AP Psychology Unit VII

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. You tend to learn something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. When studying for a final, you will relearn faster than the first time bc you are already somewhat familiar.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. This contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error-prone, heuristics. Ex: if you want to find guava juice in the store, you search every aisle

shallow processing

An approach to memorization/encoding that involves focusing on the superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the typeface in which it's printed.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Named for Paul Broca. Broca=broken speech.

Morphemes vs. Phonemes

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. Ex: If you want to find guava juice in the store, you check the bottled beverage aisle, the produce section, and the natural foods aisle.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. Neurons release neurotransmitters more easily after they are stimulated, making them better at learning and communication.

Steven Pinker

argues that human language ability is a species-specific trait that is the product of natural selection

flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events. We tend to rehearse (talk about) these important memories, but they can still have errors.

Wallace Lambert

developed theory of bilingual advantage

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Why do we forget?

encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, interference, motivated forgetting

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. Craik and Tulving experiment

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. How we encode "explicit memories". Different strategies to do this. "E" goes with "E"

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. It's better to practice retrieval through testing oneself rather than just re-reading. As we recall info, it becomes more recallable in the future.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. We cling to our own beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

role of amygdala in memory

formation of emotional memories. Stress hormones provoke the amygdala to initiate a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain's memory forming areas. Therefore, emotional arousal can make strong memories. Very stressful events=very vivid memories,

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. Ex SAT test

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items (primacy effect) in a list

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. Learn that sounds carry meaning by associating.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice over time/intervals to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (cramming)

planning fallacy

the tendency for people to be unrealistically optimistic about how quickly they can complete a project

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. Can fuel extreme political views. People who are most often wrong tend to be inflexible. Sometimes, overconfidence good in that self-confidence=happiness

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Ex: Gun safety vs gun control The way something is framed can nudge people toward decisions

linguistic influence

the weaker form of "linguistic relativity"—the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is "relative to" our cultural language). Language influences, but does not determine, thought.

Noam Chomsky

theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language. "Nature's Gift". A built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules called universal grammar.

Connectionism

theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which can work together to process a single memory. Every time you learn something new, neural connections change.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Robert Sternberg's Five components of Creativity

1. Expertise 2. Imaginative Thinking Skills 3. Venturesome personality 4. Intrinsic motivation 5. A creative environment

Why do we fear the wrong things? Plane travel vs. Car travel

1. We fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear (fear of heights, fear of falling) 2. We fear what we cannot control (we control own cars but not plane) 3. We fear what is immediate (takeoff/landing) 4. We fear what is most available in memory, avail. Heuristic. Vivid horrible images of plane crash

short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits to a phone # while calling, before the info is stored or forgotten

Parts of the Brain that deal with Implicit Memory

Basal Ganglia & Cerebellum. automatic processing happens here. Cerebellum plays role in formation and storage of implicit memories that result from conditioning. Basal Ganglia-deep brain structures involved in motor movement. Play role in formation of procedural memories for skills, eg how to ride a bike.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Concept of "liguistic determinism" or how language impacts thought

Peter Wason

Confirmation bias shows that "ordinary people will evade facts to defend themselves against new information on issues".

Left vs Right Frontal Lobes and Memory

Each side of the frontal lobe process different types of memories. Left=things like passwords Right=things like a visual scene from a party you went to

role of hippocampus in memory

Explicit memory is processed by the hippocampus and then sent to multiple brain regions. Acts as a "Save" button for explicit memories. Damage to it disrupts the formation and recall of explicit memories like names, images, and events. Memories not permanently stored here. More like a loading dock—memories will be moved elsewhere.

Parts of the brain that deal with explicit memory

Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus, which is a neural system located in the limbic system. Processes explicit or conscious memories of facts and events for storage.

Wolfgang Kohler

Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Language and Parallel Processing

In processing language, many areas of the brain involved at same time/multitasking. Speaking, perceiving, thinking, and remembering. Ex: After a stroke, damage may be impacting ability to speak, but not to read.

grouping

Information organized into categories/hierarchies is easier to retain/understand or remember

information processing model

Looks at human memory like a computer operation. To remember something, we must get info (encoding), retain info (storage) and get info back out (retrieval). Difference is that computers work sequentially, but human brain can do parallel processing of info.

Memory Enhancing Drugs/Memory Reduction Drugs & LTP

Many drugs being developed for Alzheimer's and other cognitive impairment. Other drugs try to boost production of LTP enhancing neurotransmitter glutamate. CREB is a protein that enhances LTP. Other drugs that suppress LTP when trauma occurs—try to forget bad things.

Explicit Memory System-Episodic

Memory of personally experienced events. One of our two conscious memory systems.

Explicit Memory System-Semantic

Memory of words, numbers, facts and general knowledge. One or our two conscious memory systems

prefrontal cortex

Part of frontal lobes. Where working memory processing takes place

Kandel and Schwartz

Pinpointed changes in sea slugs neural connection With learning, more serotonin released and cell efficiency increased—number of synapses increase

Types of things that get encoded through Automatic Processing

Procedural memory-automatic skills like riding a bike Classically conditioned stimuli-being afraid of dogs bc bitten as a child Space/Location of info Time/Sequence of Events Frequency/How Many Times Things Happen

Language Learning in Deaf Children

Sign language also has a critical period of learning. Cochlear implants should be given at an early age in order to be most effective.

Tversky and Kahnemann

Studied impact of heuristics and decision-making. These mental shortcuts can sometimes trick even smart people into making dumb decisions.

