APUSH Review

Alexander McGillivray

A Creek chief

Gilded Age

A period of enormous economic growth and ostentatious displays of wealth during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Industrialization dramatically changed US society and created a newly dominant group of rich entrepreneurs and an impoverished working class.

Article 231

assigning war guilt to germany

Ulysses S Grant

civil war hero who succeeded Andrew Johnson as president in 1899 and quickly also became a problem due to less obvious qualities and a poor choice of cabinet members

Eugene McCarthy

democratic peace candidate

Committees of Correspondence, Public Safety, and Inspection

dominated the political landscape in patriot communities. These committees enforced boycotts, picked army draftees, and policed suspected traitors. They sometimes invaded homes to search for contraband goods.

"Ohio Gang"

Harding handed out jobs of his cabinet to his friends

Soviet Acquisition of the Atomic Bomb

In september 1949 the soviet union detonated its own atomic bomb.

Birmingham Demonstrations

Led by MLK in Alabama, to integrate public facilities and open jobs to blacks.

Spiro Agnew

Maryland Governor, Nixon's choice for running mate, to get southern support.

James Tallmadge

New York Congressman who proposed two amendments to the statehood bill.

Geraldine Ferraro

New York representative, Mondale's running mate.

Rutherford B Hayes

President. Called the army against the railroad strikers in 1877.

King Henry VIII

king of england who left the catholic church because he wanted a son and a divorce.

Stokely Carmichael

SNCC chairman who gave Malcolm X's ideas a new name, "black power"

Presidios

Spanish forts built to block Russian advance into California.

Amerigo Vespucci

The Americas were named for him. He accompanied an Spanish expedition to south america in 1499.

Vaqueros

mexican cowboys

Cuban Revolution

Uprising led by Fidel Castro that drove out US supported dictator Fulgencio Batista and eventually allied Cuba with the Soviet Union.

Theodore Roosevelt

ordered the US Fleet to Manila in the Philippines in 1897 in a position to capture the islands as a stepping stone to China.

Slave Drivers

other slaves/ men whose job was to whip or beat slaves to get them to work

Jacob Riis

photo journalist that "wrote" How the Other Half Lives

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado

Coronado was lured to the Southwest and Great Plains area of North America by rumors of the mythical Seven Cities of Cibola. Instead he found a small pueblo of Zuni people, and attacked. He was convinced there was more, and went all the way to central Kansas before deciding that the stories were just myths in 1542.

What was life like in the Spanish borderlands of Florida and New Mexico during the 1600s?

During the 1600s, life in the Spanish borderlands was still. Only 1500 spaniards lived in Florida, and about 3000 in New Mexico. The spaniards required regular deliveries of food and goods, as they don't farm. These colonies attracted Spanish missionaries looking to convert Indians instead of people who were looking to settle and grow crops. Spanish officials hoped the missionaries would pacify the Indians and be a relatively cheap way to keep their footholds in the Americas.

Presidential election of 1956

Eisenhower defeated Adlai Stevenson in 1956 but the Democrats kept control of Congress.

Zachary Taylor

General that Polk ordered to march his army 150 miles south from its position on the Nueces river to the banks of the Rio Grande.

Winfield Scott

General who would land an army on the gulf coast of Mexico and march 250 miles inland to Mexico City.

Confederate States of America

Government formed by Lower South states on February 7, 1861, following their secession from the Union. Secessionists argued that the election of a republican to the presidency imperiled slavery and the South no longer had political protection within the Union.

Wounded Knee Occupation

In 1973 a longer siege occurred on the Lakota Sioux reservation in South Dakota. Conflicts there between AIM militants and older tribal leaders AIM to take over for 72 days the village of Wounded Knee, where US troops had massacred more than 100 Sioux Indians in 1890.

Miscegenation

Interracial sex. Proslavery spokesmen played on the fears of whites when they suggested that giving blacks equal rights would lead to miscegenation. In reality, slavery led to considerable sexual abuse of black women by their white masters.

Vienna Summit Meeting

Kennedy and Khrushchev met in June 1961, in Vienna, Austria, and Khrushchev took the offensive. Khrushchev demanded an agreement recognizing the two Germanys, and threatened America's occupation rights in and access to West Berlin.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Leading transcendentalist, essayist, poet, and lecturer who proclaimed that the power of the solitary individual was nearly limitless.

Malinali

Malinali was a young girl gifted to Cortes from a local chief, who quickly learned spanish and work as interpreter for Cortes.

Assault on Quebec

Montgomery and Arnold jointly attacked Quebec but because of inadequate supplies people they failed and then got smallpox.

Underconsumption

New Dealers' belief that the root cause of the country's economic paralysis was that factories and farms produced more than they could sell, causing factories to lay off workers and farmers to lose money. The only way to increase consumption, they believed, was to provide jobs that put wages in consumers' pockets.

Teapot Dome Scandal"

Nickname for scandal in which Interior Secretary Albert Fall accepted 400,000 in bribes for leasing oil reserves on public land in Teapot Dome, Wyoming. It was part of a larger pattern of corruption that marred Warren G Harding's presidency?

Henry Kissinger

Nixon's national security adviser who believed that they could exploit the increasing conflict between the Soviet Union and China.

New Deal Coalition

Political Coalition that supported Franklin D Roosevelt's New Deal and the Democratic Party, including farmers, factory workers, women. African Americans, and progressive intellectuals. The coalition dominated American politics during and long after Roosevelt's presidency.

Emergency Banking Act

Propped up the private banking system with federal funds and subject banks to federal regulation and oversight.

James A Garfield (President 1881-1881)

Republican president chosen for his lack of faction alliance. Was shot four months after becoming president.

James Monroe

Republican president from Virginia elected in 1816 and again in 1820.

