APUSH - By the People - Chpt 20

World War II

*Wilson* and *Bryan* also tried to end U.S. control of the Philippines. They convinced Congress to pass legislation granting eventual independence to the islands, but Republican opponents succeeded in deleting any specific deadline. Only after ___ did the United States recognize the independence of the Philippines, though it had been promised in 1916. (612) 5

Cuba Ostend Manifesto

The U.S. War with Spain started in _(1)_. The United States had long been interested in _(1)_. Well before the *Civil War*, southern Senators had suggested that the United States ought to acquire _(1)_ as a slave state to offset the growing number of Northern free states. In I854, the American ambassadors to Europe's leading powers issued the so-called _(2)_, demanding that Spain sell _(1)_ to the United States, but it did not happen. After the *Civil War*, _(1)_ was no longer of value as a slave state, but interest in the island never disappeared from American politics, and American investors were active there. By the 1890s, almost 90 percent of _(1)_n exports came to the United States, and American investors owned much of the best firm land the island. (606) 2

Nations

During the peace negotiations, several new ___ were created within Europe—*Poland, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia*—that were supposed to recognize the hopes for independence by ethnic groups who had been dominated by the old tottering Austria-Hungary and Ottoman empires, but the mapping of those boundaries set off its own ethnic tensions, especially for people who suddenly became an ethnic minority in a new country. (627) 3

Puerto Rico Nelson Miles

Finally, the United States decided to take the last Spanish outpost in the Caribbean, _(1)_. Once control of Cuba seemed assured in July 1898, *McKinley* ordered General _(2)_ to _(1)_. He wanted to be sure the troops arrived before peace talks began with Spain. In 1898, some _(1)_ns welcomed the U.S. overthrow of Spanish authority, and the indigenous independence movement in _(1)_ was not as strong as that in Cuba. (607) 5

Falaba Lusitania

In March 1915, a submarine sank a small British passenger ship, the _(1)_, and an American citizen was killed. Then on May 7, 1915, a submarine sank the British liner _(2)_, the grandest and fastest ocean liner then in service. The _(2)_ sank in 18 minutes and 1,198 people were killed, including 127 American citizens. The United States demanded an apology from Germany. When *Bryan* suggested also issuing a formal warning to American citizens not to travel on ships belonging to countries that were at war, Wilson refused. (617) 4

Bolshevik Revolution Bolsheviks Treaty of Brest Litovsk

On Germany's eastern front, the _(1)_ in Russia in November 1917 led to a new government that wanted nothing to do with the war. The _(2)_ signed the _(3)_ which ended the war between Germany and Russia on German terms, the most important term of all being that Germany could now focus exclusively on the western front and attack France in the spring of 1918. (624) 2

Theodore Roosevelt

Once Panama declared independence, the United States quickly- with "indecent haste," one critic said—recognized the independent Panamanian government and then proposed the canal to them. Three months later in February 1904, both nations ratified a treaty giving the United States the right to a canal zone 10 miles wide, which "the United States would possess... [as] if it were the sovereign of the territory", while the new government in Panama City got the $10 million that had originally been offered to Colombia. ___ got the route he wanted, if not the good will of Latin America. (611) 1

Woodrow Wilson

The ___ administration had to steer a difficult course while facing considerable internal pressures. Former president *Roosevelt* urged massive buildup of the army and navy as well as a *military draft*, all in the name of preparedness for an eventual war on the side of the British and French. From *Roosevelt's* perspective, ___ was dangerously passive. (617) 1

Charles Hughes

While *Wilson* was seeking to maintain neutrality and dealing with his personal life, 1916 was also an election year. After *Ellen's* death, he had seriously considered not running, but his new personal life and his desire to see the diplomatic crisis through led him to declare his candidacy for a second term. The Republican Party was reunited and nominated *Supreme Court Justice* ___. ___ had served two terms as governor of New York, but he had also been on the *Supreme Court* since 1910 and thus sat out the *Roosevelt-Taft split*. *Roosevelt* called him "the bearded iceberg," but campaigned strongly for the ticket as did *Taft*. It was a very close contest, but in the end, *Wilson* carried California by 4,000 votes and, with it, the Electoral College. (418) 2

Jose Marti

While many Americans saw the Cuban revolution of the 1890s as a simple question of good Cubans against bad Spaniards, American business leaders with investments in Cuba also worried that a revolutionary victory would threaten their investments. ___, while grateful for American support, worried about long-term American influence, insisting that, "To change masters is not to be free." (606) 5

Anti Imperialist League Andrew Carnegie

Within the United States, broad-based opposition to the war in the Philippines was organized as the _(1)_, founded at Boston in June 1898. The league included unlikely allies. _(2)_ offered to buy the islands from the United States to secure their independence and wrote to one member of *McKinley's* cabinet, "You seem to have finished your work of civilizing the Filipinos; it is thought that about 8,000 of them have been completely civilized and sent to Heaven; I hope you like it." *Charles Adams* (descendent of two presidents), former abolitionist *Thomas Higginson*, reformers including *Jane Addams* and *Henry Lloyd*, labor leaders including *Samuel Gompers*, rival Democrats *William Jennings Bryan* and *Grover Cleveland*, and university presidents like Harvard's *Charles Eliot* and Stanford's *David Jordan* all opposed the annexation. (609) 1

Georges Clemenceau

*Wilson* stayed at the peace conference for 6 months except for one 2-week return trip to the United States. He did not have as much success as he expected. He was not well-staffed. He found himself in painful meetings with the three European premiers who had different goals from his and who, especially ___, obviously did not respect him. (626) 2

American

Between 1898 and 1902, and beyond, the U.S. Army engaged in a brutal battle with Filipino insurgents. Many more ___ soldiers were killed in the postwar insurgency in the Philippine Islands than were killed in the war with Spain. Thousands of Filipinos were killed—perhaps 20,000 in combat and 200,000 from war-related causes--and many more left homeless. (608) 4

William Bryan

From the German perspective, an immediate attack on supplies going to Britain and France was the only way to win the war. If they could block food and munitions from getting to the allies, then the Germans believed they could win the war before the United States could organize itself to do much harm. In March, *U-boats* sank three U.S. merchant ships with the loss of 15 American lives. As ___ had warned, *Wilson's* hard line meant that Germany had the initiative. The president felt he had run out of options. On April 2, 1917, *Wilson* appeared before a joint session of Congress and asked for a declaration of war against Germany. (618) 5

Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists Boxer Rebellion

In China, tensions were also rising against the United States. The _(1)_, (called *Boxers* by foreigners) a secret society consisting of local farmers, peasants, and others who were victims of disastrous floods and opium addiction, led the _(2)_ in 1901, attacking all foreigners, including American businessmen and missionaries, whom they blamed for their plight. Although the _(2)_ was quickly quashed by an international force, Chinese citizens carrying anti-American posters and singing anti-American songs, organized a massive boycott of U.S. goods in 1905. (612) 2

USS Maine

In February 1898, over 200 American sailors were killed when the battleship ___ blew up in *Havana Harbor*. The explosion may well have been the result of a bad boiler; however, Americans blamed Spain, and "Remember the ___" became a rallying cry. *McKinley* managed to get Congress to declare war without ever asking for it. (607) 2

Woodrow Wilson

Many of those who supported US entry into the war assumed that the country would limit its role to patrolling the oceans and providing material to the Allies. But once ___ led the nation to war, he wanted full-scale involvement just as he had told the Congress. He was determined to defeat Germany and to win a place for himself at the table of the peace negotiations that he knew must come at the war's end. (622) 2

Liliuokalani

Under *Cleveland*, the United States might have supported ___'s restoration had she not insisted that she would execute all of the rebels. That action was too much for *Cleveland*, and his administration ignored Hawaii, which continued as an independent nation under the control of the American planters who had overthrown the queen's government. (605) 1

Pogroms John Hay

While the czarist government was grateful for *Roosevelt's* role in ending the war, Russian immigrants to the United States had their own grievances against the tsar's rule. When hundreds of Russian Jews were killed in _(1)_ between 1903 and 1906, Jewish immigrants in the United States pressured the U.S. government to do something about the situation, and President *Roosevelt* and Secretary of State _(2)_ issued a formal protest. The Russian ambassador responded to the protest saying that it was "unbecoming for Americans to criticize" Russia in light of American lynching of African-Americans and the bad treatment of Chinese immigrants. (611) 6

Jane Addams

___ continued to oppose the war and seek international mediation to end it. She not only wanted the United States out of the war but also wanted to end the war wherever it was fought. At the same time, ___ sought to ensure that there was "bread in time of war," no matter who needed to eat. She happily cooperated with the US. government's *Food Administration* though she objected to its slogan, "Food Will Win the War." Nevertheless ___ urged residents of Chicago to plant vegetable gardens and consume less so that more could be sent to those in greatest need. (621) 4

Gentlemen's Agreement

A diplomatic agreement in 1907 between Japan and the United States curtailing, but not abolishing, Japanese immigration. (612)

