The deeper meaning of a dream, usually involving symbolism hidden meaning, and repressed or obscured ideas and wishes

Concordance rate

The degree to which a condition or traits shared two or more individuals or groups

Saturation

The depth and richness of a hue determined by determined by the homogeneity of the wavelengths contained in the reflected light; also known as purity.

Intrinsic motivation

The desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than for some external consequence, such as a reward.

Extrinsic motivation

The desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence, such as a reward.

Grammar

The linguistic description of how a language functions, especially the rules and patterns used for generating appropriate and comprehensible sentences.

amnesia

The loss of memory.

Visual cortex

The most important area of the brain's occipital lobe, which receives and further processes information from the lateral geniculate nucleus; also known as the striate cortex.

Embryo

The prenatal organism from the 5th through the 49th day after conception

Fetus

The prenatal organism from the 8th week after conception until birth

Extinction (classical conditioning)

The procedure of withholding the unconditioned stimulus and presenting the conditioned stimulus alone, which gradually reduces the probability of the conditioned response

Attributions

The process by which a person infers other people's motives or intensions by observing their behavior.

Impression Formation

The process by which a person uses behavior and appearance of others to form attitudes about them.

Overjustification

The process by which extrinsic (external) rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation.

Deindividuation

The process by which individuals lose their self-awareness and distinctive personality in the context of a group, which may lead them to engage in antinormative behavior.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

The process by which the probability of an organism's emitting a response is reduced when reinforcement no longer follows the response

dark adaptation

The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.

Social Cognition

The process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world in general.

Social Categorization

The process of dividing the world into "in" groups and "out" groups.

retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Self-actualization

The process of growth and the realization of individual potential; in the humanistic view, a final level of psychological development in which a person attempts to minimize ill health, be fully functioning, have a superior perception of reality, and feel a strong sense of self-acceptance.

encoding

The processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Two-factor theory

The proposal claiming that emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both physical arousal (Factor 1) and an emotion-provoking stimulus (Factor 2).

James-Lange theory

The proposal that an emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion.

Hue

The psychological property of light referred to as color, determined by the wavelengths of reflected light.

Reasoning

The purposeful process by which a person generates logical and coherent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusions.

Object permanence

The realization of infants that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight

long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

expectancy bias

The researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study.

storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

Why do researchers study the brains of nonhuman animals?

The same principles govern neural functioning in all species

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how people think about, interact with, influence, and are influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of other people.

Norms

The scores and corresponding percentile ranks of a large and representative sample of individuals from the population for which a test was designed

embryonic stage

The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month. Many vital organs develop. Sounds are heard and recognized.

semantics

The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

Dependence

The situation that occurs when the drug becomes part of the body's functioning and produces withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

Karl goes to see Dr. Norton to help him overcome his fear of cats. Karl's fear began in childhood when he petted a cat and someone slammed a door. Every time Karl petted the cat, the door slammed. Now whenever Karl sees a cat, he becomes very anxious. In the development of Karl's fear of cats, what was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ?

The slamming of the door

Light

The small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye.

one-word stage

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Absolute threshold

The statistically determined minimum level of stimulation necessary to excite a perceptual system.

Attachment

The strong emotional tie that a person feels toward special other persons in his or her life

Cognitive Psychology

The study if the overlapping fields of perception, learning, memory, and thought, with a special emphasis on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge.

Psycholinguistics

The study of how language is acquired, perceived, understood, and produced.

Linguistics

The study of language, including speech sounds, meaning, and grammar.

Developmental Psychology

The study of the lifelong, often age-related, processes of change in the physical, cognitive, moral, emotional, and social domains of functioning; such changes are rooted in biological mechanisms that are genetically controlled, as well as in social interactions

Phonology

The study of the patterns and distributions of speech sounds in a language and the tacit rules for their pronunciation.

Thanatology

The study of the psychological and medical aspects of death and dying

Logic

The system of principles of reasoning used to reach valid conclusions or make inferences.

spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Halo effect

The tendency for one characteristic of an individual to influence a tester's evaluation of other characteristics

Interpersonal Attraction

The tendency of one person to evaluate another person (or a symbol or image of another person) in a positive way.

Groupthink

The tendency of people in a group to seek concurrence with one another when reaching a decision, rather than effectively evaluating options.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to attribute other people's behavior to dispositional (internal) causes rather than situational (external) causes.

Actor-observer Effect

The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional causes but to attribute one's own behavior to situational causes.

overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

functional fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

difference threshold

minimum difference between any two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time

subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure function of genes. seeks to identify specific genes influencing behavior

molecular genetics

Bipolar disorder

mood disorder originally know as manic-depressive disorder because it is characterized by behavior that vacillates between two extremes; mania and depression.

Carol Gilligan

moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

preconventional level of moral development

morality based on consequences to self

conventional level of moral development

morality based on fitting in to the norms of society

postconventional level of moral development

morality based on one's own individual moral principles (i.e., conscience)

Kohlberg critiques

morality lies in actions and emotion as well as thinking; his postconventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist, middle-class people

an opiate drug that elevates mood and eases pain, bound to receptors in areas linked with mood and pain sensations.

morphine

our body releases several types of neurotransmitter molecules similar to ___ in response to ___ and __

morphine, pain, exercise

survey

most common type of study in psychology because it is the cheapest

Clark Hull

motivation theory, drive reduction; maintained that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates

Walter B. Cannon

motivation; believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; did research that inserted balloons in stomachs

Robert Zajonc

motivation; believes that we invent explanations to label feelings

Masters & Johnson

motivation; human sexual response—studied how both men and women respond to and in relation to sexual behavior

Cognitive neural prosthetics are placed in the brain to help control parts of the

motor cortex

area of the brain at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntarily movements

motor cortex

George can move his hand to sign a document because the , ___ located in the ___ lobe of the brain, allows him to activate the proper muscles.

motor cortex, frontal

carries the information necessary to activate withdrawal of the hand from a hot object?

motor neuron

carry instructions from the central nervous system out to the body's muscles and glands

motor neurons

thalamus

motor sensory relay center for four of the five senses; and with a brain stem and composed of two egg-shaped structures; integrates in shades incoming sensory signals; Mnemonic-"don't smell the llamas because the llamas smell bad"

communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

multiple sclerosis

if the myelin sheath degenerates, __ results

multiple sclerosis

random errors in gene replication

mutations

Some axons are encased in a , ___which enables faster transmission.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

myelin sheath

multiple sclerosis is a result of degeneration in the ___

myelin sheath

some axons are encased in __, a layer of fatty tissue that insulates them and speeds their impulses

myelin sheath

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

neuron

like batteries, _ generate electricity from chemical events.

neurons

nerve cells

neurons

neurons network with nearby __ which they can have short and fast connections

neurons

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Gazzaniga or Sperry

neuroscience/biopsychology; studied split brain patients

withdrawal

neurotic individuals who remain coldly aloof and detached. These people experience the world and other people essentially troublesome and unjustly demanding. Their solution is withdrawal from significant interaction with others.

unlocks tiny channels at the recieving site, and ions flow in, exciting or inhibiting the recieving neuron's readiness to fire.

neurotransmitter

within 1/10,000th of a second , the __ molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron

neurotransmitter

serotonin

neurotransmitter that affects sleep, arousal, mood, appetite; lack of it is linked with depression

acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter that causes contraction of skeletal muscles; lack of Ach linked with Alzheimer's disease;

dopamine

neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of neurons; linked with Huntington's disease

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

neurotransmitters

when an action potential reaches the knob-like terminals at an axon's end, it triggers the release of chemical messengers

neurotransmitters

__ networks within the cerebrum that form specialized work teams that enable our perceiving, thinking and speaking

newer neural

retroactive interference

newly learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

norepinephrine

noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response

Helps control alertness and arousal.

norepinephrine

frequency

number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given amount of time; determines hue of light and the pitch of a sound

inferential statistics

numerical data that allows one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe character of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

cohort effect

observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior naturally without trying to manipulate and control the situation

includes areas that receive information from the vision fields ( back of the head )

occipital lobes

motivated forgetting

occurs when frightening, traumatic events are forgotten because people want to forget them

transfer appropriate processing

occurs when initial processing of information is similar to the process of retrieval; the better the match, the better the recall

Von Restorff effect

occurs when recall is better for a distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list

it is the brain that enables what 4 things?

our humanity, feelings, thinking , and acting

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years

gate control theory

pain is only experienced in the pain messages can pass through a gate in the spinal cord on their route to the brain

Which branch of the nervous system calms a person?

parasympathetic

work together to keep us in steady internal state

parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems

produces the opposite effects of the sympathetic nervous system.conserves energy as it calms you by decreasing your heartbeat , lowering your blood sugar and so forth

parasympathetic nervous system

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making. Produces self reliant and happy children

at the top and to the rear ( behind the frontal lobes) are the __ which receive sensory input for touch and body position

parietal lobes

pons

part of the brain involved in sleep/wake cycles; also connects cerebellum and medulla to the cerebral cortex

cerebellum

part of the brain that coordinates balance, movement, reflexes

medulla (also medulla oblongata)

part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature

hippocampus

part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories

amygdala

part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors

may have intact memories, high score son intelligence test, and greta cake baking skills yet they not would be capable of planning ahead to begin baking the cake for a birthday party

people w/ damaged frontal lobes

split brain patients

people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

Ernst Weber

perception; identified just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law

sensory memory

performs initial encoding; provides brief storage; also called sensory register

prenatal development

period of development from conception until birth

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

peripheral nervous system

Henry Murray

personality assessment; created the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances

Hans Eysenck

personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion

William Sheldon

personality; theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)

sociocultural psychology

perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior

psychoanalytic

perspective developed by freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware

behaviorism

perspective that defines psychology as the study of behavior that is directly observable or through assessment instruments

humanistic psychology

perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the idea that humans have free will

Why do researchers find the study of fraternal twins important?

They are the same age and are usually raised in similar environments, but they do not have the same genetic code.

Stage of exhaustion

Third stage of the GAS, during which the body depletes its resources in responding to an ongoing stressor.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

curiosity, skepticism, and humility

Three key attitudes of scientific inquiry are

Cynicism

To defend against the recognition of inner conflict, the neurotic may adopt cynicism, a cynical stance toward life and its traditional moral and ethical values. By treating such issues derisively (in a manner expressing contempt or ridicule.), the neurotic can forestall any conflict over deciding what his or her own position is. In effect, he or she adopts the attitude "Do what you please, so long as you don't get caught" (Horney, 1945, p. 140). Horney's feminist, culturally based modifications of Freudian theory: Oedipus complex as culturally rather than biologically determined. She saw it as resulting from jealousy and aggression within some families. For Horney, the roots of the Oedipal situation consisted largely of interpersonal Attitudes. She desexualized the Oedipal conflict and transferred the dynamics of its emotional constellation into the realm of disturbed interpersonal relations. The resulting picture may look exactly like what Freud describes as the Oedipus complex; passionate clinging to one parent and jealousy toward the other or toward anyone interfering with the claim of exclusive possession.... The dynamic structure of these attachments is entirely different from what Freud conceives as the Oedipus complex. They are an early manifestation of neurotic conflicts rather than a primarily sexual phenomenon.

cognitive psychology

perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking

evolutionary psychology

perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors

rods

photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray, and movement; used for vision in dim light

cones

photoreceptors that detect color and fine detail in bright-light conditions; not present in peripheral vision

___ studying bumps on the skull, could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits

phrenology

studying bumps on the skull

phrenology

suceeded in focusing attention on the localization of function

phrenology

In an effort to reveal genetic influences on personality, researchers use adoption studies mainly for what purpose?

To evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents

Group

Two or more individuals who are working with a common purpose or have some common goals, characteristics, or interests.

Catatonic type of schizophrenia

Type of schizophrenia characterized either by displays of excited or violent motor activity or by stupor.

automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Child abuse

physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatment of a child.

Aaron Beck

pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression.

Albert Ellis

pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions

Alfred Binet

pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

which endocrine glands may explain unusually tall height in a 12-year-old?

pituitary

most influential endocrine gland

pituitary gland

releases certain hormones , one growth hormone that simulates physical development

pituitary gland

pea sized structure located in the core of the brain, where it is controlled by an adjacent brain area called __

pituitary gland; hypothalamus

the brain's ability to change or modify itself after damage, especially during childhood. process by which the brain does this is by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

plasticity

just above the medulla sits the __, which helps coordinate movements

pons

brain

portion of the CNS above the spinal cord; consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

spinal cord

portion of the CNS that carries messages to the PNS; connects brain to the rest of the body

occipital lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (p. 105)

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (p. 105)

frontal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (p. 105)

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (p. 105)

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

the fluid outside an axon's membrane has mostly __ charged ions

positively

shaping

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximation of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior

response bias

preconceived notions of a person answering [a survey] which may alter the experiments purpose

in the forward part of the frontal lobes enables judgments, planning and processing of new memories

prefrontal cortex

set point

preset natural body weight, determined by the number of fat cells in the body

proactive interference

previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information

occipital lobes

primary area for processing visual information

motor projection areas

primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands

inferential statistics

procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data

polygenic inheritance

process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits

retrieval

process by which stored information is recovered from memory

rehearsal

process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinking about, or otherwise acting on or transforming information in order to keep that information active in memory

parietal lobes

processes sensory information including touch, temperature, and pain from other body parts

neurogenesis

production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life

psychologist

professional who studies behavior and uses behavioral principles in scientific research or in applied settings

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Dissociative disorders

psychological disorders characterized by a sudden but temporary alteration in consciousness, identity, sensorimotor behavior, or memory

Personality disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and longstanding maladaptive behaviors that typically cause stress and/or social or occupational problems.

clinical psychologist

psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior

counseling psychologist

psychologist who treats people with adjustment problems

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

the left brain hemisphere is responsible for __ ,__,__,___, and __

reading ,writing ,speaking ,arithmetic reasoning, and understanding

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

automatic responses to stimuli

reflexes

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

refractory period

period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

refractory period

elaborative rehearsal

rehearsal involving repletion and analysis, in which a stimulus may be associated with (linked to) other information and further processed

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

ACTH (arenocorticotropic hormone)

released by adrenal glands; triggered by norepinephrine to prolong the response to stress (used in the sympathetic nervous system)

thyroxine

released by thyroid; hormone that regulates the body's metabolism; OVERACTIVE-over-excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue, snap decisions, reduced concentration (hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desire to sleep, constantly tired, weight gain (hypothyroidism)

replicate

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

maintenance rehearsal

repetitive review of information with little or no interpretation

gonads

reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

placebo effect

response to the belief that the IV will have an effect, rather than the IV's actual effect, which can be a confounding variable

In operant conditioning, the concept of contingency is exemplified by an "if A, then B" relationship in which A and B, respectively, represent

response, reinforcement

Learned helplessness is most likely to result when

responses have no effect on the environment

positive- outside/negative -inside state is called the __

resting potential

An individual experiences brain damage that produces a coma. Which part of the brain was probably damaged?

reticular formation

inside the brainstem between your ears , lies the ___, a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousing

reticular formation

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

encoding specificity principle

retrieval cues that match original information work better

neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

reuptake

the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters

reuptake

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

The hypothalamus is a ___center for the brain.

reward

Carlos wants to lose weight but is having a hard time motivating himself to go to the gym after work because he enjoys watching movies after work instead. To increase his likelihood of going to the gym, Carlos should

reward himself immediately after going to the gym

Stage 4: Authority Orientation

right and wrong is determined by society's rules and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly (conventional)

Stage 1: Punishment Orientation

right and wrong is determined by what is punished (pre-conventional)

stage 2: naive reward orientation

right and wrong is determined by what is rewarded (pre-conventional)

photoreceptors

rods and cones

ethics

rules of proper and acceptable conduct that investigators use to guide psychological research

10. The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability

ruminations or recriminations regarding possible flaws; relentless driving for perfection; feelings of superiority over others because of being perfect.

which there is a negative charge inside an axon and a positive charge outside of it , the neutron is ___

said to have been resting potential

In phase one of a study, a researcher classically conditions a dog to salivate to the ringing of a bell. In the second phase, the researcher pairs a flashing light with the ringing of the bell. After several pairings of the light and the bell, the dog will

salivate when the light is flashed

Visual Information Processing

scene, retinal processing, feature detection, parallel processing, recognition

Gestalt psychology

school of psychological thought that argued that behavior cannot be studied in parts but must be viewed a s whole

structuralism

school of psychological thought that considered the structure and elements of conscious experience to be the proper subject matter of psychology

functionalism

school of psychological thought that was concerned with how and why the conscious mind works

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior 9-13

Money most often modifies people's behavior because it is a powerful

secondary reinforcer

monism

seeing mind and body as different aspects of the same thing

dualism

seeing mind and body as two different things that interact

representative sample

selection of a part of the population which mirrors the current demographics

random sample

selection of a part of the population without reason; participation is by chance

6. The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige

self-evaluation dependent entirely on public acceptance; all things and people evaluated only in terms of prestige value.

8. The neurotic ambition for personal achievement

self-evaluation dependent on being the very best lover, athlete, writer, worker—particularly in one's own mind—recognition by others being vital too, however, and its absence resented.

olfaction

sense of smell

gustation

sense of taste

carries messages from the body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing

sensory neurons

information travels through the nervous system though what three types of neurons?

sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

serotonin

Juanita does not feel like getting out of bed, has lost her appetite , and feels tired for most of the day. which if the following neurotransmitters likely is in short supply for Juanita ?

serotonin

what neurotransmitters are most likely in undersupply is someone who is depressed

serotonin and norepinephrine

The first time four-year-old Savannah attempted to make her bed, her father praised her for covering the pillow with a blanket. After a few times, her father began praising Savannah for covering the pillow and tucking in the corners of the sheet. Finally, Savannah's father praised her when she covered the pillow, tucked in the corners of the sheet, and smoothed the blanket. The process described in this scenario is known as

shaping

The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations is called

shaping

visual acuity

sharpness of vision

graded potential

shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire

baby math

shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer

functional MRI (fMRI)

shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities

positron emission tomography (PET scan)

shows brain activity when radioactively tagged glucose rushes to active neurons

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

neurons transmit messages when stimulated by __ or when triggered by __ from __ .

signals from our senses, chemical signals from neighboring neurons

our bodies neural information systems is complexity built from __ . its building blocks are called __

simplicity, neurons

parallel processing

simultaneously analyzing different elements of sensory information, such as color, brightness, shape, etc.

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

sleep stage when the eyes move about, during which vivid dreams occur; brain very active but skeletal muscles paralyzed

Hobson & McCarley

sleep/dreams/consciousness; pioneers of Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreams; sleep studies that indicate the brain creates dream states, not information processing or Freudian interpretations

fovea

small area of retina where image is focused

pupil

small opeing in iris that is smaller in bright light and larger in darkness

cochlea

snail-shaped fluid-filled tube in the inner ear involved in transduction

Leon Festinger

social cognition, cognitive dissonance; Study Basics: Studied and demonstrated cognitive dissonance

Kurt Lewin

social psychology; German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities

Phillip Zimbardo

social psychology; Stanford Prison Study; college students were randomly assigned to roles of prisoners or guards in a study that looked at who social situations influence behavior; showed that peoples' behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play

Darley & Latane

social psychology; bystander apathy, diffusion of responsibility

Robert Rosenthal

social psychology; focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students

Kenneth Clark

social psychology; research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; doll experiments-black children chose white dolls

Adolescence is a ______ ______ concept

socially constructed

mental operations

solving problems by manipulating images in one's mind

the peripheral nervous system has two components __ and __

somatic and automatic

enables voluntarily controls of our skeletal muscles

somatic nervous system

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement

somatosensory

Stimulation at a point on which of the following may cause a person to report being touched on the knee?

somatosensory cortex

Surgical stimulation of the somatosensory cortex might result in the false sensation of what?

someone tickling you

Lawrence Kohlberg

sought to describe the development of moral reasoning

what do axons do?

speak

Which of the following is most likely to be a function of the left hemisphere?

speech

support nourish and protect neurons

spidery glial cells

another part of the central nervous system that is a two way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain

spinal cord

the neural pathways governing our reflexes illustrate the __

spinal cords work

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

split brains

hypnosis

state with deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility

A monkey's choosing a circle from an array of geometric shapes in order to be rewarded with a banana is an example of

stimulus discrimination

A child whose family owns a dog may refer to any four-legged animal as "dog." In learning theory, such behavior is known as

stimulus generalization

Tyler ate a cheeseburger from a fast food restaurant for dinner, and he was awake all night feeling sick. Now, just thinking about eating any fast food makes him feel nauseous, and he is certain that he will never want to eat it again. Tyler's aversion to fast food can best be explained by

stimulus generalization

when the brain is flooded with opiate drugs such as heroine and morphine, the brain may ___

stop producing its own natural opiates

long-term memory

storage mechanism that keeps a relatively permanent record of memory

Holmes & Rahe

stress and coping; used "social readjustment scale" to measure stress

Wilhelm Wundt

structuralism; in 1879 founded first psychology laboratory in world at University of Leipzig; introspection, basic units of experience

lens

structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus light rays onto the retina

twin studies

studies as identical and rhetorical twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior

experimental psychologist

studies behavior and thinking using the experimental method

community psychologist

studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

educational psychologist

studies how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

strain studies

studies of hereditability it be a behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another

family studies

studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative

developmental psychologist

studies psychological development across the lifespan

selection studies

studies that estimate the hereditability of a trait by breeding animals with another animal that has the same trait

psychobiologist

studies the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

psychologist

studies the science of behavior and mental processes

clinical psychologist

studies, assess, and treats people with psychological disorders

behavioral genetics

study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking

genetics

study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next

neuroscience

study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology

psychobiology

study that focuses on biological foundations of behavior and mental processes; overlaps with neuroscience

