APES Energy and Mining Test (Ch. 14, 15, & 16)

saving energy in existing buildings

- insulate the building and plug leaks - use energy-efficient windows: they cut expensive heat losses from a house or other buildings by 2/3, lower cooling costs in the summer, and reduce heating system CO2 emissions. - stop other heating and cooling losses: leaky heating and cooling ducts in attics and unheated basements allow 20-30% of a home's heating and cooling energy to escape - heat houses and other buildings more efficiently: use superinsulation, a geothermal heat pump, passive solar heating, and a natural gas furnace - heat water more efficiently - use energy-efficient appliances : computers, lighting, automatic motion sensors

nuclear fuel cycle

- mining of uranium - processing and enriching the uranium to make fuel - using it in a reactor - building and running a nuclear power plant - safely storing the resulting highly radioactive wastes for thousands of years until their radioactivity worn-out plant by taking it apart and storing its high/moderate level radioactive parts safely for thousands of years

limits of mining lower-grade ores

- requires mining and processing larger volumes of ore, which takes more energy and costs more - dwindling supplies of freshwater needed for mining and processing - growing environmental impact of land disruption along with waste material and pollution produced during mining and processing

sustainable use of nonrenewable minerals

- reuse of recycle metal products whenever possible - redesign manufacturing processes to use less mineral resources - reduce mining subsidies - increase subsidies for reuse, recycling, and finding substitutes

shifting to more sustainable energy use

- walk, bike, or use mass transit or a car pool to get to work or school - drive only vehicles that get at least 40 mpg - have an energy audit done where you live - superinsulate the place you live and plug all air leaks - use passive solar heating - for cooling, open windows and use fans - use a programmable thermostat and energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, lights, and appliances - turn down the water heater's thermostat and insulate hot water pipes - wash laundry in cold water and air dry it on racks

improving energy efficiency

-prolongs fossil fuel supplies -reduces oil imports and improves energy security - very high net energy yield - low cost - reduces pollution and environmental degradation - buys time to phase in renewable energy - creates local jobs

crude oil (petroleum)

a black, gooey liquid consisting mostly of a mix of different combustible hydrocarbons along with small amounts of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen impurities; it was formed from the decayed remains of ancient organisms that were crushed beneath layers of rock for millions of years, and the resulting liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons migrated upward through porous rock layers to collect as deposits of oil and natural gas, often trapped together beneath layers of impermeable rock

mineral resource

a concentration of one or more minerals in the earth's crust that we can extract and process into raw materials and useful products as an affordable cost

CO2

a critical and growing problem is that burning oil or any carbon-containing fossil fuel releases this greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, which leads to global warming and climate change

tar sands (oil sands)

a growing source of heavy oil made of a mixture of clay, sand, water, and a combustible organic material called bitumen - problem: developing this resource has major harmful impacts on the land, air, water, wildlife, and climate compared to conventional light oil and tightly held oil from shale rock - problem: extracting, processing, and refining bitumen from this releases 3-5 times more greenhouse gases per barrel of oil

nuclear power plant

a highly complex and costly system designed to perform a relatively simple task: to boil water and produce steam that spins a turbine and generates electricity (uses a controlled nuclear fission reaction to produce the heat)

energy efficiency

a measure of how much useful work we can get from each unit of energy we use. improving this means using less energy to provide the same amount of work in the forms of light, heat, transportation, and other benefits

mountaintop removal

a mining technique in which the entire top of a mountain is removed with explosives. after a mountaintop is blown apart, enormous machines plow waste rock and dirt into valleys below the mountaintops, which destroys forests, buries mountain streams, and increases the risk of flooding

natural gas

a mixture of gases of which 50-90% is methane (CH4). also contains smaller amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbons and small amounts of highly toxic hydrogen sulfide (H2S). widely used for cooking, heating space and water, and industrial purposes including production of nitrogen fertilizer

mineral

a naturally occurring chemical element or inorganic compound that exists as a solid with a regularly repeating internal arrangement of its atoms or ions

sand

a nonmetallic mineral resource made of mostly silicon dioxide used to make glass, bricks, and concrete for the construction of roads and buildings

gravel

a nonmetallic mineral resource used to make concrete for road beds

aluminum

a nonrenewable mineral resource used as a structural material in beverage cans, motor vehicles, aircraft, and buildings