Committee on Public Information

Government agency during *World War I* that sought to shape public opinion in support of the war effort through newspapers, pamphlets, speeches, films, and other media. Created by *Wilson*. (620)

Robert La Follette Jane Addams

In contrast, Progressive Senator _(1)_ of Wisconsin and other politicians, especially those from states with large German populations led a peace movement fearing that *Wilson* was edging toward war. _(2)_ led a large woman's movement for peace. Many union leaders saw the war as a battle between European capitalists in which the working class should not be involved. *Anarchists* and *socialists* condemned the war. Between 1914 and 1916, in spite of *Roosevelt's* best efforts to build support for preparedness and war, most Americans in and out of office favored keeping as far distant from Europe's problems as possible. (617) 2

Paris

No one knows exactly how many were killed and wounded in *World War I* or how many more died of disease and exposure. By some estimates, as many as 65 million men fought, of whom 8 million were killed. In Europe, hardly a family escaped losing someone, and for a generation young women outnumbered voting men by significant numbers. Ships were sunk, villages and towns destroyed national economies wrecked. While some including *Wilson* wanted to use the end of the war to secure a "just and lasting peace," others wanted vengeance, and still others wanted to forget all about war and simply have a good time in a life that they knew could be cut all too short. Amid all these conflicting political and emotional cross-currents, leaders of the victorious nations met in ___ at the beginning of 1919 to write a peace treaty. (625) 1

Dollar Diplomacy

The US policy urged by President *Taft* of using private investments in other nations to promote American diplomatic goals and business interests. (612)

Schenck v United States

The first of several decisions by the *US Supreme Court* upholding the *Sedition* and *Espionage Acts*. (624)

Victoriano Huerta

The most difficult foreign policy issue for *Wilson* in his first term involved *Mexico*. In February 1913, just before *Wilson's* inauguration, Mexican army general ___ led a military coup against the elected moderate, President *Francisco Madera* who was killed in the bloody overthrow. Many American investors wanted the U.S. government to support the new ___ administration, but *Wilson* announced, "We can have no sympathy with those who seek the power of government to advance their own personal interests or ambitions:' *Wilson* and *Bryan* believed that the coup was part of a battle between British and American oil companies, and they wanted none of it. (613) 1

War Guilt Mao

*Clemenceau* compromised on his initial goal of dividing Germany into several smaller nation-states, but he won on achieving strict limits to German military power, temporary occupation of the *Rhineland*, and a "_(1)_" clause, which meant that Germany should pay most of the war's cost. Most of the world's non-European peoples were bitterly disappointed with the treaty. Middle Eastern and African colonies that had belonged to the defeated *Central Powers* expected to be granted their independence by the peace conference. Instead, they became "mandates" assigned to various victorious powers that were supposed to grant them independence at some unspecified future date. Japan, which had played only a modest role in the war, won the right to continue its control over *Shandong* province in China, leading a young _(2)_ to call the treaty "really shameless." In addition, protests erupted in India, Egypt, Korea, and China over other provisions in the treaty. (627) 1

Panama

*Roosevelt's* greatest interest in Latin America, however, remained constant. He wanted a canal, and he wanted it built in the territory of ___ that then belonged to Colombia. Even though the government of Colombia did not agree, many in ___ saw the situation differently. ___ was a frontier province of Colombia, distant enough that it could take 15 days for messages from ___ City to reach the national government in *Bogota*. Many in ___ were ready to declare independence. There is no evidence that *Roosevelt* actively urged a revolution, but he certainly did nothing to discourage one either. In November 1903, when ___ revolted against Colombian rule, *Roosevelt* sent orders to U.S. Navy ships standing by on both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of ___ to "prevent landing of any armed force with hostile intent, either government or insurgent." Since the insurgents were already in ___ and the only forces that wanted to land were from the Colombian government, the impact of the order was clear. Describing the independence movement in ___, *Roosevelt* told the U.S. Congress that the people of ___ had risen up against Colombia, "literally as one man." Senator *Edward Carmack* retorted, "Yes, and the one man was *Roosevelt*." (610) 3

League of Nations Treaty of Versailles

*Wilson* convinced himself that he had gotten as good a treaty as he could—which was perhaps true given the other actors at the peace conference—and he invested his greatest hopes in the idea that the _(1)_ could resolve any remaining issues. He signed the _(2)_ in June 1919 and sailed for home. On July 10, *Wilson* personally spoke to the U.S. Senate, asking them to ratify the treaty. He reminded his audience of the nation's high ideals in going to war and the fact that "in the settlements of the peace we have sought no special reparation for ourselves." The key to the whole treaty and, indeed, to future peace, *Wilson* continued, was that the _(1)_ was "the only hope of mankind." So he begged the Senate to ratify the treaty immediately without any amendments, asking, "Shall we or any other free peoples hesitate to accept this great duty? Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?" The Senate, which had final authority to approve any treaty, would take 8 months to give *Wilson* his answer. (627) 4

Venustiano Carranza John Pershing

*Wilson* notified _(1)_ of his intention to respect Mexican sovereignty, but also ordered the US. Army, under General _(2)_, to enter Mexico and find *Villa*. _(1)_ had much to benefit from eliminating *Villa* and stayed out of the battle. Some 10,000 U.S. troops under _(2)_'s command were well-equipped with motor vehicles and airplanes, but they never found *Villa* though they engaged in some bloody battles as they chased him through northern Mexico for months. Eventually in early 1917, as *Wilson* became more and more concerned with the war in Europe, the U.S. forces withdrew without success, and *Villa* survived until he was assassinated in 1923. (614) 1

William Borah

*Wilson* was greeted as a hero when he arrived home in the United States, and public opinion seemed to be on his side, but there were problems lurking for the *Versailles Treaty*. The battle over the treaty has often been portrayed, as it was by *Wilson*, as one between his internationalism and an older isolationist view of America; however, the issues were more complex. *Wilson* had made the treaty needlessly partisan by campaigning vigorously, but unsuccessfully, for a Democratic victory in the 1918 elections and then failing to take any Republican leaders with him to Paris. He had also lost many of his strongest supporters who were disillusioned by the attack on civil liberties that he had allowed during the war and the compromises he had made at Paris. Some senators such as California's *Hiram Johnson* and Idaho's ___ opposed any binding promise to intervene in other nation's affairs. ___ said that he wanted not isolation but freedom to do as our own people think wise and just." (627) 5

Great White Fleet

A US Navy fleet sent around the world from December 1907 to February 1909 by President *Theodore Roosevelt* to show American strength and to promote good will. (612)

Emilio Aguinaldo William Bryan

A greater difficulty with the president's plan was the fact that many Filipinos did not want to be annexed by the United States. A revolt against Spain had been underway long before Commodore *Dewey* sank the Spanish fleet in *Manila Bay*. In addition, *Dewey* had encouraged _(1)_, leader of the Filipino insurrection, to establish an interim government for the islands. _(1)_ expected U.S. recognition of Philippine independence, and even after it became clear that this was not President *McKinley's* plan, _(1)_ hoped for either the defeat of *McKinley's* treaty in the Senate or a victory in the 1900 presidential elections by _(2)_, who strongly opposed annexation of the Philippines. When the Senate ratified the treaty with Spain and _(2)_ lost the election, _(1)_ led a revolt against the United States. What the U.S. government called the "Philippine Insurrection," _(1)_ called a war for independence. (608) 3

David George Arthur Zimmermann Venustiano Carranza

A month after the election *Wilson* tried to broker a peace between Europe's warring powers. He asked both sides for their demands. Germany indicated that it was willing to discuss peace, but a new British government led by Prime Minister _(1)_ said it had no interest in American mediation. Then in December, _(1)_ indicated willingness to talk while the Germans backed off. In the midst of this diplomacy, the German government made two fateful mistakes. On January 31, 1917, it announced to the United States that it was resuming the full employment of all the weapons...at its disposal." At the same time, German Foreign Minister _(2)_ sent a secret cable to the German embassy in Mexico with an offer to the _(3)_ government—long estranged from *Wilson* and the United States--that if it would attack the United States, Germany would see to the restoration of the territory from Texas to California that had been taken from Mexico in 1848. (618) 3

US Imperialism

A term used to describe the US acquisition of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands in 1898. (603)

Cossacks Togo

Across the world, Russia had long been expanding its territory. Russian _(1)_ had asserted control of Asian Siberia for Russia in the 1600s and then looked west to North America and south in Asia. All Russian expansion came to an abrupt halt in early 1904, however. Japan, which had emerged as a modern military and diplomatic power, was determined to stop Russia from acquiring influence in *Manchuria* and *Korea*. The Japanese fleet under Admiral _(2)_ attacked and destroyed a Russian fleet anchored at *Port Arthur*. To America, the war seemed far away, and the United States quickly declared neutrality. A year later in May 1905, another Russian fleet was destroyed. The Japanese Navy sank twenty-two Russian ships, killed some 4,000 Russian sailors, and captured several more ships along with the Russian commander Admiral *Rozhdestvenski*. Nevertheless, no peace treaty emerged, and Japanese resources were spent. (611) 3