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting marked by emotional coldness, imposing rules and expecting obedience

Little Albert

subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear

control group

subjects and not exposed to a changing variable in an experiment

we are each composed of __ that are in turn composed of evens smaller subsystems

subsystems

we are tiny cells organize to form body organs. these organs from larger systems for digestion,circulation, and information processing

subsystems

Psychotic

suffering from a gross impairment in reality testing that interferes with the ability to meet the ordinary demands of life.

glial cells

supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste

Which division of the nervous system produces the startle response?

sympathetic

arouses and expends energy. makes you ready and alert for action

sympathetic nervous system

automatic nervous system is broken up into two subsystems called the ___ and the ___

sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

synapse

the meeting point between a neuron

synapse

drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry at __, often by either exciting or inhabiting neuron's firing

synapses

places where neurons meet and greet their neighbors

synapses

neurotransmitters cross the __ to carry information to the next neutron

synaptic gap

synaptic cleft

synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next

double-blind procedure

technique in which neither the persons involved for those conducting the experiment know in what group to participate is involved

slow to warm up temperament

temperamental profile in which the child is inactive and moody and displays mild passive resistance to new routines and experiences

just above your ears are the ___ which includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primilarly from the opposite ear

temporal lobes

sensory adaptation

temporary decrease in sensitivity to a stimulus that occurs when stimulation is unchanging

Barnum effect

tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate.

ethnocentrism

tendency to believe that one's own group is the standard, the reference point by which other people and groups should be judged

the cell;s lengthy axon fiber passes the message through its __ to other neurons or muscles glands

terminal branches

axon terminal

terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters

achievement test

test designed to determine a person's level of knowledge in a given subject area

receives information from all the senses except smell and routes it to the higher brain region that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching

thalamus

sits atop the brainstem .a pair of egg shaped structures that act as the brain's sensory control center

thalamus

what sometimes referred to as the brain's train hub, because it directs incoming sensory messages (with the exception of smell) to their proper places in the brain?

thalamus

germinal stage

the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception where zygote attaches to uterine wall

feature detection

the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges

mental representation

the ability to form internal images of objects and events by age 2

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

memory

the ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or previously learned information or skills; the storage system that allows a person to retain and retrieve previously learned information

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

the absence of appropriate behaviors (expressionless faces, rigid bodies)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

threshold of viability

the age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth (23-26 weeks)

informed consent

the agreement of participants to take part in an experiment and their acknowledgement that they understand the nature of their participation in the research, and have been fully informed about the general nature of the research, its goals, and methods

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

mean

the arithmetic average of a set of scores

insecure attachment

the attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Learned helplessness

the behavior of giving up or not responding, exhibited by people and animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they feel they have no control.

Artificialism

the belief of the preoperational child that all objects are made by people

long-term potentiation

the biochemical processes that make it easier for the neuron to respond again when it has been stimulated

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. (p. 124)

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

endocrine glands

the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (p. 111)

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (p. 97)

menopause

the cessation of the ability to reproduce

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Synchronicity

the close coordination between the gazing, vocalizing, touching, and smiling of infants and caregivers. Baby laughs when mom laughs.

empirical investigation

the collecting of objective information firsthand by making careful measurements based on direct experience

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

ESP

the controversial claim that sensation can occur apart from sensory input

imagery

the creation or re-creation of a mental picture of a sensory or perceptual experience

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

three levels of analysis

the differing complementary views from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing a given phenomenon

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

motor development

the emergence of the ability to execute physical action

Appraisal

the evaluation of the significance of a situation or event as it relates to a person's well-being

introspection

the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

phenotype

the expression of genes

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

variability

the extent to which scores differ from one another

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

Excitement phase

the first phase of the sexual response cycle during which there are increases in heart rate blood pressure and respiration

Margaret Floy Washburn

the first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. and synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

convolutions

the folds in the cerebral cortex that increase the surface area of the brain

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Resolution Phase

the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, following orgasm, during which the body returns to its resting, or normal state

cephalocaudal trend

the head-to-foot direction of motor development

pitch

the highness or lowness of a sound

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

chemical messengers which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues including the brain. influence our interest in sex food and aggression

the hormones created in the endocrine system

self-actualization

the human need to fulfill one's potential

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (p. 119)

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (p. 104)

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (p. 80)

corpis callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (p. 114)

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

all-or-none principle

the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all

nonconscious

the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely unavailable to conscious awareness (e.g., fingernails growing)

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (p. 82)

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

median

the measure of central tendency that is the data point with 50% of the scores above it and 50% below it

survey research

the measurement of public opinion through the use of sampling and questioning

midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

median

the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

primacy effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series

recency effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the end of a series

mode

the most frequently occurring score in a set of data

mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

hindbrain

the most primitive of the three functional divisions of the brain, consisting of the pons, medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (p. 78)

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

memory span

the number of items a person can reproduce from short-term memory, usually consisting of one or two chunks

__ networks sustain basic life functions and enable memory, emotions,and basic drives.

the older brain

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (p. 87)

Prevalence

the percentage of a population displaying a disorder during any specified period.

percentile score

the percentage of scores at or below a certain score

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

nonparticipant

the person has no idea they are being studied

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (p. 120)

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

natural selection

the principle that those characteristics and behaviors that help organisms adapt, be fit, and survive will be passed on to successive generations, because flexible, fit individuals have a greater chance of reproduction

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

acomodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

sound localization

the process by which the location of sound is determined

consolidation

the process of changing a short-term memory to a long-term one

storage

the process of maintaining or keeping information readily available; the locations where information is held

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that is due to genetic causes

timbre

the quality of a sound determined by the purity of a waveform

zone of proximal development

the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or children with more skill

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

replication

the repetition of an experiment to test the validity of its conclusion

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (p. 77)

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurements of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

midbrain

the second level of the three organizational structures of the brain that receives signals from other parts of the brain or spinal cord and either relays the information to other parts of the brain or causes the body to act immediately; involved in movement

Plateau phase

the second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as the partners bodies prepare for orgasm

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

audition

the sense of hearing

audition

the sense or act of hearing

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

synapse

the space between two neurons where neurotransmitters are secreted by terminal buttons and received by dendrites

ganglion cells

the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain

range

the spread between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution

nervous system

the structures and organs that facilitate electrical and chemical communication in the body and allow all behavior and mental processes to take place

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (p. 131)

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (p. 124)

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

interference

the suppression of one bit of information by another

kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct-- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgement

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

state-dependent learning

the tendency to recall information learned while in a particular physiological state most accurately when one is in that physiological state again

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Young-Helmholtz Theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitation and by being rewarded or punished

Orgasm phase

the third phase of the sexual response cycle, during which autonomic nervous system activity reaches its peak and muscle contractions occur in spasms throughout the body, but especially in the genital area

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

After several trials during which a dog is given a certain kind of food at the same time that a specific tone is sounded, there is evidence of conditioning if the dog salivates when

the tone only is presented

heredity

the traits and features that are inherited from one's parents and ancestors

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

dependent variable

the variable in a controlled experiment that is expected to change due to the manipulation of the independent variable

independent variable

the variable in a controlled experiment that the experimenter directly and purposefully manipulates to see how the other variables under study will be affected

empiricism

the view that knowledge should be acquired through observation and often an experiment

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science and (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2

Piaget

theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment

oponent process theory

theory of color vision that proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in pairs: red and green, blue and yellow

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

chromosome

threadlike structure within the nucleus of cells that contain genes

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (p. 124)

Wechsler intelligence tests

three age individual IQ tests: WPPSI (children), WISC (children), WAIS (adults)

Ekman & Friesen

Universal Emotions (based upon facial expressions); Study Basics: Constants across culture in the face and emotion

Unconditioned Response

Unlearned or involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus

Bystander Effect

Unwillingness to help exhibited by witnesses to an event, which increase when there are more observers.

Which of the following is a partial reinforcement schedule that is most resistant to extinction?

Variable ratio

Phineas Gage

Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning

Opponent-process theory

Visual theory, proposed by Herring, that color is coded by stimulation of three types of paired receptors; each pair of receptors is assumed to operate in an antagonist way so that stimulation by a given wavelength produces excitation (increased firing) in one receptor of the pair and also inhibits the other receptor.

Trichromatic theory

Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory.

damage to the __ area of the brain disrupts understanding

Wernicke's

Emerging adulthood (18-20) is the product of what?

Western culture and current times

Which of the following operant conditioning concepts is an example of positive punishment?

While driving through the state of Mississippi, Lance was stopped for speeding and had to pay an expensive speeding ticket. As a result, he no longer goes over the speed limit when driving in Mississippi.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

identified the ___that specializes in receiving information fro the kin senses and from the movement of body parts .

Wilder Penfield;cortile area

Which of the following is an example of gene- environment interaction?

Yeh Lin experiences flushing syndrome, which mostly occurs in those of Asian heritage.

gene

a DNA segment on a chromosome that controls transmission of traits

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution with no spaces between the bars

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

sympathetic nervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; "fight or flight"

parasympathetic nervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body after sympathetic stimulation

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

frequency distribution

a chart or array of scores, usually arranged from highest to lowest, showing the number of instances for each score

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

difficult temperament

a child's general responsiveness marked by a more negative mood, intense responses, slow adaptation to change, and irregular patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination

easy temperament

a child's general responsiveness marked by positive mood, easy adaptation to change, and regularity and predictability in patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination

A mental image of a spatial layout is called

a cognitive map

theory

a collection of interrelated ideas and facts put forward to describe, explain, and predict behavior and mental processes

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (p. 124)

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

schema

a conceptual framework that organizes information and allows a person to make sense of the world

variable

a condition or characteristic of a situation or a person that is subject to change (it varies) within or across situations or individuals

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

A cancer patient becomes nauseated following chemotherapy treatments. After a few treatments, the patient begins having a sick feeling whenever entering the treatment room. The treatment room has become

a conditioned stimulus

A person eats a hamburger at a restaurant and develops a very bad stomachache after finishing eating. As a result of the sudden illness, the person cannot eat hamburgers anymore. Just thinking about them makes the person feel sick to the stomach. In this scenario, the thought of a hamburger is

a conditioned stimulus

operational definition

a definition of a variable in terms of the set of methods or procedures used to measure or study that variable

standard deviation

a descriptive statistic that measures the variability of data from the mean of the sample

measure of central tendency

a descriptive statistic that tells which result or score best represents an entire set of scores

Case study

a descriptive study that includes an intensive study of one person and allows an intensive examination of a single case, usually chosen for its interesting or unique characteristics

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individuals or groups is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

autonomic nervous system

a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

limbic system

a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce and effect in an experiment

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (p. 78)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Anxiety

a generalized feeling of fear and apprehension that may be related to a particular situation or object and is often accompanied by increased physiological arousal.