steel

a nonrenewable mineral resource used in buildings, machinery, and motor vehicles. a mixture of iron and other elements that gives it certain physical properties

nuclear fusion

a nuclear change at the atomic level in which the nuclei of two isotopes of a light element such as hydrogen are forced together at high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the process - no risk of a meltdown or of a release of large amounts of radioactive materials, and little risk of the additional spread of nuclear weapons - still in the laboratory stage

nuclear fission

a nuclear reaction in which a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy

shale oil

a potential supply of heavy oil produced by mining, crushing, and heating oil shale rock to extract a mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen that can be distilled - problem: low energy yield because it takes considerable energy, money, and water to extract kerogen from the shale rock and convert it to oil - problem: process pollutes large amounts of water and releases a lot more CO2 into the atmosphere

tsunami (tidal wave)

a series of large waves generated when part of the ocean floor suddenly rises or drops; most are caused when certain types of faults in the ocean floor move up or down as a result of a large underwater earthquake

manganese nodules

a small (potato-sized) rock covering large areas of the Pacific Ocean floor and smaller areas of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean floors; contains manganese and some low concentrations of various rare-earth minerals. can be sucked up by giant vacuum pipes or scooped by underwater mining machines

rock

a solid combination of one or more minerals found in the earth's crust. some kinds only contain one mineral, but most consist of two or more minerals. ex: granite is a mixture of mica, feldspar, and quartz crystals

coal

a solid fossil fuel formed from the remains of land plants that were buried 300-400 million years ago and exposed to intense heat and pressure over millions of years. burned in power plants and generates about 45% of the world's electricity. burned in industrial plants to make steel, cement, and other products. - problem: dirtiest fossil fuel; burning it pollutes the air and creates a toxic ash that is difficult to deal with - problem: processes of making it severely degrade land and pollute water and air - problem: releases large amounts of soot (black carbon particles) and even particles of air pollutants like mercury - problem: among the largest emitters of the greenhouse gas CO2

bitumen

a thick, sticky, tar-like heavy oil with a high sulfur content

asthenosphere

a volume of hot, partly melted rock that flows in the mantle

trade-offs of natural gas

advantages: - ample supplies - versatile fuel - medium net energy yield - emits less CO2 and other air pollutants than other fossil fuels when burned disadvantages: - low net energy yield for LNG - production and delivery may emit more CO2 and CH4 per unit of energy produced than coal - fracking uses and pollutes large volumes of water - potential groundwater pollution from fracking

trade-offs of hydrogen fuel

advantages: - can be produced from plentiful water at some sites - no CO2 emissions if produced with use of renewables - good substitute for oil - high efficiency in fuel cells disadvantages: - negative net energy yield - CO2 emissions produced from carbon-containing compounds - high costs create need for subsidies - needs H2 storage and distribution system

trade-offs of synthetic fuels

advantages: - large potential supply in many countries - vehicle fuel - lower air pollution than coal disadvantages: - low to medium net energy yield - requires mining 50% more coal with increased land disturbance, water pollution, and water use - higher CO2 emissions than coal

trade-offs of burning liquid biofuels

advantages: - reduced CO2 emissions for some crops - medium net energy yield for biodiesel from oil palms - medium net energy yield for ethanol from sugarcane disadvantages: - fuel crops can compete with food crops for land and raise food prices - fuel crops can be invasive species - low net energy yield for corn ethanol and for biodiesel from soybeans - higher CO2 emissions from corn ethanol

trade-offs of burning solid biomass

advantages: - widely available in some areas - moderate costs - medium net energy yield - no net CO2 increase if harvested, burned, and replanted sustainably - plantations can help restore degraded lands disadvantages: - contributes to deforestation - clear-cutting can cause soil erosion, water pollution, and loss of wildlife habitat - can open ecosystems to invasive species - increases CO2 emissions if harvested and burned unsustainably

trade-offs of coal

advantages: - ample supplies in many countries - medium to high net energy yield - low cost when environmental costs are not included disadvantages: - severe land disturbance and water pollution - fine particle and toxic mercury emissions threaten human health - emits large amounts of CO2 and other air pollutants when produced and burned

trade-offs of conventional oil

advantages: - ample supply for several decades - net energy yield is medium but decreasing - low land disruption - efficient distribution system disadvantages: - water pollution from oil spills and leaks - environmental costs not included in the market price - releases CO2 and other air pollutants when burned - vulnerable to international supply interruptions