Treaty of Versailles WEB Du Bois Madame Walker

African-American leaders also protested the failure of the _(1)_ to respect the righta of citizens of former German colonies in Africa or mention racial discrimination in the final treaty. _(2)_ tried to organize a Pan-African conference in Paris to protest the treaty's failings, but the British government would not give passports to Africans from British colonies who wanted to attend, and the U.S. State Department refused permission to American delegates, including _(3)_, the first African-American woman millionaire, and journalists *Ida Wells-Barnett* and *William Trotter*. _(2)_ made it to the meeting only by signing up as a cook on a freighter bound for France. (627) 2

Hawaii James Cook

Although the United States was a major influence in _(1)_ long before *Mahan* argued fora wider Pacific influence for the nation, it was in *Mahan's* time that the United States annexed _(1)_. While the *American Revolution* was being fought, a British explorer, _(2)_, landed on a chain of islands that he named the *Sandwich Islands*, which came to be known as _(1)_. Before _(2)_'s arrival in 1778, there had been no contact between the native _(1)_ans and Europeans. The Polynesian people whom _(2)_ encountered were governed by a stable if loosely held feudal monarchy. Unfortunately, like other native peoples, they had no immunity to Western diseases, and the contact initiated by _(2)_ took a terrible toll. (604) 3

William Seward

American settlers in Washington Territory were learning about the rich fishing, whaling, and fur trapping that was possible in Alaska. Secretary of State ___ envisioned its value and coordinated negotiations to purchase it from Russia. The negotiators agreed on a price of $7.2 million, and on October 18, 1867, the Russian flag was hauled down at Sitka and the Stars and Stripes rose in its place. Congress balked at appropriating the funds for the purchase and critics called the whole transfer "___'s folly," but the nation had gained valuable new territory. Fishing, mining, the fur trade, and indeed the sale of ice to Californians made Alaska a good investment. However, Aleuts, Sitkas, Kolosh, and other Alaskan tribes found that they had only substituted one overlord for another. U.S. troops, miners, and settlers fought with Alaskan tribes as they had with native peoples further south. (604) 1

Platt Amendment

An amendment to a U.S. army appropriations bill, established the terms under which the United States would end its military occupation of Cuba (which had begun in 1898 during the Spanish-American War) and "leave the government and control of the island of Cuba to its people." It laid down eight conditions to which the Cuban Government had to agree before the withdrawal of U.S. forces and the transfer of sovereignty would begin.

The Constitution Follows the Flag

An argument that the rights of US citizens should be extended to any people living in a territory conquered by the United States. (609)

Woodrow Wilson

As he had done at Princeton and in New Jersey state politics when he faced opposition, ___ appealed over the heads of his immediate opponents to a wider audience, in this case, the whole nation. In the fall of 1919, ___ began a 10,000-mile tour of the country, giving 40 speeches in 21 days to enthusiastic audiences, asking them to tell their senators to support the treaty. The public response was gratifying but did not move votes in the Senate. The trip also broke the president's already fragile health. On September 25 at Pueblo, Colorado, after a speech in which he said that with the treaty he had negotiated, "international law is revolutionized by putting morals into it," and promising that his beloved league would "lead us, and through us the world, out into pastures of quietness and peace such as the world never dreamed of before," he collapsed and admitted that he could not go on. After he returned to the White House, ___ suffered a life-threatening infection and a massive stroke that left him partially paralyzed. The medical conditions may also have clouded his judgment and made him more stubborn. (629) 1

Belgium Battle of the Somme Verdun

At the beginning of the war, many Europeans were caught up in patriotic fervor. Young men signed up promptly and marched off proudly. Both sides expected an easy victory. The *German* army attacked France by moving through neutral _(1)_. It was a move that cost Germany dearly in public support, but it allowed the German army to get within 30 miles of Paris early in the war. Then an allied counteroffensive drove the *Germans* back, and by November 1914, both sides were dug in for the long trench warfare that would not move very much—though every small move cost thousands of soldiers their lives—until March of 1918. The long years of trench warfare were ghastly. In 1916 at the _(2)_, 60,000 British soldiers were killed in a single day. In a year-long battle for the town of _(3)_, a million soldiers were killed. New forms of artillery, tanks, and flamethrowers, along with the introduction of poisonous mustard gas, caused what seemed like never-ending waves of death while life in the trenches involved living for months with mud, rats, and rotten food. Despite these costs, the battle lines did not change significantly. *Wilson* called it "this vast gruesome contest of systematized destruction." (615) 4

Sedition Act

Broad law restricting criticism of America's involvement in *World War I* or its government, flag, military, taxes, or officials. (621)

Teller Amendment Henry Teller Treaty of Paris

By August 1898, Spain was ready to ask for peace. Much to *McKinley's* displeasure, the congressional resolution authorizing the war had included the _(1)_, named for Senator _(2)_ of Colorado, which said the United States could not permanently annex *Cuba*. If the United States could not annex Cuba, *Puerto Rico* seemed like the next best permanent U.S. territory in the Caribbean. In the case of the *Philippines*, which had not been an initial focus of the war, *McKinley* felt that he could "see but one plain path of duty—the acceptance of the archipelago. " In the _(3)_ of December 1898, Spain ceded control of *Cuba, Puerto Rico*, and the *Philippines* to the United States for a payment of $20 million. Afterward, the United States promised eventual independence for Cuba. Suddenly, the United States was a world power, joining the nations of Europe with its own far-flung empire. What to do with that empire would be a subject of considerable debate in the future. (607) 6

Annexation Club John Stevens Grover Cleveland

By the 1880s, American economic power in *Hawaii* was overwhelming, but the islands remained independent. When King *Kalakaua* died, his sister Queen *Liliuokalani* succeeded him. She sought to regain "Hawaii for the Hawaiians" and reduce the economic and political power of the United States. Most of the American planters on the island did not like the queen's moves and formed the _(1)_. In 1893, the annexation group overthrew her and seized power. The U.S. minister in Hawaii, _(2)_, cabled Washington, "The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe and this is the golden hour for the United States to pluck it." The U.S. Navy landed sailors "to preserve order," thus securing the queen's overthrow. Hawaii would have been annexed to the United States if the recently inaugurated Democratic President _(3)_ had not sensed that there was something unseemly about the whole affair and ended negotiations with the rebels. _(3)_ announced his firm opposition to annexation. (604) 6

Sugar Trust Jose Marti concentration camps

Cubans wanted to throw off Spanish rule and win independence. An 1890 agreement with Spain had reduced the tariff on sugar, launching a boom in the Cuban economy, but a new U.S. tariff in 1891 strongly influenced by lobbying from the _(1)_ in the United States, significantly raised the tariff on imported sugar. The increased cost of Cuban sugar in the United States, significantly reduced the sales of Cuban sugar and devastated the Cuban economy. Cuban revolutionaries led by _(2)_, who had been living in exile in New York City, saw the resulting Cuban depression as the ideal moment to gain independence. _(2)_ returned to Cuba in 1895, and his revolutionary forces began burning cane fields, killing Spanish soldiers, and making Spanish rule more costly. Spanish authorities responded by creating _(3)_ where they held Cubans in controlled enclaves that separated them from the rebels. Many in these camps suffered from malnutrition and disease. (606) 3

Civil War

Deciding to send troops to fight in Europe was one thing. Actually getting an army raised and across the ocean was quite another. Over significant opposition, Congress passed a military draft, and draft boards across the country began processing the not-always-willing recruits. Training camps were set up. Regardless, it took time to raise and train an army. It also took both time and ships to get them across the Atlantic, and the United States was short on both. Since the ___, the U.S. merchant marine, needed to transport troops and supplies, had shrunk even as the navy had grown, and German attacks had reduced Britain's shipping capacity significantly. (622) 4

California Gold Rush Clayton-Bulwer Treaty John Hay Lord Pauncefote Isthmian Canal Commission

Ever since the _(1)_ of 1848, there had been talk of building a canal across Central America that would allow shorter travel by ship from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, but the hurdles were significant. The narrow point of land between North and South America was hot and damp, and mosquito-born diseases made work there a death sentence. The land was also mountainous, and for any canal to be built, engineers had to design a series of locks to raise and lower ships. Nevertheless, in 1850, the United States and Britain negotiated the _(2)_, stating that any canal would be a joint venture though neither controlled the territory. Fifty years later, few in the United States still wanted a joint venture with Britain, and in November 1901, Secretary of State _(3)_ and the British Ambassador to the United States, _(4)_, concluded a treaty that gave the United States the exclusive right to build an interocean waterway in Central America. *McKinley* had created an _(5)_ that recommended building a canal in Nicaragua, but *Roosevelt* preferred a shorter route through Panama. (610) 1