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slop of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

sample

a group of participants who are assumed to be representative of the population about which an inference is being made

Schizophrenic disorders

a group of psychological disorders characterized by a lack of reality testing and by deterioration of social and intellectual functioning and personality beginning before age 45 and lasting at least 6 months

Schizophrenia

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

case study

a highly detailed description of a single individual or a vent

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

receptor site

a location on a receptor neurons which is like a key to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter); allows for orderly pathways

correlate

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other

psychiatrist

a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response. (p. 83)

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response. (p. 83)

3. The neurotic need to restrict one 's life within narrow borders

a necessity to be undemanding and contented with little; a need to remain inconspicuous, belittling one's potential.

motive

a need or want that causes someone to act

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (p. 78)

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. (p. 98)

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (p. 78)

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (p. 99)

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (p. 78)

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (p. 80)

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (p. 80)

correlation coefficient

a number that expresses the degree and direction of the relationship between 2 variables, ranging from -1 to +1

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (p. 91)

2. The neurotic need for a "partner" who will take over one 's life

a partner who will fulfill all expectations the neurotic has in life; who will take responsibility for good and evil, success and failure. The neurotic so inclined has a tendency to overvalue "love" because love can solve everything.

insecure-avoidant attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

relative refractory period

a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarize state and will only fire again if the incoming message open parentheses impulse) is stronger than usual; returning to arresting state

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

introspection

a person's description and analysis of what he or she is thinking and feeling or what he or she has just thought about

nurture

a person's experiences in the environment

nature

a person's inherited traits, determined by genetics

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

Mary Calkins

a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).

methamphetamines

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

experiment

a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates and observes elements of a situation in order to test a hypothesis and make a cause-and-effect statement

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

debriefing

a procedure to inform participants about the true nature of an experiment after its completion

synaptic pruning

a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

field study

a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Residual type of schizophrenia

a schizophrenic disorder in which the person exhibits inappropriate affect, illogical thinking, and/or eccentric behavior but seems generally in touch with reality.

Undifferentiated type of schizophrenia

a schizophrenic disorder that is characterized by a mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria of any one type.

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. These are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the person 's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Also called CAT scan.) (p. 95)

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

axon

a single long, fiber that carries outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Double bind

a situation in which an individual is given two different and inconsistent messages.

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Motive

a specific (usually internal) condition, usually involving some form of arousal, which directs an organism's behavior toward a goal.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

normal curve

a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes that distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer near the extremes

Ecstacy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure. (p. 96)

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (p. 95)

hypothesis

a tentative statement or idea expressing a causal relationship between two events or variables that is to be evaluated in a research study

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

adaptation

a trait or inherited characteristic that has increased in a population because it solved a problem of survival or reproduction

ex post facto study

a type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events

ex post facto study

a type of study that is based on a pre-existing condition so it has chosen subjects

color blindness

a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (p. 95)

myelin sheath

a white, fatty covering of the axon which speeds transmission of message

An individual is having trouble with cognitive tasks related to learning and memory. Which of the following neurotransmitters is most likely to be involved with the problem? a. Acetylcholine b. Dopamine c. Serotonin d. The endorphins e. GABA

a. Acetylcholine

What is the brief electrical charge that travels down an axon called? a. Action potential b. Resting potential c. All-or-none impulse d. Refractory period e. Myelination response

a. Action Potential

To walk across a street, a person would rely most directly on which division of the nervous system? a. Central nervous system b. Sympathetic nervous system c. Peripheral nervous system d. Autonomic nervous system e. Parasympathetic nervous sytem

a. Central nervous system

Which is the major criticisms of the evolutionary perspective in psychology? a. It analyzes after the fact using hindsight b. It attempts to extend a biological theory into a psychological realm c. There is very little evidence to support it d. It has been around long enough to "stand the test of time" e. It seems to apply in certain cultures but not in others

a. It analyzes after the fact using hindsight

Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how traits and behavioral tendencies have been shaped by what? a. Natural selection b. Genes c. Prenatal nutrition d. DNA e. Chromosomes

a. Natural selection

Which is the most influential of the endocrine glands? a. Pituitary glands b. Adrenal glands c. Dendrites d. Threshold glands e. Parasympathetic

a. Pituitary gland

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many

manifest content

according to Freud, the story of the dream.

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

acetylcholine

if __ is blocked , a happens during some kinds of anesthesia, the muscles cannot contract and we are paralyzed

acetylcholine

one of the best understood neurotransmitters, plays a role in learning and memory. when it released to our muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts

acetylcholine

one of the best-understood neurotransmitters, plays a role in learning and memory

acetylcholine

David McClelland

achievement motivation; developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation

What is the brief electrical charge that travels down an axon called?

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

action potential

a neuron fires an impulse called __ , a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon

action potential

if excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity or threshold, the combined signals trigger a __

action potential

neural impulse

action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin)

Postconventional morality (Kohlberg's theory of development)

actions are judged "right" because they flow from people's right or from self-defined, basic ethical principles

genes can be either __ or __.

active or inactive

we have 20,000 to 25,000 genes, they can be either __ or __ . __ turn on genes

active, inactive. environmental events

Accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

post conventional morality

adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles 17/18 +

Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase energy and are released by the

adrenal glands

located on the top of the kidneys

adrenal glands

in a moment of danger, the __ nervous system orders the adrenal glands to release a chemical called __

adrenaline

this hormone increases the heart rate , blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing us with a surge of energy known as the fight or flight response

adrenaline

epinephrine

adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster

sensory neurons

afferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cords

refractory period

after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

agonist

some opiate drugs are __ and produce a temporary high by amplifying normal sensations of arousal or pleasure

agonist

may be similar enough to a neurotransmitter to mind to its receptor and mimic its effect.

agonist molecules

population

all of the individuals in the group to which a study applies

the neuron's reaction is either a __ or __ response

all or none

The neuron's reaction is an __

all or none process

neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full- strength response) or not firing.

all or none response

two lima-beaned sized neutral clusters , are linked to aggression and fear

amygdala

the limbic system contains the __ ,___ and ___

amygdala , hypothalamus , and hippocampus

near-death experiences

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (p. 95)

Model:

an analogy or a perspective that uses a structure from one field to help scientists describe data in another field

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (p. 105)

action potential

an electrical current sent down the axon of a neuron and is initiated by the rapid reversal of the polarization of the cell membrane

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo

Drive theory (aka, drive-reduction theory)

an explanation of behavior that assumes that an organism is motivated to act because of a need to attain, reestablish, or maintain some goal that helps with survival

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

1. The neurotic need for affection and approval

an indiscriminate desire to please others and to be liked and approved of by others. The person's "center of gravity" is in others, not in self.

participant

an individual who takes part in an experiment and whose behavior is observed as part of the data collection process

genotype

an individual's genetic make-up

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Drive

an internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy a physiological need

behavior

an observable action

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

gestalt

an organized whole

gestalt

an organized whole. these psychologists emphasized ur tendency to integrate information into meaningful wholes

pseudoscience

an unscientific system which pretends to discover psychological information that his means are unscientific or deliberately fraudulent

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Which is one of the major criticisms of the evolutionary perspective in psychology?

analyzes after the fact using hindsight.

human factors psychology

and I/O psychology that explored how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

antagonist

bind to receptors but their effect is instead to block a neurotransmitters functioning.

antagonists

Agoraphobia

anxiety disorder characterized by marked fear and avoidance of being alone in a place from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing

Motivation

any internal condition, although usually an internal one, that initates, activates, or maintains an organism's goal directed behavior

confounding variable

anything that causes a difference between the IV and the DV other than the independent variable

industrial psychologist

applies psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

forensic psychologist

applies psychological concepts to legal issues

industrial/organizational psychologist

applies psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity and the quality of work life

normal distribution

approximate distribution of scores expected when a sample is taken from a large population, drawn as a frequency polygon that often takes the form of a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (p. 107)

hypothalamus

area of the brain that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors such as, eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, motivation; also body temperature

blind spot

area on retina with no receptor cells (where optic nerve leaves the eye)

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and communicating

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (p. 109)

school psychologist

assesses and counsels students, consults with educators and parents, and performs behavioral intervention when necessary

counseling psychologist

assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

in the __ areas of the brain the neurons are busy with higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, speaking, and many of the task that make us human

association

The most noticeable difference between human brains and other mammalian brains is the size of the

association areas

found in all four lobes.

association areas

preferential looking

assumes that the longer an infant spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant prefers that stimulus over others

Freud's Cupboard Theory

attachment to caregiver is side-effect of ability to provide basic satisfaction (food)

controls the glands and muscles of our internal organs , influencing such functions as glandular activity , heartbeat and digestion . usually operates on its on

automatic nervous system

the action potential travels down the __ which branches into junctions with hundreds or thousands of other neurons or with the body's muscles and glands

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

axon

Opiate drugs such as morphine are classified as what? a. Antagonists, because they block neurotransmitter receptors for pain b. Agonists, because they mimic other neurotransmitters' pain-diminishing effects c. Excitatory neurotransmitters, because they activate pain-control mechanisms d. Sympathetic nervous system agents, because they prepare the body of challenge e. Parasympathetic nervous system agents, because they calm the body

b. Agonists, because they mimic other neurotransmitters' pain-diminishing effects

Damage to the hippocampus would result in what? a. Difficulties with balance and coordination b. Memory problems c. The false sensation of burning in parts of the body d. Emotional outbursts e. Death

b. Memory problems

Which of the following statements has been supported by the research of evolutionary psychologists? a. Women are attracted to men who appear virile b. Men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children c. The connection between sex and pleasure is mostly determined by culture d. The same factors determine sexual attraction in both males and females e. Most adults are attracted to partners that in the same way remind them of their parents

b. Men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children

An individual experiences brain damage that produces a coma. Which part of the brain was probably damaged? a. Corpus callosum b. Reticular formation c. Frontal Lobe d. Cerebellum e. Limbic System

b. Reticular formation

what part of the brain processes visual information

back of the brain

When Klüver and Bucy surgically lesioned the amygdala of a rhesus monkey's brain, what was the impact on the monkey's behavior?

became less aggressive

Preconventional morality (Kohlberg's stage of development)

before age 9; morality focuses on self-interest: obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards

study our difference and weigh the effects and interplay of heredity an environment

behavior geneticists

what can estimate the heritability of a trait

behavior geneticists

What is the study of specific genes and teams of genes that influence behavior called?

behavior genetics

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Mary Cover-Jones

behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned

Edward Thorndike

behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence

John B Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

B.F. Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened (Thorndike)

Sir Francis Galton

believed that intelligence and most other physical and mental characteristics of humans were inherited and biologically based

by studying links between __ and __, biological psychologist are announcing discoveries about the interplay of our biology and our behavior and mind at an exhilarating pace

biolocal activity and psychological events

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Psychologists working from a ___study the links between biology and behavior. •

biological perspective

___ are announcing discoveries about the interplay of our biology and our behavior and mind at an exhilarating pace.

biological psychologists

___the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

biological psychology

to understand our behavior , we need to study how these __,__ and __ systems work and interact

biological, psychological and social

Charles Darwin

biologist; developed theory of evolution; transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on The Beagle