trade-offs of large-scale hydropower

advantages: - high net energy yield - large untapped potential - low cost electricity - low emissions of CO2 and other air pollutants in temperate areas disadvantages: - large land disturbance and displacement of people - high CH4 emissions from rapid biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs - disrupts downstream aquatic ecosystems

trade-offs of wind power

advantages: - high net energy yield - widely available - low electricity cost - little or no direct emissions of CO2 and other air pollutants - easy to build and expand disadvantages: - needs backup or storage system when winds are down - visual pollution for some people - low level noise bothers some people - can kill birds if not properly designed and located

trade-offs of solar thermal systems

advantages: - high potential for growth - no direct CO2 emissions or other air pollutants - lower costs with natural gas turbine backup - source of new jobs disadvantages: - low net energy yield and high costs - needs backup or storage system on cloudy days - requires high water use - can disrupt desert ecosystems

trade-offs of conventional nuclear fuel cycle

advantages: - low environmental impact (without accidents) - emits 1/6 as much CO2 as coal - low risk of accidents in modern plants disadvantages: - low net energy yield - high overall cost - produces long-lived, harmful radioactive wastes - promotes spread of nuclear weapons

trade-offs of solar cells (PV cells)

advantages: - medium net energy yield - little or no direct emissions of CO2 and other air pollutants - easy to install, move around, and expand as needed - competitive cost for newer cells disadvantages: - need access to sun - some designs have low net energy yield - need electricity storage system or backup - costs high for older systems but dropping rapidly - power plants could disrupt desert ecosystems

trade-offs of passive or active solar heating

advantages: - medium net energy yield - very low CO2 emissions and other air pollutants - very low land disturbance - moderate cost (passive) disadvantages: - need access to sunlight 60% of the time during daylight - sun can be blocked by trees and other structures - high installation and maintenance costs for active systems - need backup system for cloudy days

trade-offs of geothermal energy

advantages: - medium net energy yield and high efficiency at accessible sites - lower CO2 emissions than fossil fuels - low cost at favorable sites disadvantages: - high cost except at concentrated and accessible sources - scarcity of suitable sites - noise and some CO2 emissions

coal bed methane gas

an unconventional natural gas found in coal beds across the US and Canada; environmental impacts of using this include scarring of land, depletion of water sources, and possible pollution of aquifers

methane hydrate

an unconventional natural gas, which is methane trapped in icy, cage-like structures of water molecules buried under arctic permafrost in tundra areas and on parts of the ocean floor; so far, it costs too much to extract this resource and it might release a large amount of methane to the atmosphere during removal

strip mining

any form of mining involving the extraction of mineral deposits that lie in large horizontal beds close to the earth's surface - area vs. contour strip mining

hydropower

any technology that uses the kinetic energy of flowing and falling water to produce electricity. it is an indirect form of solar energy because it depends on heat from the sun evaporating water

nonrenewable

because minerals take millions of years to form, they are _____________ resources, meaning that their supplies can be depleted

ethanol

can be made from plants such as sugarcane, corn, and switch grass or from agricultural, forestry, and municipal wastes. this process involves converting plant starches/other plant materials into simple sugars, which are processed to produce this

petrochemicals

chemicals obtained by refining crude oil. used as raw materials to make industrial organic chemicals, cleaning fluids, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines, cosmetics, ice cream, and more

carbon

coal is mostly made of this element, although it also contains small amounts of sulfur. when coal burns, the sulfur is converted to SO2.

high grade ore

contains a large concentration of the desired mineral

low-grade ore

contains a smaller concentration of the desired mineral

coal liquefaction

conversion of solid coal to a liquid hydrocarbon fuel such as synthetic gasoline or methanol. the process is also known as "Coal to X" where X can be many different hydrocarbon-based products

refining

crude oil cannot be used as it is. in this process, it is heated to separate it into various fuels and other components with different boiling points - requires an input of high-quality energy and decreases the net energy yield

proven oil reserves

deposits from which the oil can be extracted profitably at current prices with current technology

hydrothermal ore deposits

form when superheated, mineral-rich water shoots out of vents in volcanic regions of the ocean floor. as the hot water comes into contact with cold seawater, black particles of various metal sulfides participate out and accumulate as chimney-like structures near the hot water vents

hydrogen fuel cell

generates electricity by reacting hydrogen with oxygen (2H2 + O2 --> 2H2O + energy) - takes in hydrogen gas and separates the hydrogen atoms' electrons from their protons. the electrons flow through wires to provide electricity, while the protons pass through a membrane and combine with oxygen gas to form water vapor - the reverse of electrolysis, the process of passing electricity through water to produce hydrogen fuel

geothermal energy

heat stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth's mantle. we can tap into this to heat and cool buildings and to produce electricity

reserves

identified deposits from which we can extract the mineral profitably at current prices; can be expanded when we find new, profitable deposits or when higher prices or improved mining technologies make it profitable to extract deposits that previously were considered too expensive to remove

overburden

layer of soil and rock overlying a mineral deposit. surface mining removes this layer.