John Pershing American Expeditionary Forces

General _(1)_, fresh from the failed effort to find *Villa* in Mexico, became the commander of the _(2)_ in large part because he had kept silent when others were criticizing *Wilson's* lack of early preparation for war. *Wilson* refused an offer by former President *Roosevelt* to raise his own all-volunteer unit. _(1)_'s orders were to work closely with the British and the French while protecting the separate identity of the American forces. (622) 3

Homestead Act William Taft

Having purchased Alaska, the U.S. government was slow to do much with it. Only in 1884 did Congress create any official form of government for what they called the *District of Alaska*. Soon thereafter, gold was discovered in the district, and the *Klondike gold rush* of the late 1880s expanded the American population of Alaska as did 1898 legislation that extended the provisions of the 1862 _(1)_ to Alaska. Finally in 1912, President _(2)_ signed legislation giving Alaska full territorial status, and the elected legislature first met at Juneau the following year. (604) 2

Gentlemen's Agreement Chinese Exclusion Act Great White Fleet

However, in 1907 and 1908, Roosevelt successfully negotiated the _(1)_ by which the United States agreed not to pass any formal limit on Japanese immigration and the Japanese government agreed to limit the emigration of laborers to the United States. For Japan, it was important not to face anything as insulting as the _(2)_ of 1882 had been For Californians, *Roosevelt* had accomplished the goal of establishing a limit on Japanese immigration. At the same time, *Roosevelt* used Japan's threat of war to ask Congress to appropriate funds to expand the U.S. Navy and then sent the _(3)_ —16 battleships painted gleaming white rather than navy grey—around the world with a dramatic stop at *Tokyo Bay*. The 1908 tensions with Japan had receded, though they were hardly ended. (612) 1

Woodrow Wilson Theodore Roosevelt

In 1914, all of Europe went to war. President _(1)_ was determined to stay out of the conflict and campaigned for reelection in 1916 with the slogan "He kept us out of war." Although _(1)_ would not continue to keep the nation out of the European war, the man he defeated in the 1912 presidential election, former President _(2)_, was ready to go to war much sooner than _(1)_. As president, _(2)_ liked to summarize his foreign policy with the proverb, "Speak softly and carry a big stick." When Europe began what was then called the *Great War*, the former president was speaking less and less softly and arguing that the United States should prepare for war and that _(1)_'s neutrality was a sign of personal and national weakness. (602) 1

Sedition Act of 1918 Espionage Act of 1917

In 1917 and 1918, Congress passed several acts to control the country's responses to the war, including the _(1)_ and the _(2)_, giving the government vast new powers to limit free speech and the press that had not been seen in the United States since the *Alien and Sedition Acts* of the *John Adams* administration. The _(1)_ made illegal "uttering, printing, writing, or publishing any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the government of the United 'States ...or the military or naval forces of the United States." Postmaster General *Albert Burleson* banned from the U.S. mail anything that he thought violated the act. Attorney General *Thomas W. Gregory* and his successor *A. Mitchell Palmer* prosecuted violators or left it to local U.S. attorneys to do so. (621) 2

Fourteen Points Vladmir Lenin

In January 1918, as the United States went to war, *Wilson* outlined what came to be known as his _(1)_. The president said that America insisted on "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at." The commitment to openness was a mix of *Wilsonian* idealism and a reaction to the release by the new Russian leader, _(2)_, of secret agreements that had been negotiated by the czarist government, Britain, and France. Although he did not use the word "self-determination," *Wilson* condemned old-style European imperialism and, indeed, any wars fought for territory. He insisted that the many diverse nationalities living within the Austria-Hungarian and Ottoman Turkish empires should have "an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development." Most of all, he called for a "general association of nations" to preserve peace. (626) 1

Jane Addams

In Spite of government policies and the efforts of many in organizations like the all Americans to support the war, dissenters continued to speak out. ___, leader of the *Women's Peace Party* as well as Chicago's *Hull House*, spoke to the *City Club of Chicago* just after war had been declared, saying, "That the United States has entered the war has not changed my views of the invalidity of war as method of settlement of social problems a particle, and I can see no reason why one should not say what one believes in time of war as in time of peace...," Her words were greeted only by silence from the club women. The *National Federation of Settlements*, which ___ had helped to found, said, "It has been very painful to many of us who bold Miss ___ in deep affection and wholly respect her, to find that we cannot think or act in unison with her." (621) 3

Lusitania

In response to the American note, the German government sent secret orders to its submarine captains to avoid large passenger liners, but their official word to the United States was evasive. *Wilson* promised that if Germany would give up submarine warfare, he would also press Britain to end the blockade of goods flowing to Germany and Austria, but he also prepared a second note to Germany saying that the sinking of the ___ involved "principles of humanity." (617) 5

Victoriano Huerta Venustiano Carranza Francisco Villa

In spite of the president's intentions, Americans had major investments in Mexico, and thousands of American citizens worked in Mexico as teachers, nurses, and construction workers. *Wilson* could not ignore the country, and he sent envoys to try to persuade _(1)_ to resign, but failed. He spoke passionately about "the self-restraint of a really great nation." When a revolution against _(1)_ led by _(2)_ and _(3)_ broke out, *Wilson* recognized it. In April of 1914, when *Wilson* got word that a large shipment of European arms for _(1)_'s government was on its way to the Mexican port of *Veracruz*, *Wilson* ordered the Navy to land at the port and stop the arms. The arms were stopped, but to *Wilson's* surprise, Mexico did not welcome the intervention, Mexican forces fought the U.S. Marines, and 17 Americans were killed. Not only _(1)_ but also _(2)_ condemned what they called a U.S. invasion. The end result was good for _(2)_. Without the new arms, _(1)_ resigned and went into exile, and _(2)_ rode into Mexico City as the victor. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile agreed to negotiate a solution, and the Americans withdrew from *Veracruz.* (613) 3

The Allies Great War

In the summer of 1914, Europe was at peace. Even so, independence movements within the Austria-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires; particularly in Balkan states (including Serbia), were challenging the empire's central governments. In addition, a newly united *Germany* was angry at being shut out of the colonies in Africa and Asia by the speed with which the British and French had moved. An arms race had developed among the continent's greatest powers, and in their quest for security, European nations had developed a complex series of defensive alliances. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Turkish Ottoman Empire were known as the *Central Powers*. Russia, France, and Great Britain were known simply as _(1)_. All of these factors quickly led Europe to tumble into all-out war when Austria set out to punish Serbia and Russia came to the aid of the Serbians. By August, all of Europe was engulfed in what was called the _(2)_. (The term *World War I* was coined only after the outbreak of another great war in 1939, one which quickly came to be known as *World War II.*) (615) 3

First Lady

In the summer of 1914, as Europe began to move toward war, *Ellen Wilson*, the president's wife of 30 years whose warmth offset *Wilson's* sometimes dour personality, became desperately ill. Her kidneys were failing, and through the summer, the president read diplomatic cables while sitting by his wife's bedside. She died at the White House at the beginning of August. The president wrote, "I never understood before what a broken heart meant." Less than a year later, *Wilson* met a vivacious 42 year-old widow named *Edith Galt* and quickly fell in love. Although some in the cabinet worried about how the public would respond to a new marriage so quickly after the loss of his first wife, the two were married in December 1915. The nation had a new ___ who would support *Wilson* and have a significant role in policy as war and illness later sapped his energy. (618) 1

Portsmouth Treaty

It ended the Russo-Japanese War and marked the emergence of a new era of diplomatic negotiations, multi-track diplomacy.

San Francisco School Board

Japan, too, though appreciative of *Roosevelt's* efforts to mediate with Russia, was not pleased by San Francisco's segregation of Japanese students. California was the port of entry for immigrants from Japan and China. It was also the place where anti-Asian feelings ran strongest. In October 1906, in the aftermath of the city's great earthquake, as they reorganized and reopened the city's schools, the ___ adopted a Policy of racial segregation for Chinese, Korean, and Japanese children. The government of China protested but was too weak to do more. In Japan, however, anger at the insult led to calls for war. *Roosevelt* tried to convince Californians to rescind the segregation order while encouraging the government of Japan to ignore the insult, but failed at doing both. (611) 7

Woodrow Wilson

Just after the November 1912 election, while he was still living in Princeton, President-Elect ___ told one of his former faculty colleagues, "it would be an irony of fate if my administration had to deal chiefly with foreign problems, for all my preparation has been in domestic matters." It was an irony that would come to pass with a vengeance. (615) 1

Theodore Roosevelt

Late in his term, ___ visited Panama. Ever the energetic enthusiast, he climbed up to the driver's seat of the biggest steam shovel digging the canal, spoke with some of the 19,000 West Indian laborers who were doing the backbreaking work (and who died at an astounding rate; 85 just in the month of the president's visit), met with authorities of the new government, and envisioned ships passing through the canal and towns rising on the banks of what was still, at that point, a muck-filled ditch. The canal did not open until 1914, long after ___ had left office. With or without ___, the United States would most likely have built a canal between the oceans at some point. Nevertheless, the route and the speed were a result of ___'s efforts. (611) 2

