AP World History Period 4
31. The Ming Empire
*Embraced Traditional Chinese beliefs after Yuan (foreign) rule to legitimize their rule to legitimize their power **Emperors sponsored neo-confucianism (State Doctrine) ***Reestablished the imperial university, founded new schools, and instituted civil service exams ***Emperors participated in the public performance of Confucian rituals like making annual sacrafices in a temple of confucius
12. Environmental Impact of European Settlement in the Americas 1492 to 1750
- European colonization and subsequent agricultural and settlement patterns altered the physical environment of the Americas. # European colonists contributed to deforestation as they cleared land for farming and sugar plantations (reduced indigenous crop diversity) # Cash crop farming (tobacco and sugar) caused soil depletion. # European animals (cattle, sheep, and pigs) overgrazed environment, which eliminated some native plant species; the introduction of rats killed off some small forest dwelling species. # Search for beaver and fur pelts in North America altered ecosystems in the region.
13. Demographic Effects of the Columbian Exchange on the Americas 1492 to 1750
- Following contact with Europeans, native American populations declined drastically due to: # New diseases from Europe and Africa (smallpox, measles and influenza) # Malaria contracted from mosquitoes European ships carried from Africa. # Between 1500 and 1800 ----- 100,000,000 people died from imported diseases (upwards fo 90% of the population in some regions) - European and African slaves brought crops and animals to the Americans # Animals: Horses, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, and chicken # Plants from Eurasia: sugarcane, rice, bananas, citrus fruits # Plants from Africa: okra, coffee, yams, collard greens - Human Migration # European migrants generally traveled voluntarily to the new colonies in the Americas (approximately 500,000 Spanish and 100,000 Portuguese between years 1500 and 1800) # The largest group of migrants came involuntarily from Africa as slaves (grew exponentially after 1600; about 2,000 per year ---- 17th c. about 55,000 per year, and 18 c. about 12 million ----- between years 1550 and 1850)
17. Mediterranean Trade in Early Modern Period 1450 to 1750
- Ottoman and Italian merchants continue to control eastern Mediterranean trade - As Atlantic trade increased, the volume and significance of Mediterranean trade decreased. # Economic disruption = decrease of Italian city-states (due to less profit)
8. The French Maritime Empire 1600s to 1750
- Political rivalries between France and other European powers (primarily Spain, the Netherlands, and the English) encouraged the monarchy to support exploration and colonization. # Mercantilist policies under Louis XIV and other monarchs led to the creation of joint-stock companies given monopolies on overseas trade. ** French West and East Indian companies were weaker than their English and Dutch counterparts. - French explores established colonies in North America along the St. Lawrence, Great Lakes, and Mississippi River. # Discovered while attempting to discover a northwest passage to Asia across the Atlantic . # Traded with the Native Americans in the region for fur pelts. ** Metis (a mixed ethnic group of French and Native American) developed out of this interation. # France lost all North American colonies as a result of the Seven Years' War, 1756 to 1763, (war fought over national rivalries). - Established a plantation colony in Saint-Dominique (later Haiti) in the Caribbean. # Produced almost 40% of all sugar and 60% of all coffee consumed in Europe. # Over 500,000 African slaves worked on plantations on the Island.
14. Demographic Effects of the Colombian Exchange Exchange on Africa 1492 to 1750
- Population in Africa benefited nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops. # Maize, peanuts and manioc (grew well in tropical soils = most important new crop) # Despite the Atlantic slave trade, the population of Sub-Saharan Africa grew between years 1500 and 1800 from 34 million to 60 million. - The establishment of sugar plantations after 1600 in the Caribbean and Brazil created significant demand for African slaves. # The Atlantic slave trade claimed 16 million people (12 million crossed the Atlantic; 4 million died en route to the coast) # About two-thirds of slaves from Africa were young men (mostly physically fit), lead to gender imbalance in Africa. ** Contributed to a perennial demand for more slaves in the Americas because slaves were unable to reproduce, plus very high death rates (lived 7-8 years on average) # Women began to take on duties traditionally done by men (heavy agricultural work) and lost status as the practice of polygamy increased.