open-pit mining

machines are used to dig very large holes and remove metal ores containing copper, gold, or other metals, or sand, gravel, or stone

materials revolution

materials such as silicon, ceramics, and plastics are replacing metals for common uses

heap leaching

mining process where cyanide solution is sprayed on piles to dissolve gold; mine the ore, crush/agglomerate the ore, irrigate the ore to dissolve the metal, collect the leachate in a pond or tank, process this solution to recover the metals

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

mixture of liquefied propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) gas removed from natural gas with high pressures to be used as a fuel. stored in pressurized tanks for use mostly in rural areas not served by natural gas pipelines

ocean

most of the chemical elements and compounds found in the _______ occur in such low concentrations that recovering these mineral resources takes more energy and money than they are worth; on the other hand, in sediments along the shallow continental shelf and adjacent shorelines, there are significant deposits of minerals

decades ago

most of the world's oil comes from huge oil fields that were discovered ______ (recently/decades ago). production from many of these fields have begun to decline and new fields are getting harder to find and more expensive to develop.

horizontal drilling, fracking

natural gas can be extracted through these processes

liquefied natural gas (LNG)

natural gas converted to liquid form by using high pressures and cooling it at a very low temperature; highly flammable liquid is transported in refrigerated tanker ships across oceans. when it reaches the destination port, it is heated and converted back to the gaseous state to be distributed

tight gas

natural gas held in reservoirs of low permeability that cannot be accessed in an economically reasonable time by natural flow methods. the rocks aren't porous meaning more energy is used to extract this

unconventional natural gas

natural gas that is more difficult to access and therefore more expensive to extract than "conventional" reserves - coal bed methane - methane hydrate

acid mine drainage

occurs when rainwater that seeps through an underground mine or a spoils pile from a surface mine carries sulfuric acid to nearby streams and groundwater

volcano

occurs where magma rising in a plume through the lithosphere reaches the earth's surface through a central vent or a long crack, called a fissure. magma that reaches the surface is called lava and often builds into a cone

availability

oil ________ is determined mostly by five factors that can change over time 1- the demand for the oil 2- the technology used to make it available 3- the rate at which we can remove the oil 4- the cost of making it available 5- its market price

tight oil

oil that is held tightly in rocks, and is therefore difficult to extract, however, is becoming more economic to do so; the removal of this from rocks is often known as "fracking"

biomining

one way to improve mining technology and reduce its environmental impact is to use this biological approach where miners use natural or genetically engineering bacteria to remove desired metals from ores through wells bored into the deposits. this leaves the surrounding environment undisturbed and reduces pollution. however, it is very slow compared to the conventional methods

tailings

ore extracted by mining typically contains the ore mineral (the desired metal) and waste material. removing the waste material from ores produces these that are left in piles or put into ponds where they settle out. particles of toxic metals in these piles can be blown by the wind or washed out by rainfall to contaminate surface water/groundwater

coal formation

peat (not a coal) --> lignite (brown coal) --> bituminous (soft coal) --> anthracite (hard coal)

biomass

plant materials (woods or agricultural waste) that we can burn directly as a solid fuel or convert into gaseous or liquid biofuels; an indirect form of solar energy because it consists of combustible organic compounds in plant matter produced by photosynthesis

wind power

power obtained by harnessing the energy of the wind.