Espionage Act

Law whose vague prohibition against obstructing the nation's war effort was used to stop dissent and criticism during *World War I*. (622)

Alaska Vitus Bering

Long before *Mahan* argued for greater U.S. control of the oceans, the United States assumed ownership of the huge Russian territory known as *Russian America*, or _(1)_. In the 1740s, _(2)_, a Danish captain serving the Russian Navy explored the Arctic Oceans between Asia and North America. Soon thereafter, Russia had joined Britain, France, and Spain in claiming large parts of North America. A Russian governor moved to Sitka, _(1)_, in 1799 to administer Russian communities that dotted the Coast, of what is today _(1)_, Canada, *Washington*, Oregon, and northern California. Control and management of the vast Russian territory was vested in the private Russian American Company. Russians fished and traded in sea otter skins, providing support for the colony and modest returns to Russia itself. (603) 3

The Constitution Follows the Flag Insular Cases

Most anti-imperialists insisted that the *Constitution* did not allow for the United States to acquire any territories that it did not plan to eventually admit as states and that *"_(1)_"*—meaning all of the civil and political rights guaranteed in the *Constitution* also applied to other people under U.S. control. The advocates of territorial expansion did not agree, and in May 1901, the *U.S. Supreme Court* in a series of 5-4 decisions in the _(2)_ declared that the Philippines and Puerto Rico were territories, not future states, and that therefore those residing there were "subjects" not "citizens." It was a bitter moment for the anti-imperialists. (609) 3

George Norris Jeannette Rankin

Not everyone was convinced by *Wilson's* eloquence. In the Senate, Wisconsin's *La Follette* and _(1)_ of Nebraska led the opposition to a declaration of war. _(1)_, a Republican long part of the *Progressive movement*, said, "We have loaned many hundreds of millions of dollars to the allies in this controversy." And he saw the war as simply a way to defend those loans, insisting, "We are going into war upon the command of gold." He would have none of it. When the vote came, six Senators, three Republican and three Democrats, opposed the war. In the House, 50 Representatives, voted no on the war resolution. The most dramatic vote came from _(2)_ of Montana. _(2)_ was the only woman in the House, elected at a time when women in most states still did not have the vote. She was under intense pressure from some suffragists, who planned to demand votes for patriotic women as a war measure, to vote for the war, but in the roll call _(2)_ answered, "I want to stand by my country, but I cannot vote for war. I vote no." (In 1941, after a long absence, _(2)_ would be on the floor of Congress again and would be the single no vote against U.S. entry into *World War II*.) Once the United States was formally at war, the previous antiwar constituency split between those including *Bryan*, who believed that once the United States had made the decision to go to war everyone should support the war effort, and others—from *Jane Addams* to *Eugene Debs* to *Emma Goldman*—who continued to oppose the war no matter what the president asked or how the Congress voted. Despite the opposition, once the United States was formally at war in the spring of 1917, the *Wilson* administration set out to do everything possible to assure the support of every citizen. In his war speech *Wilson* had said, "If there should be disloyalty, it will be dealt with with a firm hand of stern repression." He meant it. (620) 1

Imperialism

Not surprisingly, some have called the late 1800s the age of U.S. ___. Whether that term correctly describes U.S. expansion in this era continues to be debated. Certainly, thinking in the United States was influenced by the ways Britain, France, and Germany were seeking new colonies in Africa and the Middle East. Many Americans did not want their country to he left behind. Some people in the United States agreed with those Europeans who insisted that *the white race was destined to rule the world's people*. Immigrants or the children of immigrants sometimes wanted the United States to intervene in their old homelands to protect the rights of compatriots. Even so, a surprisingly diverse array of Americans did not want their country involved in anything beyond its borders. Expansion beyond North America was never without controversy, even as the United States became involved around the globe. (603) 2

U-boat

Of the many diplomatic tensions that the war in Europe created, by far the greatest had to do with the German use of a new kind of sea power—the submarine, or ___. Britain's navy ruled the waves, but German ___ could glide under the waves and strike at ships bringing supplies to Britain and France. On February 4. 1915, the German Admiralty announced that the waters around Britain were a "war zone" and its submarines would freely attack any ship bringing supplies to Britain. *Wilson* and *Bryan* sent a formal diplomatic note that sinking ships without warning was "an act so unprecedented in naval warfare" that the United States would hold them to "a strict accountability for such acts." No one defined what "strict accountability" meant. Somehow, submarine warfare—having a ship struck by a torpedo seemingly out of nowhere----terrified people in a way that direct ship-to-ship combat did not. Submarine warfare also threatened the profitable US trade with Britain. For *Wilson*, it also raised the issue of basic rights of US citizens, as neutrals, to travel freely. On the last point, the president and his secretary of state differed strongly. *Bryan* asked "whether an American citizen can, by putting his business above his regard for his country, assume for his own advantage unnecessary risk and thus involve his country in international complications." For *Wilson*, the freedom of neutrals to travel was "in the interests of mankind," and protecting the rights of netrals under international law was a national duty. (617) 3

Doughboys

On July 4, 1917, a token force of "*___*" as the American troops were called, paraded in France to enthusiastic acclaim. But it would be many months before large numbers of U.S. troops arrived in France and an even longer time before *Pershing* thought they were ready to fight. (622) 5

Franz Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, the Austrian Archduke ___; heir apparent to the throne of the Austria-Hungarian Empire, and his wife, *Sophie*, were assassinated in the town of Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist who wanted independence for Serbia. Nothing could have seemed as far removed from the United States than the murder of members of a central European royal family. However, within a very short time, the impact of the assassination was felt everywhere in the world. (615) 2

Nobel Peace Prize

Once *Roosevelt* got representatives of both countries to *Portsmouth, New Hampshire*, in August 1905, they argued about borders, money, and a postwar plan. But eventually *Roosevelt's* arm twisting led to a peace agreement. The war ended, and *Roosevelt* was praised by the Russian tsar and the Japanese emperor. A year later, *Roosevelt* was rewarded with the ___. (611) 5

Roosevelt Corollary

President *Theodore Roosevelt's* policy asserting US authority to intervene in the affairs of Latin American nations; an expansion of the *Monroe Doctrine*.

William McKinley

President ___ told a group of visiting Episcopal clergy that he had lost sleep and had prayed long and hard about what to do with the islands and that the answer had come to him, "There was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them." The United States could not give them back to Spain or another country and, he insisted, "they were unfit for self-government." Nearly all Filipinos were already Christian since Catholic Spain had ruled the islands for nearly 400 years, but ___ meant Protestant Christianity. The Constitution might prohibit the government's direct involvement with the religious beliefs of the Filipinos, but allowing missionaries was easy. (608) 2

Woodrow Wilson

Since 1916, ___ had been telling his fellow Americans what he wanted from a peace conference. He insisted the traditional U.S. isolationism could not continue and the nation must be willing to "become a partner in any feasible association of nations to maintain the peace." In October, just before the presidential election, he told an audience in Omaha, Nebraska, "we are part of the world." And in January 1917, he told the Senate that the United States wanted "peace without victory." His goal was to avoid future wars based on the "covenant" of a new international organization that would ensure that "no such catastrophe shall ever overwhelm us again." (625) 5

George Dewey Manila Bay

Since the United States was at war with Spain, *McKinley* also approved the orders that had been issued by Assistant Secretary of the Navy *Roosevelt* (issued just before he resigned that position to fight in Cuba) to Admiral _(1)_ to sail the U.S. fleet to the Spanish-owned *Philippine Islands*. The six warships under _(1)_'s command quickly sank the Spanish fleet at the Battle of _(2)_ on May 1, 1898, giving the United States control of a Pacific territory much larger than Cuba. The American Pacific fleet also captured the Spanish garrison on *Guam Island* and took Control of the uninhabited atoll of *Wake Island*. (607) 4

William Bryan

Tensions with Japan that had been brewing since *Roosevelt's* time continued. Just as *Wilson* assumed office, the California legislature adopted a law that no one "ineligible for citizenship" could buy land in California. Since Japanese immigrants could not become citizens, everyone knew at whom the law was directed. Secretary ___ made two trips to California to try and get the law rescinded, but failed. Japan's government reacted angrily, as it had with school segregation in 1906, and again a war seemed possible. *Wilson* and ___ did everything they could to diffuse the situation. The leaders in *Tokyo* also did not want a war, but in Japan, feelings of deep anti-American animosity were furthered by California's continuing determination to marginalize Japanese immigrants. (612) 4

