AP1E2, AP1 Exam 3, Endocrine Hormones
EEG
Measure electrical activity epilepsy
AP
Brief reversal of membrane potential 100 mv amplitude
Motor Unit
Single motor neuron + ALL innervated fibers All fibers respond with same amount of tension
speed of nerve fibers
a > b > c myelin --> no myelin large. --> small
proteoglycan
chain of GAG's that attract water make porous gel which acts as diffusion barrier
perforating (Sharpey's) fibers
collagen fibers that anchor periosteum to compact bone
colloid v. suspension
colloid: small + wont settle (watery milk) suspension: large + can settle (blood draw) solution: homogenous + wont settle
combinatorial coding
combined actionof multiple g receptors to get specificity
3 types of cerebral fibers
commisural (corpus callosum) association (same side) projection (merge to S.C. )
autonomic tone
constant background activity // balance of the two systems
red bone marrow
contains reticular fibers
sensory: convergent or divergent?
convergent!
zona fasciculata
cortisol- glycogen release (liver)+ a.a from muscle, F.A. (adipose)
benefit of a plexus?
creates redundancy as a fail safe
2nd order neuron
deccusate in thoracic s.c. body: posterior horn axon: thalamus
adaptation
decreasing response to stimulis over time
Periosteum
dense irregular CT covers long bones rich supply of veins/nerves
Thalamus // hypothalsum //epithalamus
diencephalon relay messages // homeostasis //release melatonin
motor: convergent or divergent?
divergent!
hyposenia
early sign of alzhimers decreased sense of smell
limbic system
emotion +memory only in mammals
adrenal medulla
epi + norepi
layers of nerve outer to inner
epineurium, periniureum, endoneurium, myelin, axon
most growth in bone
epiphyseal plate on diaphysis side replicate chondrocytes (not bone cells) Reserve, proliferation, hypertrophy/maturation, calcification, ossification
PET scan
examine blood flow to different areas
type 2
fast glycolytic light
bursae
fiber sacs filled w synovial fluid connected to/seperate from joint cavity
Gomphosis
fibrous!
Syndesmosis
fibrous! ampiarthrosis ex. interosseus membrane
merkel cells
fine touch/spacial resolution
inter membranous
flat bones! 1. Meysenchymic cell -> osteoblasts in the PRIMARY ossification center 2. secrete organic matrix, calcify/trap (osteocytes) 3. trabeculae of spongy bone + periosteum (mes. Cells) - 4. periosteum osteoblasts lay compact bone
endolymph
fluid within cochlear duct high K+ // low NA
electrival vs chemical synapse
gap junctions+ continuous cytoplasm /// neurotransmitters crossing gap
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
graded potential summation AT axon hillock
insula
gray matter! cortex taste, visceral, verstibular
neuronal pools
groups of interneurons within CNS Integrate + coordinate allow for complex mental activity
short term --> longterm
hippocampus
phrenic nerve
in cervical plexus innervates the diaphragm
photoreceptors are active....
in the dark! depolarized dark photoreceptors (via GMP) release glutamate which inhiit bipolar cell
Beta 1 receptors
increase heart rate
hypertropic
increase size (fat cells) vs hyper cellular (childhood obesity)
PTH
increases blood calcium - stimulating osteoclast activity - kidneys reabsorb - intestines absorb
basal ganglia
inhibit unwanted movement
ramus communicans
innervates viscera
ionotropic vs metabotropic receptors
inotropic - open bc conformational change when ion bound ex. nicotinic metabotropic - g coupled receptors - secondary reactions cause channel opening
pleural cavity
inside lungs membranes! pericardial cavity for heart!
cl channel is ESPS or ISPS
isps! Bring chloride into cell!
Wernicke's area
language comprehension
brocas area
language production
k nee joint
largest/mostcomplex diarthrosis
3 stages twitch
latent period, contraction phase, relaxation phase
visceral motor location in s.c.
lateral horn
ependymal cells (CNS)
line cavities circulate CSF
endosteum
lines inner medullary cavity
cytosol v cytoplasm
liquid cytoplasm includes organelles etc
Microglia (CNS)
machrophages
pyramids of medulla oblongata
major motor projection tracts (corticospinal tracts) most DECUSSATE
fMRI/ MRI
measure oxygen levels (also measuring blood flow)
reticular fibers
mesh network scaffold + sieve thin, short collagen fibers
olfactory receptors
metabotropic! binding of molecule activates g protein, opening NA channels
squamous cell carcinoma
stratum spinosum keratinocytes 2nd most common + 2nd deadly
symphasis
cartilaginous ex. vertebral discs
Synchondrosis
cartilaginous! costochondral joints!