solution mining (in situ leaching)

process used to recover minerals such as copper and uranium through boreholes drilled into a deposit; water is flushed through underground wells, hot water is mixed with water soluble vitamins and minerals, and the brine created is extracted

sedimentary rock

rock made of sediments (dead plant and animal remains and tiny particles of weathered and eroded rocks). these sediments are transported and then deposited in layers that accumulate over time. eventually, the increasing weight and pressure on the underlying layers convert the layers into rock ex: sandstone, shale, dolomite, limestone, lignite, bituminous coal

ore

rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral (often a metal) to make it profitable for mining and processing

metamorphic rock

rocks formed when an existing rock is subjected to high temperatures, high pressures, chemically active fluids, or a combination of these agents ex: slate, marble

igneous rock

rocks that form below or on the earth's surface under intense heat and pressure when magma wells up from the earth's mantle and then cools and hardens ex: granite, lava rock

surface mining

shallow mineral deposits are removed by this, in which vegetation, soil, and rock overlying a mineral deposit are cleared away - strip mining - mountaintop removal

synthetic natural gas (SNG)

solid coal can be converted to this through the process of coal gasification, which removed sulfur and most other impurities from coal. then, we can convert it into liquid fuels through a process called coal liquefaction. these fuels (synfuels) are often referred to as cleaner versions of coal and can then be turned to liquid fuel (synfuels) - problem: producing these requires the mining of 50% more coal - problem: could add 50% more CO2 into the atmosphere - problem: takes large amounts of water to be produced

magma

some of the molten rock in the asthenosphere flows upward into the crust, where it is referred to as this

passive solar heating system

system that captures sunlight directly within a structure and converts it into low-temperature heat for space heating or for heating water for domestic use without the use of mechanical devices - water tanks and walls can store much of the collected solar energy as heat and release it slowly throughout the day or night

active solar heating system

system that uses solar collectors to capture energy from the sun and store it as heat for space heating and water heating

subsidence

the collapse of land above some underground mines. damages houses, cracks sewer lines, breaks gas mains, and disrupts groundwater systems

lithosphere

the combination of the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle; this zone is where we find the mineral resources on which we depend

core

the earth's innermost zone; extremely hot with a solid inner part, surrounded by molten rock and semisolid material

energy return on investment (EROI)

the energy obtained per unit of energy used to obtain it

grade

the environmental impacts of mining a metal ore are determined partly by the ore's percentage of metal content, or ________ - the lower this is, the more money, energy, water, and other resources are needed. also, mining will lead to more land disruption, mining waste, and pollution

subsurface mining

the extraction of mineral and energy resources from deep underground deposits through tunnels and shafts; miners dig a deep, vertical shaft, blast open subsurface tunnels and chambers to reach the deposit, and use machinery to remove the resource and transport it to the surface; disturbs less than 1/10th as much land as surface mining disturbs and usually produces less waste material. however, it creates hazards like cave-ins, explosions, and fires

conventional light oil

the extraction, processing, and burning of this has severe environmental impacts, including land disruption, greenhouse gas emissions, and other forms of air pollution, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity

tectonic plates

the flows of energy and heated material within the earth's convection cells are so powerful that they have caused the lithosphere to break up into these which move extremely slowly atop the asthenosphere

rock cycle

the interaction of physical and chemical processes that change the earth's rocks from one type to another. rocks are recycled over millions of years by three processes - erosion, melting, and metamorphism which produce sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks

higher

the more accessible, _______ (higher/lower) grade ores are usually exploited first

uranium-235

the nuclear fission reaction takes place in a reactor; the fuel for a reactor is made from THIS ore mined from the earth's crust.

crust

the outermost and thinnest zone of solid material; consists of the continental crust (underlies the continents) and the oceanic crust (underlies the ocean basins)

peak production

the point in time when the pressure in an oil well drops and its rate of conventional crude oil production starts declining (usually a decade after pumping); globally occurs when the rate of global production of conventional oil begins to decline faster than new oil fields are found and put into production

smelting

the process by which ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements; heating ores to release metals emit enormous amounts of air pollutants, which damage vegetation and acidify soils in the surrounding area. also cause water pollution and produce liquid and solid hazardous wastes that require safe disposal

fracking

the pumping of water at high pressure to break apart rocks in order to release natural gas - requires enormous volumes of water, which might deplete aquifers, degrade aquatic habitats, and diminish water availability - fluids used contain potentially hazardous chemicals, leading to millions of gallons of wastewater that is brought to the surface that might be hard to store - leads to mining for a certain type of sand required in the process - might be causing earthquakes

geology

the science devoted to the study of dynamic processes taking place on the earth's surface and in its interior

mantle

the thick zone surrounding the core made mostly of solid rock that can be soft and pliable at very high temperatures