We are ___ in which biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors interact to influence behavior

biopsychosocial systems,

we are __ systems

biosychosocial

vestibular sense

body sense of equilibrium and balance

kinesthesis

body sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual parts of the body

In Ivan Pavlov's experiments in classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was

both an unconditioned and a conditioned response

poison that can form in improperly canned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh release

botulin

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

from the simplicity of neurons talking to other neurons arises the complexity of the central nervous system's __ and __

brain and spinal cord

levels-of-processing approach

brain encodes information in different ways or on different levels; deeper processing leads to deeper memory

phrenology has been discredited, but which of following ideas has its origins in phrenology ?

brain function localization

the brain's oldest and innermost region is the __.it begins where the spinal cord swells slightly after entering the skull

brainstem

statistics

branch of mathematics that deals with collecting, classifying, and analyzing data

dendrites

branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons

great amplitude

bright colors, loud sounds

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

nerve

bundles of axons

Conventional morality (Kohlberg's theory of development)

by early adolescence; focuses on caring for others and upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules

When Kliver and Bucy surgically lesioned the amygdala of a rhesus monkey's brain, what was the impact of the monkey's behavior? a. Lost its ability to coordinate movement b. Died because its heartbeat became irregular c. Became less aggressive d. Lost its memory of where food was stored e. Sank into an irreversible coma

c. Became less aggressive

What is the study of specific genes and teams of genes that influence behavior called? a. Molecular genetics b. Evolutionary psychology c. Behavior genetics d. Heritability e. Natural selection

c. Behavior genetics

What was the major findings of Thomas Bouchard's study of twins? a. It demonstrated that peer influence is more important than parental influence in the development of personality traits b. It proved that the influence of parental environment becomes more and more important as children grow into adults c. He discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult identical twins who had been separated near birth d. Fraternal twins showed almost as much similarity as identical twins when they reached adulthood e. It provided evidence that heritability is less important than researchers previously suspected.

c. He discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult identical twins who had been separated near birth

A researcher interested in determining the size of a particular area of the brain would be most likely to use what kind of test? a. Lesion b. EEG c. MRI d. fMRI e. PET scan

c. MRI

Why do researchers study the brains of nonhuman animals? a. It is not ethical to study human brains b. Human brains are too complex to study meaningfully c. The same principles govern neural functioning in all species d. It is too expensive to study human brains e. The technology is still being developed for the study of human brains

c. The same principles govern neural functioning in all species

Why do researchers find the study of fraternal twins important? a. They share similar environments and the same genetic code b. Data collected concerning their similarities is necessary for calculating heritability c. They are the same age and are usually raised in similar environments but they do not have the same genetic code d. Results allow us to determine exactly how disorders ranging from heart disease to schizophrenia are inherited e. They are typically raised in less similar environments than nontwin siblings

c. They are the same age and are usually raised in similar environments but they do not have the same genetic code

optic nerve

carries impulses from the eye to the brain

. A split-brain patient has a picture of a dog flashed to his right hemisphere and a cat to his left hemisphere. He will be able to identify the

cat using his right hand

soma

cell body

each neuron consist of a __ and its branching fibers called __

cell body, dendrites

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking. (p. 104)

To walk across a street, a person would rely most directly on which division of the nervous system?

central nervous system

the brain and the spinal cord

central nervous system

what are the two main branches of the human bodies nervous systems

central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

A gymnast falls and hits her head on the floor. She attempts to continue practicing, but has trouble maintaining balance. What part of her brain has probably been affected?

cerebellum

enables nonverbal learning and memory. helps judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminates sounds and textures. coordinate voluntary movement with assistance from the pons

cerebellum

extending from the rear of the brainstem is the baseball sized __, meaning little brain, which is what its two wrinkle halves resemble

cerebellum

hemispheres that come as a pair

cerebral

the newest highest regions of the brain ( two halves of the brain)

cerebral Hemisphere

thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells that cover the cerebral hemisphere . the brains thinking crown, the body's ultimate control and information processing center

cerebral cortex

thin surface layer that contains billions of nerve cells

cerebral cortex

what makes us distinctively human mostly arises from the complex functions of our __

cerebral cortex

the hemisphere that contributes 85 percent of the brains weight

cerebrum

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released by terminal buttons into the synapse

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (p. 80)

Hormones are __released into the __

chemical messengers; bloodstream

excitatory neurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing

endorphins

chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain; may induce feelings of pleasure

hormone

chemical that carries messages that travel through the bloodstream to help regulate bodily functions

agonist

chemical that mimics or facilitates the actions of a neurotransmitter

antagonist

chemical that opposes the actions of a neurotransmitter

If the combined received signals exceed a minimum threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse (the action potential) down its axon by means of a __.

chemistry-to-electricity process

Lev Vygotsky

child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research

Anna Freud

child psychoanalysis; emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle

thread like structure made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

chromosomes

the plans for your own book of run to __ chapters ( __) . __ donated by your mothers egg and __ donated by your fathers sperm

chromosomes . 46, 23

demand characteristics

clues participants discover about the purpose of a study that suggest how they should respond

Elizabeth Loftus

cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony

Tolman

cognition; studied rats and discovered the "cognitive map" in rats and humans

fluid intelligence

cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning that tends to diminish with age

The graph above depicts the results of an experiment in which rats learned to navigate a maze in one of three conditions. According to the results, the food reward given to group C revealed

cognitive mapping

is taking the first small steps by relating specific brain states to conscious experiences

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition including perception, thinking, memory, and language

cognitive neuroscience

Jean Piaget

cognitive psychology; created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)

iris

colored part of the eye that regulates size of pupil

Premack principle

commonly occurring behavior can reinforce a less frequent behavior

neurotic trends into three categories

compliance, aggression, and withdrawal.

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.

Computer-enhanced X-rays used to create brain images are known as

computed tomography scans

neuropsychologist

concerned with the relationship between brain/nervous system and behavior

Robert Rescorla's contingency model of classical conditioning states that

conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another

Solomon Asch

conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length

James-Lange theory of emotion

conscious experience of emnotion results from one's awareness of physiological arousal

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

conscious experience of emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time

explicit memory

conscious memory that a person is aware of

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

consciousness

today's science explores the biology of __

consciousness

Stanford-Binet intelligence tests

constructed by Lewis Terman, originally used ratio IQ (MA/CA x 100); now based on deviation from mean

frontal lobes

control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; speech (Broca's area); controls movement of muscles

Broca's Area

controls language expression-area of the frontal lobe in left hemisphere that directs muscle movements invloved in speech

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

a wide band of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres and carries messages between them

corpus callosum

in 1961 , neurosurgeons attempted to fix epileptic seizures by severing the __

corpus callosum

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

creates a computerized image using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves

computerized axial tomography (CT scan)

creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain

man made in the image and likeness of God. Genesis "creation" account.

creationism

During which task might the right hemisphere of the brain be most active? a. Solving a mathematical equation b. Reading c. Making a brief oral presentation to a class d. Imagining what a dress would look like on a friend e. Solving a logic problem

d. Imagining what a dress would look like on a friend

Surgical stimulation of the somatosensory cortex might result in the false sensation of what? a. Music b. Flashes of colored light c. Someone whispering your name d. Someone tickling you e. A bad odor

d. Someone tickling you

In an effort to reveal genetic influences on personality, researchers use adoption studies mainly for what purpose? a. To compare adopted children with nonadopted children b. To study the effect of a prior neglect on adopted children c. To study the effect of a child's age at adoption d. To evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents e. To consider the effects of adoption on a child's manners or values

d. To evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents

psychiatrist

deals with psychological disorders and sometimes provides medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

nature-nurture controversy

deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior

each neuron is itself a miniature __ performing complex calculations as it receives signals from hundreds, even thousands of other neurons

decision making device

habituation

decreased responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

A neuron receives signals through its branching __, and sends signals through its axons.

dendrites

bushy fibers that receive info and conduct it towards the cell body

dendrites

neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

dendrites

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes

monocular cues

depth cues that are based on one eye

binocular cues

depth cues that are based on two eyes

ex post facto study

describes differences between groups of participants that differ naturally on a variable such as race or gender

flashbulb memories

detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence

Hermann Rorschach

developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary

Piaget critiques

development is more continuous; missed conceptual abilities

Harry Harlow

development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort

Gibson & Walk

developmental psychology; "visual cliff" studies with infants

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

Elizabeth Kübler-Ross

developmental psychology; wrote "On Death and Dying": 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. denial, 2. anger, 3. bargaining, 4. depression, 5. acceptance)

Judith Langlois

developmental psychology;: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression

Howard Gardner

devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

David Rosenhan

did study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia; showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting

Lloyd and Margaret Peterson

did work on short-term memory

Generally speaking, heritability is the extent to which

differences among people are accounted for by genes.

Francis Galton

differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Samuel became ill after eating pepperoni pizza and refuses to eat it now. However, he still enjoys plain pizza. Samuel's eating behavior illustrates

discrimination

Dissociative identity disorder

dissociative disorder characterized by the existence within an individual of two or more distinct personalities, each of which is dominant at different times and directs the individual's behavior at those times; commonly known as multiple personality disorder.

genetic mapping

dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be characterized and ordered so that the fragments reflect their respective locations on specific chromosomes

somatic nervous system

division of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary actions

peripheral nervous system

division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

hindbrain

division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles

engineering psychologist

does research on how people function best with machines

4. The neurotic need for power, for control over others, and for a facade of omnipotence

domination over others craved for its own sake; essential disrespect for Others; indiscriminate adoration of strength and contempt for weakness; belief in the power of reason and intelligence; extreme value placed on foresight and prediction; tendency to relinquish wishes and to withdraw because of dread of failure.

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

dopamine

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

You are aware that a dog is viciously barking at you, but you are not aware of the type of dog. Later, you are able to describe the type and color of the dog. This ability to process information without conscious awareness best exemplifies which of the following?