7. The British Maritime Empire 1600s to 1750
- Spurred on in part by political rivalries and the success of the Colombian voyages, English explores attempted to find a northwest passage through the Atlantic to Asia # English fishermen also sought new regions to expand cod fishing # lead to knowledge of and eventually settlement in North America. - British exploration and trade was done primarily through joint-stock companies # The British East India Company had a monopoly on trade with that region and the British Empire - British colonies in North America (east coast and Canada) # Southern colonies like Virginia developed plantation economies that grew cash crops like tobacco. # British territory in North America expanded after successfully defeating their French rival in the Seven Years' War, years ---- 1756 to 1763. ** Won Quebec and land up to the Mississippi River. - British settlers established colonies in the Caribbean. # Islands like Barbados became major centers of sugar production.
10. The Atlantic Trade Network 1492 to 1750
- The Atlantic system involved the transfer of numerous goods, people and ideas. # The Triangular trade network developed between Europe, Africa and the Americas, in which European merchants moved goods between each region. ** Leg 1 (Europe to Africa): Europeans traded horses and manufactured items (woolen and cotton cloth cloth, copper rods, glass beads, brandy and rum and firearms) for slaves. *** Leg 2 (Africa to the Americas): sold slaves to plantation owners in Brazil, the Caribbean and southern British colonies; purchased sugar, coffee, and tobacco. ** Leg 3 (Americas to Europe): merchants returned with cash crops and other raw material like silver and cotton. - Impact on Europe # Contributed to the Commercial Revolution # Increase wealth and numbers of merchants (the bourgeoisie or middle class) - Impact in the Ameircas # Plantation economies developed in Latin America (increase reliant on coercive labor systems) ** Lead to to dependent economy ** Increased social diversity when European settlers, Africans slaves, and native intermarried (example: Mulatoos, Mestizos, Zambos) - Impact on Africa # Increased slave trade # Became a dependent economy
5. The Dutch Maritime Empire 1600 to 1750
- The Dutch developed a trading-post empire in South Africa and the Indian Ocean # Dutch ships, called fluyts, required a small crew to sail quickly and carried large cargoes. # Pioneered the use of the joint-stock company to finance transoceanic business ventures trade. ** The Dutch East Indian Company (VOC) was granted a monopoly over Dutch trade in the East Indies and Japan ** Trade companies were responsible for protecting their trade interests (had private armies and fortifications) and negotiating directly with local rulers for trade deals. - Major trading posts in the Indian Ocean # The Dutch became the sole European state that was allowed to trade to the Japanese out of Jagasaki ** Sold from China and cotton and sugar from India for Japanese silver and lacquer ware (characteristic of European merchants' role in global trade: middlemen) # Dominated the spice trade with trading posts in Melaka and Java (spices included: mace, nutmeg, cloves, pepper and cinnamon) - South African Colonies # Dutch mariners established a permanent colony in Cape Town, year: 1652
15. Demographic Effects of the Colombian Exchange on Europe 1492 to 1750
- The European population benefited nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops. # Potatoes were cultivated in much of Northern Europe # Maize was used to feed livestock = increased animals # More varied diet = decreased mortality (more resistance to disease) = increase population (went from 81 million to 180 million between years 1500 to 1800) - Increased population = Increased urbanzation # London, Paris, Amsterdam, Madrid and other cities grew substantially in size
6. The Spanish Empire 1500s to 1750
- The Spanish monarchy sponsored several transoceanic expedition that contributed to their colonial empire. # Comubs' voyages allowed Spain to claim much of the Americas and Caribbean ** Sparked further interest in exploration among other European states. # Magellan's Voyage to find a way around Americas to Asia led to the first circumnavigation of the world. ** Enable Spain to claim the Philippines (Manila became a major trade center at which the Spanish traded silver carried from the Americas to Manila Galleons for Chinese silk porcelain) - Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Caribbean # Caribbean Islands developed a plantation economy after 1600 ** Sugarcane cultivation and refining was the most lucrative cash crop # New Spain (Mexico) ** In addition to ranching and agriculture, silver mining in Zacatecas was prominent. # South America ** The Potosi mines sent vast amounts of silver to Europe and Asia (1/5 ---the quinto --- of all silver went directly to the Spanish treasury). ** Colonial administrators used the Incan mita system to conscript laborers for silver mining.