Article X League of Nations

The *Senate Foreign Relations Committee* recommended approval of the treaty but with 14 reservations, including one insisting that the U.S. military could not be sent to defend _(1)_ without specific congressional approval. *Wilson* adamantly refused to consider the reservations. In a final vote on November 18 and 19, 1919, the Senate first came to a tie vote for the treaty with reservations—far short of the two-thirds majority needed to approve a treaty. Then on a second vote in which they considered the treaty without reservations, the Senate defeated the entire treaty by a vote of 55 to 39, The _(2)_ would be launched in *Geneva, Switzerland*, but without the participation of the United States. *Wilson's* grand vision for a world at peace with the United States as a leader was dead. Many argued that the president's refusal to compromise had been among the forces that killed it. Colonel *House*, who had once been *Wilson's* closest confident, wrote that he had once thought that Senator *Lodge* was the worst enemy of the treaty, but before the debates and votes were over, he had decided that the worst enemy had actually been *Wilson* himself. (629) 2

Zimmermann Telegram Edward Grey

The British government managed to intercept and decode the _(1)_ and release it to the public, turning much of American public opinion against Germany. *Wilson* was more concerned with unrestricted submarine warfare than any interference from *Carranza*. He broke diplomatic relations with Germany. He then asked Congress for authority to arm merchant ships, but *La Follette* and other Republican Progressives blocked the bill in the Senate. *Wilson* called them "a little group of willful men" and claimed the authority to arm the ships on executive authority. At the same time, other Americans, including former President *Roosevelt* were pressing *Wilson* to do more for Britain. As early as January 1915, *Roosevelt*, although out of office, wrote to British Foreign Minister Sir _(2)_, calling *Wilson's* lack of greater support for the British "very obstinate." *Roosevelt* thought *Wilson* was stumbling in 1915 and was ready to march. In the end, when war came, it brought *Roosevelt* political and personal tragedy. *Wilson* would accept neither his advice to help Britain nor his offer of service, and in July 1918, *Roosevelt's* beloved son *Quentin* was killed in combat in France. (618) 4

Theodore Roosevelt

The Japanese government sent a secret message to ___, asking if he would "directly and entirely of his own motion and initiative invite the two belligerents to come together." ___ loved the idea of playing mediator and proposed arbitration to the tsar. Russia agreed, and the announcement of the peace conference won ___ worldwide praise. (611) 4

Madrid Consulate

The Spanish government in _(1)_ did not want a war with the United States, and they worried - correctly, it would turn out - that the government, and indeed the Spanish monarchy, could not survive the overthrow of the last bastion of Spain's empire in the Americas. As US public opinion became more belligerent, so did public opinion in Spain. Spanish people rallied to their flag, and in one town a mob attacked the US _(2)_. (607) 1

Spanish American War John Hay

The U.S. War with Spain in 1898 (often called the _(1)_) followed decades of U.S. expansionism—much of it expansion into territory that had previously been part of Spain's once-vast empire in the Americas. Spain had at one time exercised political control of all of Latin America, except for *Brazil*, and it had ruled the *Philippine Islands* for centuries. As a result of successful independence movements, all that was left of the Spanish empire in the 1890s was the *Philippines* and a collection of *Caribbean islands*. Many in Spain wanted to retain those outposts for their own value and as symbols of Spain's past glory. Nevertheless, as a result of a short war—which future Secretary of State _(2)_ called "a splendid little war"—Spain lost the last of its holdings. The United States gained long-term influence in both *Cuba* and the *Philippine Islands*, and made *Puerto Rico* a permanent U.S. territory. (606) 1

Cuba Theodore Roosevelt

The U.S. invasion of _(1)_ was not well managed. American troops arrived wearing wool uniforms—hardly the right material for a hot Caribbean summer. Even though _(2)_ gained fame for leading mostly African-American troops (shown as white in subsequent pictures) in a rapid assault on *San Juan Hill*, the battles in _(1)_ were generally slow and difficult. In 4 months of fighting, 345 Americans were killed in action while 5,000 died from disease. (607) 3

Henry Lodge

The United States intervened in several other Latin American matters during *Wilson's* administration. *Bryan* offered an apology to Colombia for the U.S. role in the revolution that had separated Panama and negotiated a $25 million payment to Colombia. *Roosevelt* was furious at an obvious slap at his administration, and his friend ___ blocked authorization of the funds in the Senate. The United States sent Marines to end unrest in Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti; they stayed in Haiti until 1934. For all of their talk of nonintervention, *Wilson* and *Bryan* seemed quite willing to intervene in the Americas. (614) 2

Herbert Hoover Walter Page

The United States saw all of these developments as a distant tragedy. A young American mining engineer, _(1)_, organized the *Commission for Belgian Relief*, which along with the *American Red Cross*, sent aid to people caught in the path of war. _(1)_ gained international fame as the "*Napoleon of mercy*," for his efforts. However, most Americans preferred not to get involved and agreed with U.S. ambassador to London _(2)_, who said, "I thank Heaven for many things—first the Atlantic Ocean." President *Wilson* declared neutrality. He wanted to stay out of the war, and he understood that any European war would stir up deep tensions in a nation made up of immigrants from every one of the nations at war. Neutrality, however, would not be easy to maintain. (615) 5

Monroe Doctrine Dominican Republic

The canal was not the first time *Roosevelt* involved the United States in Latin America. In 1902, shortly after he came to office, the government of Venezuela held back on debt payments to European banks. Britain, Italy, and Germany sent ships to Venezuela, but *Roosevelt*, citing the _(1)_, pressured them to withdraw. A year later when the _(2)_ seemed set to follow the same route as Venezuela, *Roosevelt* sent U.S. forces to the island and took control of its customs operation, dividing the revenue between the country and the European creditors, an involvement in the finances of the _(2)_ that lasted until 1941. Then in 1904, he formalized U.S. action in the _(2)_, announcing the *"Roosevelt Corollary"* to the _(1)_, stating that the United States had a right to intervene in any nation in the Americas that could not manage its own affairs. (610) 2

Alfred Mahan

The geographical expansion of the United States that had continued from the time it declared independence persisted throughout the *Progressive Era*. Admiral ___ of the U.S. Navy persuasively laid the foundation for continued expansion in his book, *The Influence of Sea Power upon History*, published in 1890. Few books were ever as influential in the development of U.S. foreign policy. ___ argued that all great nations in history had great navies that could control the world's oceans and, specifically, that the U.S. Navy needed to be large enough to be a significant player in the Pacific. He worried that the U.S. Navy was too small and that the lack of U.S. control of Pacific islands limited the nation's reach. The popularity of his book accelerated developments already underway, and within a decade, the U.S. Navy had been expanded to the third largest in the world while the United States had annexed *Hawaii* and *Puerto Rico* in 1898 and had assumed control of *Samoa*, the Philippine Islands, and *Cuba*. (603) 1

Henry Lodge

The greatest threat to the treaty came from Massachusetts Republican Senator ___, chair of the *Senate Foreign Relations Committee*, who hated the treaty and hated *Wilson* even more. ___ objected to the treaty for many reasons. He feared the treaty, he said, because it gave an international organization "the power to send American soldiers and sailors everywhere"—a power, ___ insisted, "which ought never to be taken from the American people or impaired in the slightest degree." Some thought __ was less concerned about the league than about the insult to people like himself who had been excluded from the treaty-making process and his personal animosity to the president. Nevertheless, ___ insisted that the issues were beyond party, that the United States "is the world's best hope but if you fetter her in the interests and quarrels of other nations, if you tangle her in the intrigues of Europe, you will destroy her power for good and endanger her very existence." (628) 1

Mark Twain Booker Washington

The nation's best-known authors, _(1)_ and *William Dean Howells*, turned biting humor on *McKinley's* efforts. _(1)_ said that the U.S. efforts in the Philippines meant that the United States had become "yet another Civilized Power, with its banner of the *Prince of Peace* in one hand and its loot-basket and its butcher-knife in the Other." _(2)_ said, "Until our nation has settled the Indian and the negro problem, I do not think we have a right to assume more social problems." (609) 2

Fourteen Points

The proposed points outlining peace offered by President *Woodrow Wilson* in 1918 after *World War I*; the treaty agreed to at the *Versailles peace conference* did not, however, include every point. (626

Chateau Thierry

The treaty did not come in time to save Germany, however. By 1918, 850,000 fresh U.S. troops had arrived, and they quickly went into combat, while the German troops were exhausted by 4 years of war. For the German soldiers, the fact that they were facing so many well-armed fresh troops undermined morale as much as any specific American victories, though those victories were not without importance. At ___ in June of 1918, U.S. forces helped stop a German offensive toward Paris. By that fall, the Americans were part of an *Allied* effort that had driven the German army out of France and back inside Germany. The end was becoming clear. An armistice was signed, and on November 11, 191 8, at 11:00 a.m., the guns of Europe fell silent. (624) 3

League of Nations Article X

The treaty that emerged from the peace conference was, perhaps inevitably, a disappointment to everyone. *Wilson* got his _(1)_, which would include not just the allies—as *Clemenceau* initially wanted --but would be open to every nation of the world. The league's covenant included _(2)_ in which member nations agreed to "respect and preserve as against external aggression the political integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League." However, though the league now existed, *Wilson* had also paid a high price to get it. (626) 3