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

dual processing

small amplitude

dull colors, soft sounds

When is cognitive development the most active?

during adulthood

When do primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature?

during puberty

Brain plasticity refers to which of the following? a. Healthy human brain tissue b. The ability of the brain to transfer information from one hemisphere to the other c. How a brain gets larger as a child grows d. A wide variety of functions performed by the human brain e. A wide variety of functions performed by the human brain

e. A wide variety of functions performed by the human brain

Heritability refers to the percentage of what? a. Group variation in a trait that can be explained by environment b. Traits shared by identical twins c. Traits shared by fraternal twins d. Traits shared by adopted children and their birth parents e. Group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics

e. Group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics

The peripheral nervous system a. Connects the brain to the spinal cord b. Calms the body after an emergency c. Is limited to the control of voluntary movement d. Controls only the arms and the legs e. Is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain and the spinal cord

e. Is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain or the spinal cord

Which region of the brain controls our breathing and heartbeat? a. Pons b. Corpus callosum c. Parietal lobe d. Hippocampus e. Medulla

e. Medulla

What is the purpose of the myelin sheath? a. Make the transfer of information across a synapse more efficient b. Increase the amount of neurotransmitter available in the neuron c. Reduce the antagonist effect of certain drugs d. Establish a resting potential in the axon e. Speed the transmission of information within a neuron

e. Speed the transmission of information within a neuron

Which of the following does a PET scan best allow researchers to examine? a. The presence of tumors in the brain b. Electrical activity on the surface of the brain c. The size of the internal structures of the brain d. The location of strokes e. The functions of various brain regions

e. The functions of various brain regions

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

bulimia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by pattern 9of eating binges followed by purging (e.g., vomiting, laxatives, exercise)

anorexia nervosa

eating disorder most common in adolescent females characterized by weight less than 85% of normal, restricted eating, and unrealistic body image

Edward L. Thorndike argued that responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, and that responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated. This became known as the law of

effect

motor neurons

efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands

your mental activity is emitting telltale __,__ and __ that would enable neuroscientists to observe your brain at work

electrical , metabolic, and magnetic signals

your brains billion of neurons sweeps in regular waves across the surface

electrical activity

ions

electrically charged particles found both inside and outside a neuron; negative ions are found inside the cell membrane in a polarized neuron

an amplified read out of electrical activity waves

electroencephalogram

Paul Ekman

emotion; found that facial expressions are universal

Stanley Schachter

emotion; stated that in order to experience emotions, a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it

separation anxiety

emotional distress is seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. Skin temperature drops when stranger is present

Daniel Goleman

emotional intelligence

pituitary gland

endocrine gland that produces a large amount of hormones; it regulates growth and helps control other endocrine glands; located on underside of brain; sometimes called the "master gland"

pineal gland

endocrine gland that produces melatonin that helps regulate sleep/wake cycle

adrenal glands

endocrine glands located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which prepare the body for "fight or flight"

body's slow chemical communication system which consist of a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

endocrine system

interconnected with your nervous system is a second communication system called __

endocrine system

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

endorphins

morphine elevates mood and eases pain, and is most similar to what?

endorphins

terminal buttons (axon terminals)

ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters

can can defined as every external influence upon us from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

environment

what triggers gene activity

environments

Which of the following refers to an effect of life experience that leaves a molecular mark that affects gene expression?

epigenetics

affirms that the environment influences gene expressions and that this occurs without a DNA change

epigenics

meaning in addition to or above and beyond genetics

epigenics

studying the molecular mechanisms by which environments trigger genetic expressions .

epigenics

in 1961 , neurosurgeons believed that __ were caused by an amplification of abnormal brain activity bouncing back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres

epileptic seizures

correlational research

establish the relationship between two variables

David Weschler

established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS); also WISC and WPPSI

Konrad Lorenz

ethology (animal behavior); studied imprinting and critical periods in geese

environment

every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (p. 124)

study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

evolutionary psychology

developmental psychology

examines how people are continually developing--physically, cognitively, and socially--from infancy through old age

in the neurons chemistry - to - electricity process, ions are __

exchanged

most signals are __ somewhat like pushing a neuron's accelerator.

excitatory

experimenter bias

expectation of the person conducting an experiment which may be affect the outcome

observer bias

expectations of an observer which may distort an authentic observation

just noticeable difference (JND)

experience of the difference threshold

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes in an active agent.

When a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, a resulting decrease in the conditioned response is called

extinction

Whenever Sarah's mother answered the phone, Sarah would yell for her mother's attention and her mother would end the phone conversation. Then Sarah's mother began ignoring Sarah's yelling and eventually Sarah stopped behaving that way. The change in Sarah's behavior is an example of

extinction

An individual's fear of dogs that is lost as the individual is exposed to dogs in nonthreatening situations is referred to by behaviorists as a fear that has been

extinguished

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

can reveal the brain's functioning as well as its structures

fMRI ( functional MRI

detects blood rushing to the back of the brain

fMRI machine

suggest which brain areas are most active wen people feel pain or rejection , listen to angry voices, think about scary things,feel happy, or become sexually excited

fMRI studies

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

preconventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior. 2-9

menarche

first menstrual period

each hemisphere cortex is divided into four lobes , separated by prominent __ or __

fissures or folds

Baby Vision

focus of attention on the face, not the body, preference for sights and sounds that are familiar. 7-10 inches. Infants prefer face like images

selective attention

focused awareness of only a limited amount of all you are capable of experiencing

educational psychologist

focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place

social psychologist

focuses on how the individual's behavior and mental processes are affected by interactions with other people

psychometrician

focuses on methods of acquiring and analyzing data

health psychologist

focuses on psychological factors in illness

opponent-process theory of emotion

following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion; on repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger

parathyroid

for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

schema

framework of basic ideas about people, objects and events based on past experience in long-term memory

developed from separate fertilized eggs

fraternal twins

Damage to which of the following could interfere with the ability to plan for the future?

frontal lobe

__ damage can also alter personality and remove a person inhibitions. what is an example ,

frontal lobe , phineas gage

lying just behind the forehead are the ___which are involved in speaking , muscle movements, making plans and judgements

frontal lobes

mirror neurons

frontal loe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

each hemisphere cortex is divided into four lobes called

frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

Depressive disorders

general category of mood disorders in which people show extreme and persistent sadness, despair, and loss of interest in life's usual activities.

descriptive statistics

general set of procedures used to summarize, condense, and describe sets of data

small segments of the giant DNA molecules

genes

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor such as the environment depends on another factory such as hereditary

genes and environment interact

every cell nucleus in your body contains the __ for your entire body

genetic master code

complete instructions for making an organism and consist of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosomes

genome

endocrine system

glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which regulate body and behavioral processes

in more complex animal brains , the proportion of __ to neurons increases

glia

provide nutrients, insulating myelin, and guide neural connections

glial cells

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

glutamate

Andrene is having difficulties with her roommate. A problem-focused coping strategy for Andrene would be

going directly to her roommate to see if they can work things out

frequency polygon

graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

group of abnormalities that occur in the babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy

moral development

growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically

Max Wertheimer

had an enormous influence on the development of psychology as well as on specific subfields including sensation, perception, and experimental psychology

Neurotic affectionate approval

having to create an environment where everyone likes the person regardless of the situation

Cerrebellum

he "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (p. 98)

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Hospice

help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortably environment (usually outside of a hospital setting)

sports psychologist

helps athletes improve their focus, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure

refers to the extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes

heritability

short wavelength

high frequency

Which of the following's primary function is processing memories?

hippocampus

processes conscience memories.

hippocampus

short-term storage

holds information for processing; fragile; also called short term memory or working memory

behaviorist

holds the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without references to mental processes

insulin

hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too much-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes

parathormone

hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids

have discovered the common sequence within human DNA

human genome researchers

Carl Rogers

humanistic psychology; Contributions: founded client-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard,

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence

What part of the brain triggers the release of adrenaline to boost heart rate when you're afraid?

hypothalamus

Which of the following brain areas is responsible for regulating thirst?

hypothalamus

just below the thalamus is the __. important link in command chain governing bodily maintenance. help maintain a steady internal state

hypothalamus

which communicates with the pituitary, in turn controls the endocrine system?

hypothalamus

developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two. genetically identical and share the same conception and uterus

identical twins

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Irreversibility

in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Piaget Stage 2: Preoperational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. Develop pretend play and egocentrism.

Piaget Stage 1: sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. they develop object permanence and stranger anxiety.

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12-adulthood) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts like love, fairness. Develop abstract logic and potential for moral reasoning. Hypothetical reasoning Analogical/ Abstract Rasoning Deductive Reasoning Reflective Abilities

significant difference

in an experiment, a difference that is unlikely to have occurred because of chance alone and is inferred to be most likely due to the systematic manipulations of variables by the researcher

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group of participants to whom a treatment is given

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response

in classical conditioning the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally -naturally and automatically -triggers a response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned response

in classical sonditioning the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

positive psychology

in emerging Theo psychology that focuses on positive experiences; includes subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to boorish

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

neonatal period

in humans, the neonatal (newborn) period extends through the first month after birth

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

scientific method

in psychology, the techniques used to discover knowledge about human behavior and mental processes

amnesia

inability to remember information (typically, all events within a specific period), usually due to physiological trauma

aphasia

inability to understand or use language

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. a positive reinforcer is any stimlus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

neuron

individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system; it has three functions: receive information, process it, send to rest of body

novelty-preference procedure

infants focus first on the face, not the body

7. The neurotic need for personal admiration

inflated image of self; need to be admired not for what one possesses or presents in the public eye but for the imagined self.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

top-down processing

information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations to construct perceptions

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins at the sensory receptors and works up to perception

Human APA Ethical Guidelines

informed consent protect them from physical harm or discomfort keep their identity confidential fully debrief people

instinct

inherited, automatic species-specific behaviors

some signals are __, more like pushing its brake

inhibitory

Zajonc & Markus

intelligence and development; discovered that first born and only children tend to have higher IQs than latter born children

Robert Yerkes

intelligence, comparative; Yerkes-Dodson law: level of arousal as related to performance

Raymond Cattell

intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test)

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

Charles Spearman

intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)

when the endorphin drug is withdrawn,the brain may then be deprived of any form of opiate , causing __

intense discomfort

lie between the sensory input and the motor input, where information is processed in the brains internal communication system

interneurons

Harry Stack Sullivan

interpersonal psychoanalysis; groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System, a configuration of personality traits

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

assimilation

interpreting out new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

electrically charged atoms

ions

The peripheral nervous system

is the part of the nervous system that does not include the brain and the spinal cord.

neurotransmitters do not operate in __ and their effects vary with __ they stimulate

isolation, receptors

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Benjamin Whorf

language; his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think

corpus callosum

large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s

forebrain

largest, most complicated, and most advanced of the three divisions of the brain; comprises the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cortex

Late adulthood (Erikson's stage of development)

late 60s and up; integrity vs. despair; feel sense of satisfaction or failure

In a classic study, a group of rats learned to run through a maze to obtain food, and another group of rats explored the maze without receiving food. Some time later, the researcher compared the two groups of rats to determine if both groups would find the food at the end of the maze. According to the researcher, the untrained rats found the food at the end of the maze as quickly as the trained rats as a result of

latent learning

In a two-phase study, participants were randomly assigned to either group A or group B. All participants were subjected to a series of irritating air puffs directed at the face. In the first phase of the study, participants in group A pressed a button that stopped the air puffs. Participants in group B pressed a button that had no effect on the air puffs. In the second phase of the study, both groups had buttons that, if pressed, would stop the air puffs. The study most directly explores the concept of

learned helplessness

Individuals who believe that an unpleasant experience is unavoidable and therefore do nothing to change the course of events are exhibiting

learned helplessness

crystallized intelligence

learned knowledge and skills such as vocabulary, which tends to increase with age

observational learning

learning by observing others - also called social learning

aversive conditioning

learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Martin Seligman

learning; Positive Psychology; learned helplessness theory of depression; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness

Wolpe

learning; systematic desensitization

recent studies of people with damaged frontal lobes have revealed that not only have they become __, but their __ may seem unrestrained by normal emotions

less inhibited, moral judgments

unconscious

level of consciousness that includes unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts not directly available to conscious awareness

preconscious

level of consciousness that is outside awareness but contains feelings and memories that can easily be brought into conscious awareness

photoreceptors

light sensitive cells (rods and cones) that convert light to electrochemical impulses

retina

light-sensitive surface on back of eye containing rods and cones

between the oldest and newest brain area lies the___. means border

limbic system

what do dendrites do?

listen

___—the idea that various brain regions have particular functions.

localization of function

phrenology succeeded in focusing attention on the __

localization of function

the idea that various brain regions have particular functions

localization of function

Broca's area

located in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech

Wernicke's area

located in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and making meaningful sentences

thyroid gland

located in neck; regulates metabolism by secreting thyroxine

decay

loss of information from memory as a result of disuse and the passage of time

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events and experiences occurring from the time of an amnesia-causing event forward

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory of events and experiences that preceded an amnesia-causing event

long wavelength

low frequency

temporal lobes

main area for hearing, understanding language (Wernicke's area), understanding music; smell

the right hemisphere excels in __ , helps us ___ and helps__

making inferences, modulate our speech to make meaning clear, orchestrate our sense of self

chunks

manageable and meaningful units of information organized in such a way that it can be easily encoded, stored, and retrieved

Latin Placebo

means I shall please

slight swelling where the spinal cord enters the skull . her lies the control of your heartbeat and breathing

medulla

dominant genes

member of a gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait

recessive gene

member of the gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with the same gene

animals or people who lose their hippocampus to surgery or injury lose their ability to form new __ and __

memories of facts and events

implicit memory

memory a person is not aware of possessing

procedural memory

memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks

declarative memory

memory for specific information

semantic memory

memory of ideas, rules, words, and general concepts about the world

episodic memory

memory of specific personal events and situations (episodes) tagged with information about time

Damage to the hippocampus would result in what?

memory problems

Hermann Ebbinghaus

memory; studied memorization of meaningless words

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

three-stage process which describes the body's reaction to stress: 1) alarm reaction, 2) resistance, 3) exahaustion

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

threshold

synaptic vesicles

tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of one neuron; assist in transferring mineral impulse from one neuron to another neuron by releasing specific neurotransmitters

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (p. 94)

Infancy (Erikson's stage of development)

to 1 year; trust vs. mistrust; develop basic trust

forebrain

top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality

brainstem

top of the spinal column

Gordon Allport

trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary

placenta

transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus

cornea

transparent covering of the eye

psychoanalyst

treats mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious

compliance

try to please and pacify others.

indicator

turning a subjective variable into an objective quatifiable thing to study

identical twins

twins from a single fertilized egg (zygote) with the same genetic makeup; also called monozygotic (MZ) twins

fraternal twins

twins from two separate fertilized eggs (zygotes); share half of the same genes

identical twins (monozygotic twins)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. (p. 125)

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Paranoid type of schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized by hallucinations and delusions of persecution or grandeur (or both), and sometimes irrational jealousy.

Disorganized type of schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized by severely disturbed thought processes, frequent incoherence, disorganized behavior, and inappropriate affect.

placebo

typically a pill that is used as a control in the experiment; a sugar pill

aggression

typically hostile or display aggression toward others

single-blind procedure

when the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment

(cerebral) cortex

wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement

put in order: fetus, zygote, embryo

zygote, embryo, fetus

Opiate drugs such as morphine are classified as what?

Agonists, because they mimic other neurotransmitters'pain-diminishing effects

cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Motivation

All the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaing physical and psychological activities.

Prototype

An abstraction, an idealized pattern of an object or idea that is stored in memory and used to decide whether similar objects or ideas are members of the same class of items.

Generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by persistent anxiety occurring on more days than not for at least 6 months, sometimes with increased activity of the autonomic nervous system, apprehension, excessive muscle tension, and difficulty in concentrating

Social Need

An aroused condition that directs people to behave in ways that allow them to feel good about themselves and others and to establish and maintain relationships

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating (and a fear of not being able to stop eating) followed by purging

intuition

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Stressor

An environmental stimulus that affects an organism in physically or psychologically injurious ways, usually producing anxiety, tension, and physiological arousal

Fixation

An excessive attachment to some person or object that was appropriate only at an earlier stage of development

Humanistic theory

An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth

Operant Conditioning

Conditioning in which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of the behavior;

Immune system

Bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats.

Psychosurgery

Brain surgery used in the past to alleviate symptoms of serious mental disorders.

damage to the __ area of the brain disrupts speaking

Broca's

In general, damage to ___disrupts speaking, while damage to ___ disrupts understanding of language

Broca's area, wernicke's area

Classical Conditioning

Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; aka Pavlovian conditioning

Approach-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose an alternative that has both attractive and unappealing aspects

Approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

examines the brain by taking X-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage

CT ( computer tomography )

Which of the following statements best describes the role of biological processes in classical conditioning?

Certain species are biologically predisposed to learn particular associations that enhance their survival.

Social Facilitation

Change in behavior that occurs when people believe they are in the presence of other people.

belief perseverance

Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Body Language

Communication of information through body positions and gestures.

Obedience

Compliance with the orders of another person or group of people.

Scoring the Horney trends measure

Each scale score is measured by adding your responses to the subset of questions for that scale - the questions for each scale are listed below. Higher scores represent more of a tendency for that scale. Compliant scale - Questions 2,3,9,13,17,20,25,28,32,35 Max score - 60 Aggressive scale - 4,7,8,11,12,14,16,18,21,23,24,26,29,31,33 Max score - 90 Detached - 1,5,6,10,15,19,22,27,30,34 Max score - 60

telegraphic speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Temperament

Early-emerging and long-lasting individual differences in disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of emotional reactions

The theorist who conducted pioneering research on latent learning and cognitive maps was

Edward Tolman

Demand characteristics

Elements of an experimental situation that might cause a participant to perceive the situation in a certain way or become aware of the purpose of the study and thus bias the participant to behave in a certain way, and in so doing, distort results.

a species changes over time in order to adapt to its surrounding.

Evoultionary biology

Expectancy Theories

Explanations of behavior that focus on people's expectations about reaching a goal and their need for achievement as energizing factors

Delusions

False beliefs that are inconsistent with reality but are held in spite of evidence that disproves them.

covert

False reason for why the psychologist is there

Oedipus Complex

Feelings of rivalry with the parent of the same sex and sexual desire for the parent of the other sex, occurring during the phallic stage and ultimately resolved through identification with the parent of the same sex.

Alarm reaction

First stage of the GAS, during which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor.

For every twenty cell phones that Tom sells, he will get a $50 bonus. The bonuses are an example of which of the following types of reinforcement schedules?

Fixed ratio

Stereotypes

Fixed, overly simple and often erroneous ideas about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of groups of people; stereotypes assume that all members of a given group are alike.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the true nature of a experiment after its completion.

Rosenthal & Jacobson

Intelligence and learning, self-fulfilling prophecy; Study Basics: Researchers misled teachers into believing that certain students had higher IQs. Teachers changed own behaviors and effectively raised the IQ of the randomly chosen students

Circadian Rhythms

Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night

transmit and process information within the brain and spinal cord.

Interneurons

Emiko's cat often meows for food. Emiko decides to eliminate the behavior by feeding the cat only when it does not meow. Over the next few weeks, she sometimes ignores the cat when it meows. Other times, she feeds the cat when it meows. Which of the following is the most reasonable prediction to make about the cat's meowing for food?

It will increase due to a variable schedule of reinforcement.

Which of the following is the best example of the learning principle of reinforcement?

James drank coffee before he took and passed a difficult test with a high grade, so now he drinks coffee before every test he takes because he believes doing so will help him score well on the tests.

representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Collective Unconscious

Jung's theory of a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that are inherited ideas and images, called archetypes, are emotionally charged and rich in meaning and symbolism

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Kelly, a first-year student at a local university, is surprised at how easily she can locate the building and classroom for each of her classes on the first day of school. Kelly attributes her success to the campus tour she took the previous spring. Which of the following concepts best supports Kelly's belief?

Latent learning

Antisocial personality disorder

Personality disorder characterized by egocentricity, and behavior that is irresponsible and that violates the rights of other people, a lack of guilt feelings, an inability to understand other people and a lack of fear of punishment.

which scanning techniques measures glucose consumption as an indicator of brain activity?

PET

scan which depicts brain activity by showing each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel , the sugar glucose

PET ( positron emission tomography)

Learned helplessness

Pattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after an organism learns its responses are ineffective.

General adaption syndrome (GAS)

Pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor.

Attitudes

Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person's past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature.

led to the discovery of specialized language brain areas.

Paul Broca Carl Wernicke

Dichromats

People who can distinguish only two of the three basic colors.

Trichromats

People who can perceive all three primary colors and thus can distinguish any hue.

Monochromats

People who cannot perceive any color, usually because their retinas lack cones.

Self-serving Bias

People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors.

Conformity

People's tendency to change attitudes or behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people or with social norms.

Subliminal perception

Perception below the threshold of awareness.

Types

Personality categories in which broad collections of traits are loosely tied together and interrelated.

Conditioning

Systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned

sensory development

Taste, touch and hearing are well developed at birth Vision is the least well developed.

working memory

Temporarily holds current or recent information for immediate or short-term use; Information is maintained for 20-30 seconds while active processing (e.g., rehearsal) takes place

For extinction to occur, which of the following must be true of the conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ?

The CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS, and the CR loses strength.

Withdrawal Symptoms

The Reaction experienced when a substance abuser stops using a drug with dependence properties

Brain plasticity refers to which of the following?

The ability of brain tissue to take on new functions

creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Emotional intelligence

The ability to understand and control emotional responses.

priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Semantics

The analysis of the meaning of language, especially of individual words.

Symptom substitution

The appearance of one overt symptom to replace another that has been eliminated by treatment.

proximodistal trend

The center-outward direction of motor development.

Tolerance

The characteristic of requiring higher and higher doses of a drug to produce the same effect.

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

Nonverbal Communication

The communication of information by cues or actions that include gestures, tone of voice, vocal inflections, and facial expressions.

rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

Photoreceptors

The light-sensitive cells in the retina- the rods and cones.

Conflict

The emotional state or condition that arises when a person must choose between two or more competing motives, behaviors, or impulses

semantic encoding

The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

visual encoding

The encoding of picture images.

acoustic encoding

The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Electromagnetic Radiation

The entire spectrum of waves initiated by the movement of charged particles.

Resilience

The extent to which people are flexible and respond adaptively to external or internal demands

Brightness

The lightness or darkness of reflected light, determined in large part by the light's intensity.

Abnormal psychology

The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.

Sensorimotor stage

The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development (covering roughly the first 2 years of life), during which the child develops some motoer coordination skills and a memory for past events

Sexual response cycle

The four stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women.

Which of the following does a PET scan best allow researchers to examine?