16. Society in Early Modern Europe 1450 to 1750
- Widening global economic opportunities that accompanied European maritime reconnaissance lead to formation of new economic and political elites in Europe # Merchants (urban commercial entrepreneurs in port cities gained unprecedented wealth from overseas trade (emerging middle class or bourgeoisie) ** Especially true in the Netherlands, England, and France were joint-stock companies existed # The gentry (large landholders with no title of nobility) emerged in England in response to growing agricultural productivity during the Agricultural Revolution # Both merchants and gentry gained more political influence ** English Civil War / Glorious Revolution enable the gentry and merchants to dominate Parliament ** Dutch independence lead to republic in which merchants controlled the government. - Many states in Western Europe witnessed changes in family structures # At the beginning of the Early Modern Period, most European families were nuclear (parents and children), with men and women marrying in their late 20s. # Due to better economic opportunities after 1600, men and women were able to marry earlier. ** Along with better nutrition (new crops from the Colombian Exchange), family sizes initially grew in size (decreased infant mortality and lower mortality overall) ** Only in the 18th century did most families try to start deliberately limiting their family size.
18. State Rivalries in Early Modern Europe 1600 to 1750
- ________________ in Europe exacerbated the Thirty Years War (1618 to 1648) in German Central Europe # Initially a religious conflict between Catholics (led the Holy Roman Emperor ----- the Habsburg Dynasty) ----- and Protestants (rival German princes in the north) # Other states (England, France, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and Spain) fought in the war to expand their territory and power or else reduce the strength of the Habsburg monarchy # Religious pluralism and tolerance secured under the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 (weakened power of the HRE) - Competition over trade routes and state rivalries between European powers challenged state consolidation and expansion. # typically Dutch, French and English mariners engaged in piracy against Spanish ships and ports ** Spain controlled the majority of territory in the Caribbean ** Mercantilist policies attempted to maintain closed markets (trade between colonies and mother country only) # The Sever Year's War ----- 1756 to 1763 ** Trade-based conflict primarily between France and Britain ** Fought in India, the Caribbean, Europe and North America ** France lost colonies to Britain (became dominant commercial power in Europe and global trade)
11. Mercantilism 1500s to 1750
- ________________ thought assumed there was a limited amount of global wealth (gold and silver) and each state should strive to increase its own share (wealth = power) - European rulers enacted various mercantilist policies to strength their domestic economy. # Core nations (the mother country) tried to decrease imports and increase exports # Used tariffs to discourage buying manufactured imports from rival states and colonies. ** Restricted trade between their colonies and rival states. # Stimulated home-based manufacturing (example: lower tolls and built roads) # Chartered joint-stock companies to facilitate trade with new markets # Lead to greater competition between European states (example: The Seven Years War, 1756 to 1763) - Colonial Economies # Became dependent economies (relied on mother country for shipping and supplying manufactured items) # Produced low-cost good and raw material (example: metals, sugar, spices, tobacco, and cotton) # Required coercive labor to be profitable = increased slave trade in Africa.