depletion time

the time it takes to use up a certain proportion of the reserves of a mineral at a given rate of use - the shortest time estimate assumes no recycling or reuse and no increase in reserves - a longer time estimate assumes that recycling will stretch existing reserves and that better mining technology, higher prices, or new discoveries will increase reserves - the longest time also includes reuse and reduced consumption to further expand reserves

net energy yield

the usable amount of high-quality energy available from an energy resource; total amount of energy available from an energy resource minus the energy needed to make the resource available to us

oil

the world's most widely used energy resource. used to heat our homes, grow most of our food, make other energy resources available for use, and manufacture most of the things we use every day, from plastics to cosmetics to asphalt on roads

manganese, cobalt, chromium, platinum

there are serious concerns about access to adequate supplies of these four strategic metal resources, which are essential for our country's economic and military strength. the US has little or no reserves of these metals

rare-earth elements

these elements are not actually rare, but they are hard to find in concentrations high enough to extract and process at an affordable price. there is no global shortage of these

internal combustion engine

this that propels most motor vehicles wastes about 80% of the high quality energy in its fuel

seismic map

to identify potential oil deposits, scientists use large machines to pound the earth, which sends shock waves deep underground. then, they measure how long it takes for the waves to be reflected back. this information is converted into a 3D _________ _____ of the underground, showing the locations and sizes of various rock formations

cogeneration

to improve energy efficiency in industries and utilities, this involves using a combined heat and power (CHP) system. the steam used for generating electricity in a CHP system can be captured and used again to heat the power plant or other nearby buildings, rather than released into the environment as waste heat.

convection cells (currents)

tremendous heat within the core and mantle generate these that slowly move large volumes of rock and heat in loops within the mantle like gigantic conveyor belts

area strip mining

type of surface mining used where the terrain is flat; an earthmover strips away the overburden, and a power shovel digs a cut to remove the mineral deposit. after removal of the mineral, the trench is filled with overburden, and a new cut is made parallel to the previous one

hydrothermal reservoirs

underground zones of porous rock containing hot water and steam that can be naturally occurring or human-made. we drill wells into these to extract their dry steam, wet steam, or hot water, which are then used to heat homes, provide hot water, grow vegetables in greenhouses, raise fish in aquaculture ponds, and spin turbines to produce electricity

spoils

unwanted rock and other waste materials are deposited in these piles. produced when a material is removed from the earth's surface or subsurface by mining, dredging, quarrying, and excavation.

solar thermal systems (concentrated solar power)

use different methods to collect and concentrate solar energy in order to boil water and produce steam for generating electricity. they are often used in desert areas with ample sunlight

contour strip mining

used mostly to mine coal and various mineral resources on hilly or mountainous terrain. huge power shovels and bulldozers cut a series of terraces into the side of a hill. then, earth-movers remove the overburden, an excavator or power shovel extracts the coal, and the overburden from each new terrace is dumped onto the one below. a highwall (highly erodible bank of soil and rock) is leftover

geothermal heat pump system

uses closed-loop or open-loop water sources to heat or cool a house by exploiting the temperature difference between the earth's surface and underground - winter: closed loop of buried pipes circulates a fluid, which extracts heat from the ground and carries it to a heat pump - summer: removes heat from a home's interior and stores it in the ground

seismic waves

vibrations that travel through Earth carrying the energy released during an earthquake; move upward and outward from the earthquake's focus like ripples in a pool of water

photovoltaic cells (solar cells)

we can convert solar energy directly into electrical energy using these; typically thin wafers of purified silicon with trace amounts of metals that allow them to conduct electricity. when sunlight strikes these cells, they produce electricity and many cells wired together in a panel can produce electrical power

economically depleted

we have never completely run out of a nonrenewable mineral resource, but a mineral becomes ______________ ______________ when it costs more than it is worth to find, extract, transport, and process the remaining deposits. at that point, there are 5 choices: recycle or reuse existing supplies, waste less, use less, find a substitute, or do without

earthquake

when a fault (fracture in the earth's crust) forms/when there is abrupt movement on an existing fault, energy that has accumulated over time is released in the form of vibrations called seismic waves that move in all directions through the surrounding rock. mostly occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates

rises

when a resource becomes scarce, its price ________ (rises/decreases). this can encourage exploration for new deposits, stimulate development of better mining technology and make it profitable to mine lower-grade ores; it also encourages a search for substitutes and promote resource conservation