George Sperling

Tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers. Iconic memory experiments.

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

motivated forgetting (repression)

The basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Most researchers think this is a rare occurrence.

memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

True or False: The hour before sleep is a good time to memorize info?

True, less chance for interference

Craik and Tulving

Two people who found that semantically processed words were remembered more than the others. Deep processing

Are memories stored in specific areas of the brain?

We do not store memories like a library stores books, eg specific locations. Brain networks encode, store, and retrieve info that forms our complex memories.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Margaret and Lloyd Peterson

Without active processing, short-term memories have a limited life—called decay. Working memory capacity varies depending on factors like age. Younger people have greater working memory capacity.

Can you think in images?

Yes, artists, mathematicians, musicians. If you have a skill, even watching someone perform it will activate certain areas of your brain. So will imagining a physical experience=mental practice. EX: basketball free throws.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. Our recognition memory is quick and vast.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. Based on prototypes Ex: concept of a chair, concept of a bird

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting things into categories.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. you HEAR an ECHO

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. You SEE an ICON

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again. We sometimes rewrite our own past.

outcome simulation

a process where we visualize the endpoint of a specific event. ex. Visualizing an A on your paper makes you get an A on the paper. Doesn't really do much to change actual events

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. "A-ha moment". Contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. Sometimes this is an obstacle to problem-solving, sometimes helpful. Ex: Arranging Matchsticks Problem

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. We prefer information that supports our beliefs.

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech. Babies have this before they actually learn to talk.

productive language

ability to produce words

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Alan Baddeley (working memory)

an alternative to STM involving temporary storage in order to actively manipulate information. New understanding of short-term memory as an "active scratch pad". Conscious, active processing of incoming auditory/visual info is happening during the short-term phase, and at the same time, info is being retrieved from long-term memory to help understand the new incoming info. A "central executive" helps focus your attention during this phase as you integrate the incoming new info with old stored info so it doesn't fade away.

source amnesia (source misattribution)

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Ex: you think you make something up like a song, but you actually are subconsciously plagiarizing it because you heard it somewhere else.

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements, using telegraphic speech.

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. By 10 months, the household language can be identified in the babbling.

motivated reasoning

cognitive process whereby people's desires or preferences influence their decisions about the validity and utility of new information. Rather than use evidence to draw conclusions, use your conclusion (that you already have) to assess the evidence. Ex: politics override facts, belief by Republicans that unemployment increased over Obama when it actually dropped.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. Named for Carl Wernicke. Damage to left temporal lobe results in problems with understanding other's words, and can only speak meaningless sentences. Wernicke's comprehension is crappy!

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. Ex: People enticed to gamble bc of celebrations of when people win. Makes it seem like winning happens more often bc we don't see all of the losing. On other hand, climate change doesn't seem dire bc we don't always see it happening in our faces.

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. There are 869 in human speech, but no one language uses all of them. English uses about 40. As a rule, consonant phonemes carry more info than vowel phonemes.

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information=stereotypes. Ex: Arab person gets on plane, they are a terrorist.

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories from our past

George Miller, Limits of Short Term memory

made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory. Varies by task

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Examples are turning something into a song, or word associations—peg word system. Exs acronym: ROYGBIV for colors of spectrum.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. New concepts have been added to this model later on, including "working memory" and "automatic processing".

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare". Also called declarative memory. "E" goes with "E"

Chunking (Effortful Processing)

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. We remember information best when we can organize it into personally meaningful ways.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. Also called non-declarative memory. Skips conscious encoding and goes right to storage via automatic processing.

Proactive (forward) interference is...

something that is already learned that gets in the way of retrieving newly learned information (old→new). Ex. Your new locker combo can't be remembered correctly bc you still remember your old one

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory. Memories stored in a web with other memories—you associate a memory with other bits of info, such as where you were, who you were with, the weather, smells, etc.

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Familiarity with a stimulus but not knowing where you encountered it before

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. Example: Seeing or hearing the word rabbit helps you spell the word hair vs hare when you see a picture of the animal. Priming can also be putting yourself back into the context of when the memory was made, ex; being in your childhood home helps you remember something that happened when you were young

bilingual advantage

the advantage of bilingual individuals to inhibit one language while using the other and inhibit attention to irrelevant information.

critical period for language

the first few years of life in which language develops readily and after which (sometime between age 5 and puberty) language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful. Children exposed to low-quality language when young display less language skill The older people are, the harder it is to learn a new language, especially grammar

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well. Recognition and time spent relearning demonstrate that we remember more than we can recall.

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes. Sleep supports this. Sleep in-between practice helps with recall—when learning distributed over days, having the sleep in-between helps. This explains the spacing effect.

linguistic relativity

the hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thought-Bilingual people display this

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood, pre age 4. Have implicit memories from birth, but don't have many explicit memories from first four years of life. This is because memory indexing revolves around language skills babies don't have yet, and also the hippocampus is late to develop.

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. Once we get hung up on an incorrect view due to confirmation bias, it's hard to approach it from a different angle.

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

process simulation

the process of increasing performance by visualizing the steps it will take to get to the goal. Ex: Visualizing yourself studying leads to more studying leads to an A

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event. Tendency for information received after an event to interfere with one's memory of the original happenings.

Retroactive (backward) interference is...

when newly learned information information blocks the retrieval of the old information (new→old). Ex. Someone sings new lyrics to an old song that you know and you then can't remember original words

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information. Ex: if you know Latin, it's easier to learn French