alpha neurons
cause contraction of muscle fibers
median nerve
causes carpal tunnel! when its pinches
holocrine
cell ruptures/dies
corticospinal tract
"cortex -> spine" voluntary movement
graded potentials
- short lived + local - magnitude varies w strength of stimulus - decrease over distance
unmeylinated axons
- small diameter - in schwann cell cytoplasm
white + gray matter
-White matter = myelinated axons -Gray matter =soma + unmyelinated dendrites / axons
endochondral
1. chondroblasts -> osteoblasts 2.a. ossify bone collar OUTSIDE 2.b. internal cartilage calcify (chondrocytes die) 3. in primary center, osteoblasts replace calcified chondrocytes w spongey bone 4. . medullary cavity expand, epiphyses finish ossifying
3 methods of ATP generation
1. creatin phosphate 2. glycolytic catabolism (cytosol) 3. oxidative glycolysis (mitochondrion.)
synovial classifications
1. movement (Axis) 2. shape
ATP in muscle contraction
1. na/k pump (ap potential) 2. relase from myosin head for NEXT power stroke 3. pump SR (Relax)
pH changes
10 fold change for each number
which nuerons soma is in posterior root ?
1st order sensory neuron
refered pain
1st otder somatic/viscerak pain misinterpreted as cutaneous pain bc of shared nerve ex---> heart attack is left arm pain
1st, 2nd, 3rd degree burns
1st: epidermis (sunburn 2nd: epidermis + part/some dermis (blisters) 3rd: DEADLY, epi, dermis, hypodermis, maybe even muscle
collagen
25% of the body's protein stretch resistent but bendy
sodium-potassium pump
3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
epidermis
4-5 layers on basement membrane stratum cornea lucidum granulosum (apoptosis) spinosum basale (living + produce vit D + melanocytes + merkel cell )
simple stretch reflex
A monosynaptic reflex with OPPOSING MUSCLE ACTION 1 contracts, 1 relaxes - muscle spindles detect stretch - automatic contraction of the muscle to counter the stretch.
posterior pituitary
ADH oxytocin- uterine contractions + milk release
Astrocytes (CNS)
Blood Brain Barrier!! Anchor, regulate, repair
CNS VS PNS naming
CNS - muclei - tracts PNS - ganglia - nerves
Local interneurons
CNS in brain stem + SC signal lower motor neurons DECCUSATE IN MEDULLA
CNS and PNS myelination
CNS: oligodendrocytes bodies removed + all connected PNS: Schwann cells nuerollem + individual cells for each one!
organ of corti
Center part of the cochlea, containing hair cells, canals, and membranes BASILAR MEMBRANE
anterior pituitary hormones
FSH -- stimulate testes/estrogen LH-- stimulate gonads ACTH-- adrenal gland TSH-- growth/secretion of thyroid (ts/t4 calcitonin) Prolactin- milk ejection Growth Hormone- metablis, + longterm growth (IGF)
bone repair steps
Fracture bleed hematoma soft callus bony callus secondary bone Fibroblasts/chondroblasts infiltrate hematoma... form soft callus Soft callus calcified by osteoblasts in periosteum Bone callus remodled... primary replaced with secondary
articular joint capsule
Inner synovial membrane (loose CT) Outer fibrous layer (dense irregular CT)
basal cell carcinoma
LEAST malignant + MOST common --> basal cells
melanomas
MOST DANGEROUS fast metastisize basal layer
muscle growth
NO more fibers! just enzymes/number of myofibrils satelite cells for repair
hypodermis
NOT part of integumentary system
main organ of PNS?
Nerves!
blood vessels in the skin
ONLY in the dermis, and diffuse up into the epidermis
location of special sense processing
Olfactory : Mid temporal Gustatory : Insula Visceral: Insula Vestibular: Insula
1st order neurons
SENSORY neuron PSUEDOunipolar ends: sensory + posterior horn body : posterior root ganglion
Excitation-contraction coupling
Sarcolemma, T-Tubules, Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Somatic N.S vs. Autonomic N.S.
Somatic: 1 neuron autonomic: 2 neurons prior to target cell both origionate from spinal cord
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
Stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (cortisol)
absolute vs relative refractory period
absolute - INACTIVATED NA CHANNELS - begins AT na channel opening - lasts rill reset relative -K. channels stillopen hyperpolarized - need storng stimulus
gamma neurons
adjust the tension in the muscle spindle fibers so they can accurately detect a stretch
zona glomerulosa
aldosterone- increase salt, regulate fluid + maintain bp
muscle tone
alternating which motor units activated
zona reticularis
androgens- 2ndary sex characreristic + pubic har
prefrontal cortex
anterior aspect of frontal lobe personality + decision making
lower motor neurons
anterior horn
somatic motor location in s.c.