21. Early Modern European Culture
As Merchants' profits rose from the intensification of regional and global exchange, they increasingly funded casual and performing arts *Merchants patronized Renaissance artists who employed individualism (e.g., Mina Lisa; the Arnolfini portrait) *Popular literature developed along with the expansion of literacy **William Shakespeare wrote a variety of comedies and tragedies for popular audiences **The printing press and publications in vernacular promoted literacy among the merchant political elite European intellectuals began to ruin away from the knowledge ancient authorities in favor of empirical observation and scientific inquiry (the Scientific Revolution) **Scientists abandon Aristotelian and Ptolemaic view of a geocentric universe in favor of heliocentric models **Scientists asserted that through empiricism, humans could discover the universal laws that governed the natural world (e.g., inertia, gravity)
29. Trans-Saharan Trade in the Early Modern Period
At the beginning of the Early Modern Period, the Songhay Empire emerged in West Africa **The basis of the power rested on controlling trans-Saharan trade (gold, slaves ivory, animal skins) As Atlantic trade icroeades, the volume and significance of Trans-Saharan trade decreased *Transoceanic travel became easier; consequently trans-Saharan trade declined *Economic disruption=collapse of the Donghay **No more major West African kingdoms because the trade route was obsolete *States along the West African coast like Dahomey and Asante emerged due to increased European demand for slaves
23. The Reformation and Religious Wars
Christianity in Western Europe irreparably split into Protestantism and Catholicism during the _____________ *Various corruptions within the Catholic Church encouraged reformers to develop new version of Christianity *Generally, Protestants and Catholics disagreed over sources of authority within the belief system (Protestants=Bible;Catholics=Pope+Bible) The Catholic Reformation attempted to reform the Church (Council of Trent) and fight growth of Protestantism *New religious orders like the Jesuits spread Catholicism to the Americas, Africa, and Asia Following the ___________, Europe experienced a series of conflicts between Protestant and Catholic states (the ________________) The Thirty Years' War (16-18-1648) ended with the Peace of Westphalia which promoted religious toleration and new notions state sovereignty
27. Coercive Labor Systems in Colonial Latin America
Colonial economies in the Americas depended on a range of coerced labor *Extraction of raw materials demanded captive workers to be profitable Prior to 1550, Spanish conquistadors were given land in return for their efforts at conquest *Employed the encomienda system (a coercive labor system in which the landlord required natives to give him a portion of their labor to live on his estate) *After 1550, econmenderos required tribute from subject populations *As the use of econmienda declined throughout the period, Spanish landowner turned to debt peonage to recruit labor **Natives borrowed money to buy seeds, tools, and farming supplies repaid with labor (low wages meant to was difficult to pay back) Spanish mining in Zacatecas and Potosi was accomplished primarily through voluntary wage labor **The most difficult and dangerous work was filled by mita (an Incan coercive labor tax the colonists continued to employ) African slaves were increasingly used after 1600 on sugar plantations and miles established in the Caribbean and Brazil
19. Absolutism in Early Modern Europe (Louis XIV of France) 1650 to 1750
During the Early Modern Period, some European monarchs like Louis XIV of France were able to legitimize and consolidate their power to become ______________ monarchs *Louis XIV used religious ideas, art, and architecture to legitimize his rule **Used the theory of divine right of kings (king authority derived from their god)- justified king's sole control over policy **Built the Palace at Versailles tom control and humble aristocrats **Patronized artists to portray his as the "sun king" as we'll as various Greek gods *Generated revenue for expansion to taxing the peasants directly utilizing tax farming **Utilized labor taxes (corvée) to build roads *Established a professional standing army equipped with firearms and artillery (350,000 to 400,000 men strong) *Developed a bureaucracy to carry out the policies of the central government and reduce local and aristocratic power
25. Coercive Labor Systems in Colonial North America
Prior to 1676, coercive labor in th eNglish colonies was supplied buy insentured servants from England *Increase in population and land shortage led to high unemployment *Poor English (mostly men) signed a labor contract for 5-7 years within a colonial land owner who paid for the worker's passage to the Americas in return for their labor After 1676, colonial landowners begin using African slave labor for their tobacco and rice plantations *The improving economy of England decreased pool of people willing to become indentured servants *class tensions in the colonies between lan owners and laborers (Bacon's Rebellion) convinced owners to look for a permanent coercive labor source *Royal African Company lost its monopoly on the slave trade leads to competition between slaving companies=lower slave prices