Alaska

The value of ___ to the Russian company or government was never great. Tensions with native residents ran deep. Russians exploited Native __ns while Western diseases took a heavy toll of the native population. In response, Native ___ns massacred Russian communities at Sitka and Nulato. By 1860, the government was unhappy with the *Russian American Company* and worried about defending the long ___n coast from the British Navy. (603) 4

JP Morgan William Bryan Commercial Credit

The warfare on land and on the ocean around Europe cut into US trade, hurting wheat farmers and cotton growers who could not get their goods to European markets. *Britain* began to place large orders for farm products and for munitions while using its powerful navy to maintain a blockade of the *Central Powers.* War-torn Britain needed money to buy these things, but when _(1)_ began to float large loans, Secretary of State _(2)_ imposed a ban on loans to belligerents, seeking the "True spirit" of strict neutrality. _(2)_'s ban hurt U.S. commerce, and Britain and France claimed it was prejudicial toward them, so _(2)_ and *Wilson* announced that "_(3)_" could be extended to the allies. No one understood the difference between "_(3)_" and loans, but the distinction allowed the European allied powers to get the goods they wanted, U.S. farmers and manufacturers to profit, and everyone to pretend that neutrality was still maintained. (616) 1

Committee on Public Information George Creel

To build support for the war, *Wilson* created the _(!)_ and appointed the respected progressive journalist _(2)_ as its head. No one could challenge _(2)_'s progressive credentials as a muckraker, supporter of women's rights, and political reformer. _(2)_ rejected crude propaganda, insisting that "a free people cannot be told what to think. They must be given the facts and permitted to do their own thinking." _(2)_ also insisted that he and the *Wilson* administration would be the ones to decide what "facts" to give people and, more seriously, what alternative "facts" should be blocked. (620) 2

Transcontinental Railroad Pearl Harbor

U.S. control of California with its large Pacific harbors in 1848 and the completion of the _(1)_ in 1869 expanded U.S. commercial and military interest in the kingdom of *Hawaii*. Trans-Pacific steamship lines that began at the Pacific docks where the railroad ended sought fueling stations on their way to Asia, and *Hawaii's* _(2)_ was the perfect stopping place. At the same time, American-owned sugar plantations had become a major economic force in *Hawaii*. Native *Hawaiians*, who were now a minority within their own country and controlled perhaps 15 percent of the land and 2 percent of the capital, did not want to further U.S. influence in their country, but the *Hawaiian* government agreed that it would not grant special trading rights or naval bases to any other country in return for a promise that *Hawaii* could ship a steady supply of sugar duty-free to the United States. *Hawaii's* King *Kalakaua* visited the United States in 1874 to formalize the agreement. (604) 5

Francisco Villa

Unfortunately, a new civil war began in Mexico when ___ split with *Carranza*. In March 1916, ___, who was now leading a full-scale revolt, led several hundred troops in an attack on the U.S. border town of Columbus, New Mexico. They wanted arms that were stored at nearby U.S. Army *Fort Furlong*, but more important, the wily ___ wanted to create an international incident. He did not get the arms, but he did get the incident. (613) 4

Dollar Diplomacy

Was a form of American foreign policy to further its aims in Latin America and East Asia through use of its economic power by guaranteeing loans made to foreign countries.

William McKinley John Tyler

When _(1)_ was elected president in 1896, he demonstrated none of *Cleveland's* resistance to U.S. acquisition of Hawaii as the next step in the nation's "Manifest Destiny." _(1)_ said, "We need Hawaii as much...as in its day we needed California." In June 1897, _(1)_ proposed a treaty of annexation, to which the planter government agreed. _(1)_ realized that anti-imperialists in the Senate could block the two-thirds vote required to approve the treaty, so the president used the same strategy' that _(2)_ had used half a century earlier for Texas. He asked both houses of Congress to annex the territory by joint-resolution, which required only a majority vote. By June 1898, to the protests of native Hawaiians and the cheers of the planters, Hawaii became a permanent territory of the United States. In that same year, the United States annexed tiny *Midway* and *Wake islands* and, a year later, agreed to divide *Samoa* with Germany. Across the Pacific, *Mahan's* dream of stations for the growing navy was a reality. (605) 2

William McKinley Yellow Journalism

When _(1)_ was inaugurated as U.S. president in 1897, he made it clear that he wanted Spain out of Cuba. American public opinion was on the side of the rebels. New York newspaper editors *William Hearst* and *Joseph Pulitzer* engaged in what was called "_(2)_" (named for a popular cartoon character of the day known as the "Yellow Kid"), publishing sensationalized accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. They sent well-known artists like *Frederic Remington*, and writers like *Richard Davis*, to Cuba to report on Spanish actions to increase circulation for their publications. (606) 4

Theodore Roosevelt

When ___ became president in September 1901, he inherited two major foreign policy issues from *McKinley*—the ongoing war in the Philippines, which he quickly put behind him, and the question of a Central American canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, which he embraced with ___ian enthusiasm. ___ considered the Central American canal one of his proudest achievements. (609) 5

Georges Clemenceau David George

When the Paris peace talks convened at the old royal palace of *Versailles*, *Wilson* thought he was in a very strong bargaining position given the role of U.S. resources and troops in bringing the war to a successful conclusion for the allies. His counter-parts thought differently. _(1)_, the tough 77-year-old French premier, wanted vengeance for France's terrible losses, and British Prime Minister _(2)_, though more moderate than _(1)_, harbored nothing like *Wilson's* generous spirit. France and Britain had lost 10 to 20 times as many soldiers as the United States, most of the battles had been fought in France, and neither leader nor their followers were in any mood to be generous. The losers—*Germany, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire*—were excluded from the conference. The new communist government of Russia, which had signed its own separate treaty with Germany in early 1918, was also excluded from the peace conference, and *Wilson* sent troops to try and support the overthrow of the communist government, which would lead to long-term tension between Russia and the United States. (625) 4

Teller Amendment Guantanamo Bay

When the U.S. War with Spain ended, the United States had to decide what to do with its new territory. In spite of the _(1)_, President *McKinley* did everything possible to maximize U.S. involvement in Cuba, including ensuring that the U.S. Navy would have a perpetual base at _(2)_. The United States was going to keep Puerto Rico, but what about the distant Philippines? The war had begun and ended in the Caribbean over issues of Spanish control of Cuba; however, as part of the war, the United States also found itself in control of a chain of seven thousand islands with 7 million people living thousands of miles from the United States. (608) 1

Theodore Roosevelt

When the president and Mrs. Wilson arrived in Brest, France, on December 13, 1918, they were greeted as heroes, and they continued to be honored as they toured France, Britain, and Italy. A banner on the champs-Elysees in Paris announced, "Honor to *Wilson* the Just," and an American newspaper reporter wrote, "No one ever had such cheers." It must have been a satisfying moment for the war-weary president. For Wilson, one ominous cloud over the negotiations was the fact that Republicans had made substantial gains in the congressional elections of November 1918 in spite of his impassioned appeal to the voters to keep the Democrats in charge while he negotiated a treaty. Then, while he was in France in January 1919, *Wilson* received a telegram that his arch-rival ___ had died. A reporter said he thought he saw a look of pity and then a smile of triumph on the president's face, though *Wilson* was far too diplomatic to say anything. (625) 3

Eugene Debs Espionage Act of 1917

While *Addams* was snubbed for her antiwar stance, others paid a much higher price. Radical leaders were watched carefully for "unpatriotic" words and actions. Over a hundred *IWW* and *Socialist Party* leaders were arrested and jailed on charges of violating the *Sedition Act*. In June 1918, _(1)_ told a huge rally in Canton, Ohio, "I realize that, in speaking to you this afternoon, there are certain limitations placed upon the right of free speech." But _(1)_ also made it clear that he was equally as opposed to the leadership of Germany as to that of the *Allies* for, he said, all sides were using working people to fight their battles. So he continued, "The master class has always declared the wars; the subject class has always fought the battles." In particular, he added, "Title working class who make the supreme sacrifices, the working class who freely shed their blood and furnish the corpses, have never yet had a voice in either declaring war or making peace. It is the ruling class that invariability does both." _(1)_ was arrested for the speech and sentenced to 10 years in prison under the _(2)_. (622) 1