The functions of various brain regions

Consciousness

The general state of being aware of and responsive to events in the environment, as well as one's own mental processes

Secondary Sex Characteristics

The genetically determined physical features that differentiate the sexes but are not directly involved with reproduction

Heritability

The genetically determined proportion of a trait's variation among individuals in a population

sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Color Blindness

The inability to perceive different hues.

fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

Dark adaptation

The increase in sensitivity to light that occurs when the illumination level changes from high to low, causing chemicals in the rods and cones to regenerate and return to their inactive state.

Reactance

The negative response evoked when there is an inconsistency between a person's self-image as being free to choose and the person's realization that someone is trying to force him or her to choose a particular occurrence.

Janice cleaned out the office refrigerator without being asked. The operant conditioning concept of positive reinforcement is illustrated in which scenario?

The next day, her boss gave her a gift certificate to a local coffee shop. As a result, Janice now regularly cleans out the office refrigerator.

Instinct theory

The now-outmoded view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate factors. Was flawed because it overlooked the effects of learning and because it employed instincts merely as labels, rather than as explanations for behavior.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Intelligence

The overall capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment

Manifest Content

The overt story line, characters, and setting of a dream-the obvious, clearly discernible events of the dream

Puberty

The period during which the reproductive system matures; it begins with an increase in the production of sex hormones, which signals the end of childhood

Adolescence

The period of extending from the onset of puberty to early adulthood

Display rules

The permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society.

memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Children who are consistently praised for receiving high grades in school will likely continue to work for high grades. Using an operant conditioning explanation of this phenomenon, which of the following is true?

The praise functions as a positive reinforcer.

volley principle

The theory holding that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.

Gender Schema Theory

The theory that children and adolescents use gender as an organizing theme to classify and interpret their perceptions about the world and themselves

fetal stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth. Developing human organism with all bodily organs

Critical Period

The time in to development of an organism when it is especially sensitive to certain environmental influences; outside of that period the same influences will have far less effect

Psychotherapy

The treatment of emotional or behavior problems through psychological techniques.

Mediation

The use of a variety of techniques including concentration, restriction of incoming stimuli, and deep relaxation to produce a state of consciousness characterized by a sense of detachment.

Collectivism

The view, common in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East, that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction.

Individualism

The view, common in the Euro-American world, that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction.

framing

The way something is said or phrased.

Syntax

The way words and groups of words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Social Influence

The ways people alter the attitudes or behaviors of others, either directly or indirectly.

Herman von Helmholtz

Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.

Opponent-process theory

Theory of emotion which theorizes that emotions have paris. When one is triggered, the other is suppressed.

Cognitive appraisal theory

Theory of emotion which theorizes that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Theory suggesting that there are two routes to attitude change: the central route, which focuses on thoughtful consideration of an argument for change, and the peripheral route, which focuses on less careful, more emotional, and even superficial evaluation.

Signal Detection Theory

Theory that holds that an observer's perception depends not only on the intensity of a stimulus but also on the observer's motivation, the criteria he or she sets for determining that a signal is present, and on the background noise.

Observational Learning Theory

Theory that suggests that organisms learn new responses by observing the behavior of a model and then imitating it; aka. Social learning theory

Psychodynamically

Therapies that use approaches or techniques derived from Freud, but that reject or modify some elements of Freud's theory.

the brain's attempt to mend itself by producing new brain cells

neurogenesis

Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how traits and behavioral tendencies have been shaped by what?

natural selection

principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

natural selection

has indeed selected advantageous variations from the new gene combinations produced at each human conception and the mutations that sometimes result

nature

Human genome (DNA) researchers have discovered that __

nearly every other human is your genetically identical twin.

increasing level of stimulation above the threshold will not increase the __

neaural impluses intensity .

9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence

necessity never to need anybody, or to yield to any influence, or to be tied down to anything; necessity to avoid any closeness that involves the danger of enslavement.

A four-year-old child frequently pulled on the dog's tail to gain attention. To reduce this undesirable behavior, the parent took away one hour of television viewing every time the child pulled the dog's tail. Within one week, the undesirable behavior was significantly reduced. The above scenario illustrates

negative punishment

a resting axon's fluid interior has mostly __ charged ions

negatively

Because he is afraid of public speaking, Scott withdraws from a class that requires an oral presentation and enrolls in another class without a presentation requirement. He continues the pattern, switching classes each semester to avoid giving presentations. Scott's behavior has been

negatively reinforced

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; dream studies/interpretation

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Alfred Adler

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: inferiority complex, organ inferiority; Studies: birth order influences personality

Karen Horney

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"

efferent neuron

nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons

afferent neuron

nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons

interneurons

nerve cell that transmits messages between sensory and motor neurons

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

electrical cables formed of bundles of axons and link the central nervous system with the body's sensory receptors ,muscles , and glands

nerves

body's speed of electrochemical information system

nervous system

reticular formation (RF) (RES)

netlike system of neurons that weaves through limbic system and plays an important role in attention, arousal, and alert functions; arouses and alerts higher parts of the brain; anesthetics work by temporary shutting off RF system

learning to play violin, speak a foreign language, solve a math problem - occurs as experience strengths __

neural connections

as myelin is laid down up to about age 25, __,__ and __ grow

neural efficiency, judgement, self-control

send up sensory information, and __ send back motor control information

neural fibers and descending fibers

the brains neurons cluster into groups called __

neural networks

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (p. 98)

One reason that identical twins might show slight differences at birth is

one twin's placenta may have provided slightly better nourishment.

psychoanalyst

one who uses psychoanalysis to treat psychological problems

a particular brain pathway may use only ___ , and particular neurotransmitters may affect __ and __

only one or two neurotransmitters, specific behaviors and emotions

token economy

operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers (tokens) to increase appropriate behavior; learners can exchange tokens for desired rewards

researchers soon confirm that the brain does indeed produce its own naturally occurring __

opiates

help explain good feelings such as "runners high" , the pain killing effects of acupuncture, and the indifference to pain in some severely injured people

opiates (endorphins)

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

pancreas

organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones insulin and glucagon

encoding

organizing sensory information so it can be processed by the nervous system

Primary sexual characteristics

organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Conscousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive-appraisal theory of emotion

our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in

eclectic

use of techniques and ideas from a variety of approaches

Edward Titchener

used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements

self-fulfilling prophecy

when a researcher's expectations unknowingly create a situation that affects the results

polarization

when the neuron is at rest; condition of neuron when the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of Enron; is necessary to generate the neuron signal in release of this polarization

mutation

unexpected changes in the gene replication process that are not always evident in phenotype and create unusual and sometimes harmful characteristics of body or behavior

fluid filled brain areas in some patients who have schizophrenia

ventricles

science

way of getting knowledge about the world based on observation

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

we determine our emotion based on our physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our explanation for that arousal

resting potential

when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message)

Early Adulthood

- 20 - early 40s - physical maturation is complete - height and weight may increase slightly - physical abilities are at their peak (muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning) - many women have children during this time (additional weight gain and breast changes)

Cognitive development in adulthood

- Cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early and middle adulthood - Crystallized intelligence (information, skills, and strategies) hold steady as we age and could improve - In late adulthood, we begin to experience a decline in our fluid intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, memory) - Mental and physical activity delay cognitive decline and reduce mild cognitive impairment and dementia

Psychosocial Development during adulthood

- Healthy aging - we need to have and continue to find meaning throughout our lives - Early and middle adulthood is found through work and family life (Erikson - Generativity and intimacy) - Adults define themselves by their careers - Positive relationships with significant others in adult years contribute to a state of well-being - Affected by having a stable marriage - Adult children have a positive effect on parental well-being -Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

What is the most important reason for the delay in entering adult roles?

- changing cultural expectations - Young people are delaying marriage and work as they change majors and jobs multiple times

How were children viewed in the pre-industrial society?

- children were considered adults when they reached physical maturity - we have an extended time between childhood and adulthood called adolescence

Psychosocial development during adolescence?

- continue to improve and alter their sense of self as they relate to others (Identity vs. Role Confusion by Erikson) - some teens adopt the values their parents expect for them - some develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group

What happens to early maturing girls?

- may be teased or overtly admired - cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies - higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders

What happens to late blooming boys and girls?

- may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical development - Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys → higher risk for depression and conflict with parents and more likely to be bullied

How does the way teens think change?

- move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. - Known by Piaget as Operational Thought

Who created the first modern hospice in England (1967)?

Cicely Saunders

Who created the 5 stages of Grief?

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross

Who founded the first modern hospice in US (1974)?

Florence Wald

sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage; the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Infants lack object permanence until about 8 months. They also develop stranger anxiety in this stage.

formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth stage; the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract events. They become capable of solving hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

What is the primary influence on our development in adolescence?

peers

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

Secondary sexual characteristics

physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs (development of breasts and hips in girls/development of facial hair)

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning at about 8 months of age

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

spermarche

the first ejaculation

Why is hospice beneficial?

- provides care for 1.65 million Americans and their families - Beneficial for the patient and their family - Hospice patients tend to live longer than non-hospice patients - Able to die in the comfort of their own home

Adolescent brain

- remains underdeveloped - Up until puberty, brain cells continue to bloom in the frontal region - Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing

What happens to early maturing boys

- tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers - more popular, confident, and independent - greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity

Teen thinking is characterized by...

- the ability to consider multiple points of view - imagine hypothetical situations - debate ideas and opinions - Form new ideas - Not uncommon to question authority or challenge societal norms

Cognitive empathy/Theory-of-mind

- the ability to take the perspective of other and feel concern for others - Begins to increase in adolescence - An important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance - Girls develop cognitive around 13, and boys 15 - Teens with supportive fathers who are easy to talk to about their worries were found to have better cognitive empathy

Menarche

- the beginning of menstrual periods (12-13 years old)

spermarche

- the first ejaculation (13-14 years old)

Adrenarche and Gonadarche

- the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands - occurs during puberty

Adolescence

- the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood (12-18 years) - in USA, seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them - peers are a primary influence on our development in adolescence

Adulthood

- when she/he becomes self supporting, chooses a career, gets married, or starts a family - varies by person and culture - adult life has been delayed in western cultures

Toddlerhood (Erikson's stage of development)

1 to 3 years; autonomy vs. shame and doubt; exercise will and do things for themselves or doubt abilities

5 stages of grief

1) Denial 2) Anger 3) Bargaining 4) Depression 5) Acceptance - Stages can occur in different order - Not all people experience all the stages - The more a dying person fights death, the more likely they are to remain in the denial phase

Middle adulthood (Erikson's stage of development)

40s to 60s; generativity vs. stagnation; sense of contributing to world or feel a lack of purpose

Elementary school (Erikson's stage of development)

6 years to puberty; industry vs. inferiority; apply themselves to tasks or feel inferior

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage; the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Children in this stage begin to grasp conservation, and they are able to understand mathematical transformations.

Adolescence (Erikson's stage of development)

teen years into 20s; identity vs. role confusion; refine sense of self or become confused

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Healthy aging

activities, social connectedness, and the role of a person's culture

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

The way we view death is influenced by what?

culture and individual backgrounds

social identity

the "we" aspect of out self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2-weeks after fertilization through the second month

menarche

the first menstrual period

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

egocentrism

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.