24. Society in Early Modern Latin America
Several factors changed the social composition of Latin America after 1500 *The spread of European disease decimated the indigenous population *European men-primarily-caried out the conquest and colonization of Latin America **Few women came (less than 15%), which encourages intermarriage between different ethnic groups *Greater plantation economy lead to forced migration of of African slaves to the Caribbean and Brazil Imperial conquests and colonial rule contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites in Latin America as well as a new ethnic hierarchy (in descending order of rank) *Peninsulares: people born in Iberia and migrated Creoles: people of Iberian descent who were born in the Americas *Mixed populations **Mestizos: people born of Iberian and Native descent **Mulatto: People born of African and European descent **Zambos: people born of African and Native descent *Natives *African Slaves
22. Russia in the Early Modern Period
The Romanov dynasty used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power as the ____________*Rulers appropriated the idea of Caesar (Tsar) to signify their imperial status **Also used the Orthodox Church to promote the idea of divine right of kings *Much of __________ was westernized under the direction of Peter I (r. 1682-1725) **St. Petersburg was built in the image of Western European cities (included monumental architecture like the Winter Palace) **Developed a navy and professional standing army (300k disciplined soldiers who used early modern firearms and artillery) **Established colleges (separtments/ministries) to run the government The ____________ expanded dramatically in size between 1450-1800 *Began to conquer Siberia after 1550 in order to gain furs-forced natives to pay tribute *Conquered Ukraine and partitioned Poland after 1750- spread serfdom to those regions The ____________ Economy *Agricultural production was facilitated by serfdom Generally produced raw materials like grain, lumber, and fur
30. Early Modern States in Sub-Saharan Africa
The Songhay Empire, 1464-1591 *State in West Africa that controlled trade along the Niger River **Had access to gold, ivory, and slaves for the trans-safran trade **Traded for salt, textiles, and metal goods *Rulers and elite were promoted Islam to attract Muslim merchants from the Saharan trade **Built mosques, schools to teach the Quran and Islan universities *Conquests by Moroccan gunpowder
26. Colonial Administration in Early Modern Latin America
The Spanish monarchy divided Latin American colonies into large provinces (e.g., New Spain) each ruled by a voce roy *Viceroy administered in the name of the king **Local administration often given to the town councils *Spanish kings appointed audiences (review courts) to hear appeals against the decisions of viceroys **Conducted a review for the monarchy at the end of viceroys term República de Indios (the Republic of the Indians) *In order to manage areas of New Spain that had dense native American populations, the colonial administration granted them local control in return for tribute
20. The Spread of Christianity beyond Europe
The desire to __________ ______________ was prominent movie behind European maritime ventures *Roman Catholic priests and monks (Jesuits and Franciscans) accompanied Spanish conquistadores and settlers to the Americas *Native Americans often converted willingly **Some concluded their gods had abandon them as evidenced by the diseased and conquests that ravaged their populations **Syncretic beliefs also developed as natives blended Christianity with traditional beliefs (cults developed around Catholic saints who possessed qualities like indigenous deities) **A church dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe- a manifestation of Saint Mary- was constructed on a site used for the pre-Columbian worship of Tonantzin (the Aztec mother goddess) Rulers of the Kingdom of Kongo in Africa converted to Christianity to attract European merchants Syncratic beliefs in the Americas emerged as a result of the blending of Catholicism with African animism (Vodun/Voodoo) *African gods were identified with Catholic saints (Damballa, the sky father and serpent spirit, was syncretized with Saint Patrick and Moses)
28. African Slavery in the Early Modern Period