anterior horn
elastin
appear thin dark and wavy
asthma treatment?
b2 agonist if you blocked it you would suffocate
3rd order sensory neuron
body: thalamus axon: cerebral cortex
Ligaments
bone to bone dense regular
ramus
branches off spinal nerves that carry both sensory + motor neurons
beta 2 receptors
bronchodilation
molecule excitation order
ca- axon ach- synapse na - motor endplate ca- SR post t tubules
4 hormones produced in thyroid
calcitonin t3/t4 (colloid) PTH (parafolicular)
adrenal gland
capsule aldosterone- cortisol (glucocoricoids) androgens medulla
reticular formation
most complex strx stretches across whole brain •cerebral cortex, limbic system, and sensory stimuli ALERTNESS // conciousness shutting down enables sleep (active in REM tho!!)
fovea centralis
most dense area of receptors in center of eye
motor neurons / interneurons
multipolar neurons (most abundent neuron in CNS)
layers o muscle superior to deep
muscle fascia epimysium perimysium FASCICLE endomysiu FIBER myofibrils myofilaments
tendons
muscle to bone
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
myelin sheath
schwann cell (PNS)
myelin sheath
salatory conduction
myelinated axons
Alpha 2 receptors
negative feedback; neurotransmitter inhibition
epithelial tissue
no blood vessels!!! AVASCULAR!!! extensively innervated + high regeneration capacity little/no ground fluid basement membrane
trigeminal nerve
noxious, spices, iky things
spindle fiber anatomy
only the ENDS are contractile center is oNLY sensory gamma neurons adjust set point
vision mechanism
opsin dissociation decreases cGMP levels closes Na chanels cell hyperpolarizes no glutamate release = bipolar cells can activate + release on retinol ganglion
length/tension
optiomial length for relationship
skeletal muscle
organ!!
osteoid
organic component of ECM flexible + allows rotation practicle
merocrine
package hormone for exocytosis
basal nuclei
paired/irregular cluster of deep brain matter
touch is registered in what part of the brain
parietal lobe!
eye pathway
photoreceptors-->bipolar cells-->retinal ganglion-->optic nerve
Isotonic concentric contractions
pick cup up - shorten + constant force
apocrine
pinch off bits
primary sensory cortex
postcentral gyrus sesnory = posterior root!
sensory location in s.c.
posterior root ganglion
primary motor cortex
precentral gyrus motor = anterior root!
upper motor neurons
precentral gyrus (frontal lobe, cerebral cortex) soma: primary motor cortex axon: down S.C.
cerebral cortex functional areas
primary motor cortex primary sensory cortex association areas (unimodal vs multimodal)
endocondral vs intermembranous simmilarities
produce primary bone that is replaced by lamellar/mature bone
GAG
proteins in ground substance that draw water into extracellular matrix negatively charged
sensory neurons
psuedounipolar neurons (most) --- cell body is limb in middle bipolar neurons (special senses)
Isotonic eccentric contractions
put cup down - length + constant force
pyrogens
raise set point of hypothalamus responsible for fever!!
coens absorb which colors
red, blue, green sensitive to bright light
regeneration vs fibrosis
regeneration- SAME cells replaced (ex. epithelium, strat. squa.) fibrosis- scar tissue (Ex. cardiac, replaced w collagen fibers)
basal cells of olfactory bulb
replaced regularly bc frequent death
lamalleted
respond to deep pressure
Ruffini endings
respond to stretch
rhodopsin
rhod discs retinol changes shape and signals opsins
rods/cone locations
rods: peripheral cones: center
RMP established by
selective permeability + gradients
afferent nerves
sensory! posterior
type 1
slow, oxidative dark
spatial vs temporal summation
spatial - sum of all signals multilpe locations at one time = flood temporal- sum potentials at one spot over time, slow rise
sattelite cell (PNS)
surround/support somas
least to most mobile
suture syndesmosis (inter. oss) synchondosis (epiphyseal plate!) symphysis plane piviot/hinge condylar ball/socket
throid gland
t3/t4 -- metabolism +growth calcitonin- inhibit otoclasts + decrease calcium (oposite PTH)
media stinum
thymus, heart, trachea, esophagus , it houses the pericardial cavity
Alpha 1 receptors
vasoCONSTRICTION -> increase BP
equilibrium potential
voltage at which chemical and electrical forces are balanced for a single ion.
lateral horns
where symp exits; thoracic/lumbar only
golgi tendon organ
within tendon itself a sensory receptor in a muscle tendon that monitors tension
knee injury
• tear in the ACL or tibial collateral ligament •ACL prevents hyperextension •Tibial collateral ligament normally prevents hyperabduction of the leg at the knee