American Protective League Industrial Workers of the World

While *Creel* led the government's "fight for the minds" of the American people and *Hoover* tried to change their eating habits, other self-styled patriots had their own agendas. The nongovernmental _(1)_, which eventually grew to 250,000 members, included some who had opposed German immigrants or domestic political radicals and who saw the war as a time to further their agenda. _(1)_ members, without government authority, opened mail and listened in on telephone calls, looking for spies and traitors. Fearing such animosity, many German-Americans were careful to demonstrate their loyalty. *The Deutsches Haus* of Indianapolis became the *Athenaeum* of Indiana; sauerkraut became liberty cabbage; and German language classes, schools, and newspapers were closed. On occasion, the split between those who supported and those who opposed U.S. involvement in the war turned violent. A few months after the United States entered the war, during the hot summer of 1917, some 2,000 members of the _(1)_ along with the sheriff of Bisbee, Arizona, raided a mass meeting of the _(2)_—the large and radical union that strongly opposed the war—and rounded up over a thousand _(2)_ members and supporters, a third of whom were Mexican-American, leaving them out on the desert without food or water for 2 days before letting them escape to New Mexico. A German-American, *Robert Prager*, was lynched by a mob in Collinsville, Illinois. An *DAV* organizer, *Frank Little*, was lynched in Butte, Montana, after he told striking copper miners that they were battling an "imperialist, capitalist war." An editorial in the Washington Post said of the violence, "In spite of excesses such as lynching, it is a healthful and wholesome awakening in the interior of the country." (621) 1

Theodore Roosevelt Emilio Aguinaldo William Taft

While _(1)_ had been one of the staunchest advocates of going to war in 1898 and of keeping control of the *Philippine Islands* after the war, by the time he became president in 1901, the U.S. effort was increasingly unpopular and he had other priorities. In 1901, the Army captured _(2)_. _(3)_, who had been governor general of the *Philippines*, was welcomed home, and a truce settled on the islands, though U.S. troops remained until the Japanese invasion at the start of *World War II*. United States attention turned elsewhere. (609) 4

Open Door Policy Dollar Diplomacy JP Morgan William Bryan

While he was presidents, *Theodore Roosevelt* had insisted that the long-standing _(1)_ allowing the United States and Britain free trade with China be continued in spite of Japan's desire to dominate all Asian markets. President *Taft* had less lofty goals for America's role in the world, and though he was wary of political ties, he strongly encouraged American investment wherever there was an opportunity, leading critics to call his policy _(2)_. Late in *Taft's* term, _(3)_ negotiated a large international loan to China to support the building of new rail lines there. Upon becoming president, *Woodrow Wilson* found himself immediately involved with Asian matters and specifically the _(3)_ loan. *Wilson's* new secretary of state, _(4)_, had deep reservations about the loan. Within 2 weeks of the inauguration, *Wilson* announced that the government of the United States opposed the loan because its terms undermined "the administrative independence of China." China did not get the loan. Unfortunately, it also did not get the railroads that the loan was supposed to finance, something that weakened the country in its future dealings with Japan. (612) 3

Allies

While the United States was raising, training, and transporting its army, the ___ came close to losing the war. The German government knew that it needed to win quickly before Americans arrived in force. In the long run, the United States had more people, and thus more potential soldiers, than any of the combatants except Russia. Knowing that the Americans were coming, the British and French launched a major offensive in the summer of 1917. As with previous efforts, the offensive was turned back, and the terrible losses led to mutinies throughout the French army. The ___ armies seemed to be losing the will to fight. (624) 1

World War I

With the end of ___, Europe had a dramatically different map and the United States had a dramatically different political situation. People who had fervently gone to war in 1917 were tired and cynical by 1919. The cost of the war in lives, money, and liberties led many to question the governmental and business leaders who had been most enthusiastic about it. By 1920, many in the nation were ready to forget high-sounding idealism, progressive or otherwise. It was, perhaps, time for more joy or, at least, the election of a more genial and less idealistic president. (629) 3

George Creel Committee on Public Information Charles Gibson

_(1)_ announced, "It was a fight for the minds of men, for the 'conquest of their convictions,' and the battleline ran through every home in the country." Under his leadership, the _(2)_ hired other muckraking journalists, including *Ray Baker and Ida Tarbell*, and published 75 million pamphlets supporting the U.S. war effort. They recruited 75,000 "Four Minute Men," volunteers who were ready to speak at a moment's notice in favor of the war effort and against Germany at any theater or neighborhood meeting. He worked with the still-new movie studios to create films like *The Kaiser: Beast of Berlin*. _(1)_'s _(2)_ launched a special "*War Americanization Plan*" to encourage foreign-born immigrants, especially those from the *Central Powers*, to buy *Liberty Bonds* and otherwise assert their American patriotism. He also hired _(3)_, famous for creating the nation's model of feminine beauty in the "_(3)_ Girl," to produce prowar posters that would glorify the American war effort and call on all Americans to purchase war bonds and tend home vegetable gardens—or *victory gardens*—as well as for young men to serve in the army. The government also launched *"war study courses"* to encourage patriotism and loyalty among public school students. _(1)_ was confident enough of his efforts that he opposed more blatant limitations on civil liberties. After the war, he wrote, "Better far to have the desired compulsions proceed from within than to apply them from without." (620) 3

William Bryan Robert Lansing

_(1)_ argued for protesting the British blockade and for linking the second note to a policy that would bar passenger ships from carrying munitions (the *Lusitania* may well have been carrying munitions in addition to passengers). *Wilson* thought that _(1)_'s plan would undermine the needed message of protest. _(1)_ resigned rather than sign the second *Lusitania* note. He told the president that he was risking war by creating a situation where a foolish move by the German government could drag the United States into a war and that he could do more for peace building public opinion outside the administration than within. _(1)_'s departure was a sad parting between two people who had come to like and admire each other but who deeply believed in different courses of action. _(2)_ became acting secretary and signed the note, Congress debated but did not pass a law barring Americans from travel on belligerent ships. Sinkings and diplomatic notes continued, as did American domestic politics and new developments in Woodrow Wilson's personal life. (617) 6

Woodrow Wilson Ray Baker

_(1)_ desperately wanted to let Mexico work out its own future. As he told the journalist _(2)_, he "felt shame as an American over the first Mexican war" of 1848. He continued that it was "his resolution that while he was president there should be no such predatory war." He also believed that a people had the right "to do as they damned pleased with their own affairs." _(2)_ added that the president did, indeed, use the word damned. (613) 2

Theodore Roosevelt Panama Canal Zone

_(1)_'s enthusiasm for a more activist approach to foreign policy was not out of character with his own presidency. When he became president in 1901, the United States had already acquired *Alaska*, *Hawaii*, and other islands in the Pacific. Many Americans wanted more land, or at least greater influence around the world. Other than his very active involvement in the acquisition of the _(2)_, _(1)_ had been surprisingly cautious in international relations. He reduced U.S. involvement in the *Philippines*, negotiated an end to war between *Russia and Japan*, brokered an agreement to soften Japan's sense of insult at California *anti-Japanese* measures, and sought successfully to keep peace with the world. Many of _(1)_'s strongest political supporters, progressive senators like *Robert La Follette* and reformers like *Jane Addams*, adamantly opposed U.S. endeavors abroad and U.S. involvement in World War 1. (602) 2

Herbert Hoover US Food Administration

_(1)_, who had gained fame organizing support for people in war ravaged *Belgium*, became the head of the _(2)_ and urged Americans to support the war by eating less and conserving more so that food could be sent to the troops or the *Allies*. Like *Creel*, _(1)_ believed that voluntary compliance was most effective, so he rejected rationing in favor of what he described as mobilizing "the spirit of self-denial and self-sacrifice in this country." People got the widely touted message, "FOOD WILL WIN THE WAR—DON'T WASTE IT." The federal government also created the *Fuel Administration* and the *War Industries Board* and took direct control of the nation's railroads. Most of the new agencies were led by business executives, and the criticism of business leaders that had characterized *Wilson's* first term virtually disappeared as the nation's corporate elite became essential supporters of the war effort. (620) 4

Alfred Mahan

___ argued that British control of the seas, combined with a corresponding decline in the naval strength of its major European rivals, paved the way for Great Britain's emergence as the world's dominant military, political, and economic power. ___ and some leading American politicians believed that these lessons could be applied to U.S. foreign policy, particularly in the quest to expand U.S. markets overseas.

Hawaii

___'s strategic location halfway between California and Japan and its harbors that were perfect for American whaling vessels greatly interested American and European merchants and U.S. Navy officers. By the early 1800s, ___an harbors were filled with U.S. Navy ships and private whaling vessels, and Americans mixed with __ans on a regular basis. In 1820, a group of New England missionaries and three American-educated ___ans arrived to convert ___ans to Christianity and interest them in American culture. (604) 4

Woodrow Wilson

___, who had broken precedent early in his term by speaking directly to Congress, broke precedent again when the war ended. He sailed for *Paris* to personally lead the American delegation at the *Paris* peace talks. No American President had ever left the United States while in office, and some even wondered whether it was constitutional to do so. ___ waived the concerns aside. Modern communications would allow him to remain in close touch with Washington while he was across the Atlantic. The British, French, and Italian Prime Ministers were all going to be present, and ___ had no intention of handing the American role off to anyone else. (625) 2

War Industries Board

was a United States government agency established on July 28, 1917, during *World War I*, to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency and urged them to eliminate waste by standardizing products.