The institution of slavery if Africa continued from the Postclassical Period *Traditional functions of slaves in Africa varied from agricultural labor to administration or soldiers *Female slaves were incorporated into households (extended the family and its productive power) *As with the previous era, African merchants traded slaves to people in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean **The Islamic slave trade led to the transfer of several millions of African slaves In the Americas after 1600, cash crops (sugar and tobacco) were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor *Higher demand for African slaves *12 million African slaves were forcefully migrated to the Americas from 155--1850 Coastal kingdoms i Africa )Kongo and Dahomey) grew in power as they used their location to capture Africans from the interior and sell them to Europeans for various goods (guns and cowry shells)
2. Indian Ocean Trade in the Early Modern Period 1450 to 1750
• In 1450, Indian Ocean trade was shared between Muslim, African, Indian, Southeast Asian, and Chinese merchants o Trade in luxury goods was conducted in stages due to the wind patterns • By 1500 the Portuguese began to establish a trading post empire along the coasts of Indian Ocean basin o Unsuccessfully tried to dominate trade with her naval power (Alfonso d' Albuguerque) --- Major ports included Mozambique, Calicut, Goa and Melaka --- Ultimately just fit into Existing trade networks • After 1600, the Dutch and English eclipsed the Portuguese hold on European trade in the Indian Ocean o Use of trading companies like the VOC and the British East Indian Trading Co allowed them to raise more capital to make more and better ships • Luxury goods traded throughout the Indian Ocean o Japan: silver, and lacquer ware o China: porcelain, silk, tea o Indonesia: spices (cinnamon, clove, nutmeg) and coffee (introduced by Dutch) o India: pepper, cotton textiles and cowry shells (from Maldives) o East Africa: gold and slaves
1. Impact of Technology on Transoceanic Travel 1400s and 1500s
• Prince Henry the Navigator established a school for navigation to help facilitate maritime trade o Borrowed maritime technology from Asia: compass, astrolabe, lateen sail, stern post rudder. o Developed better and more accurate cartography by using knowledge from the classical Islamic and Asian worlds. • New tools and innovations in ship design made transoceanic travel possible o The Portuguese developed the caravel --- Other ships developed by Europeans included: carracks (mostly square sails but also possessed one lateen sail and a stern post rudder), galleons (multi-decked, armed cargo ships) and fluyts (higher masts allowed for greater speed). o Understanding of the volta do mar enabled Europeans to cross the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
3. Commercialization and the Emergence of the Global Economy in the Early Modern Period 1500 to 1750
• The Commercial Revolution occurred primarily in Europe as a result of the European maritime reconnaissance. • Several factors contributed to the Commercial Revolution. o The price revolution o Exploration and colonization o Proliferation of financial systems o European of financial systems o European merchants circumvented guild restrictions by using cottage industry, sometimes called the putting out system o considerable prosperity in Europe
9. The Portuguese Trading-Post Empire 1400s to 1600s
• The Portuguese established a maritime trading post empire in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. o Henry the Navigator created a navigation school to strengthen the Portuguese navy Utilized Muslim navigation technology and cartography to develop portolan maps. Used compasses originally developed in China Built new ships that were capable of transoceanic voyages. Gained a knowledge of global wind and current patterns like the volta do mar Early voyages in the Atlantic secured the Madeira's and Azores Islands. o Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498 Portuguese presence in Indian Ocean o Established factories along coasts of Africa and the Indian Ocean Basic Africa: Sao Jorge de Mina (west Africa) and Mozambique (east Africa) Indian Ocean: Goa and Calicut (India), Hormuz (Persia), Melaka, Macau (China) o Portuguese influence the Indian Ocean waned after 1600 when English and Dutch mariners reduced their hold on trade. • Portuguese colonies o Brazil (allowed by the Treaty of Tordesillas) o Angola
4. Role of Europeans in the Global Trade in the Early Modern Period 1450 to 1750
• The voyages of European merchants in the Early Modern Period • Unable to dislodge traditional merchants from existing trade networks in Africa and Asia, Europeans acted as the commercial middlemen of the Early Modern World. o The transferred luxury items (spices, silver, sild) from on Asian country to another market in Asia or the Indian Ocean region (i.e. Manila galleons, the VOC and the British East Indian Trading Co. o Established ports along the Indian Ocean basin in order to gain consistent access to markets. o Spanish galleons took silver mined in Latin America to purchase luxury goods in Asian. o Europeans established the triangular trade in the Atlantic linking the European, American, and African economies.