What caused the "Roosevelt Recession" of 1938?

Roosevelt favored the slowing of the New Deal, which caused unemployment to spike for a bit. This taught Roosevelt that economic growth has to be carefully nurtured.

Civil Rights Restoration Act

1988, Congress passed this over Reagan's veto, reversing the administration's victory in Grove City and banning government funding of any organization that practiced discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, disability, or age.

First Continental Congress

September 1774 meeting of colonial delegates in Philadelphia to discuss the crisis precipitated by the coercive acts. The congress produced a declaration of rights and an agreement to impose a limited boycott of trade with Britain.

Scalawags

A derogatory term that Southerners applied to southern white Republicans, who were seen as traitors to the South. Most were yeoman farmers.

Vietnamization of the War

American began to withdraw. The goal was still a non-communist South Vietnam but the US would just rely on South Vietnam more heavily.

John Cabot

An explorer commissioned by Henry VII of England to look for the Northwest Passage across the north Atlantic. He found Newfoundland, and believing it to be Asia, hurried back to England, and then back again. He was lost sometime by 1498.

"Old Hickory"

Andrew Jackson's nickname, from a common Tennessee tree suggesting resilience and toughness.

Frederick Downs

Arrived in Vietnam in September 1967. His stint ended when a landmine blew off his left arm and wedged shrapnel into his leg and back. He spent the rest of his life helping other soldiers. He eventually became director of the Veterans Administration's prosthetics and sensory aids programs.

The market revolution

the accelerated pace of economic activity and the scale of distribution of goods.

Slaughterhouse Case- 1873

the court distinguished between national and state citizenship and ruled that the the 14th amendment only protected those rights that stemmed from the federal government such as voting in federal elections and interstate travel.

Denis Kearney

the fiery San Francisco leader of the Workingmen's Party, which fought for Chinese exclusion. He urged legislation to "expel every one of the moon-eyed lepers."

House of Representatives

the lower house of the legislature, apportioned by the population

Sit-down strike at General Motors plant in Flint, Michigan

the struggle by the CIO-affiliated United Auto Workers to organize workers at General Motors climaxed January 1937. Striking workers occupied the main assembly plant in Flint, Michigan, in a sit-down strike that slashed the plant's production of 15,000 cars a week to 150. Stymied, General Motors eventually surrendered and agreed to make the UAW the sole bargaining power for all the company's workers and to refrain from interfering in union activity. The UAW expanded their campaign until, after much violence, the entire industry was unionized by 1941.

Munn v Illinois (1877)

the supreme court ruled in favor of state regulation.

Old vs New Immigration

the theory that stated before 1880 the majority of immigrants came from northern and western europe, with Germans, Irish,English, and Scandinavians making up approx. 85% of the newcomers. After 1880, the pattern shifted, with more and more people from southern and eastern europe, Italians, Hungarians, eastern European Jews, Armenians, Poles, Russians, and other Slavic peoples accounted for more than 80% of all immigrants by 1896. Implicit in the distinction was an invidious comparison between "old" pioneer settlers and "new" unskilled laborers.

Henry Clay Frick

the toughest anti-labor man in the industry. Prepared for the upcoming strike by erecting a 15 foot fence and topping it with barbed wire.

Nuclear Deterrence

to deter a soviet attack, the US strove to maintain a nuclear force more powerful than the soviets.

Election of 1948

truman faced not only Republican resurgence headed by New York governor Thomas Dewey but also two revolts within his own party. On the left, Henry Wallace led the progressive party, and on the right Strom Thurmond headed the state's rights party, the dixiecrats. The election was so close newspapers printed it's next day headline with "Dewey defeats Truman," although Truman won the election.

Penny Sales

when banks foreclosed and put farms up for auction, neighbors warned others not to bid, bought the the foreclosed property for a few pennies, and returned it to the bankrupt owners.

Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907

when good relations with Japan were jeopardized by discriminatory legislation in California calling for segregated public schools for Asians, Roosevelt smoothed over the incident by negotiating, which allowed the Japanese to save face by voluntarily restricting immigration to the US.

Truman's firing of MacArthur

when trying to take North Korea, Truman was worried about the Chinese and told MacArthur to stay away from the Chinese-Korean border. MacArthur disregarded those orders and led troops within 40 miles of china. Chinese soldiers joined the fight and combined they took Seoul. Truman then tried to seek negotiation. MacArthur was furious because Containment meant defeat to him. He challenged both the president's authority to conduct foreign policy and the principle of civilian control of the military. Truman fired him in April 1951.

Flappers

women, called this because of the fad wearing unbuckled galoshes. They had short "bobbed" hair, and she wore lipstick and rouge. She spent freely on the latest styles- dresses with short skirts, drop waists, bare arms, and no petticoats-and she danced all night to wild jazz.

F. Scott Fitzgerald

worries about alienation surfaced as he spoke sadly in This Side of Paradise of a disillusioned generation "grown up to find all Gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken."

Zora Neale Hurston

writer whose novel "Their Eyes Were Watching God" explored the complex passions of black people in a southern community.

Charles Lindbergh

young pilot who became the first person to fly nonstop across the atlantic.

Cripple Creek Miners' Strike

Strike led by the Western Federation of Miners in response to an attempt to lengthen their workday to ten hours. With the support of local businessmen and the Populist governor of Colorado, the miners successfully maintained an 8-hour workday.

Gen. William Howe

Talented British general who insisted on a bold frontal attack, sending 2500 troops across the water and up bunker hill.

Cold War

Term given to the tense and hostile relationship between the US and the Soviet Union from 1947 to 1989. The term cold was apt because the hostility stopped short of direct armed conflict.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

The 1890 act that outlawed pools and trusts, ruling that businesses could no longer enter into agreements to restrict competition. Government inaction, combined with the Supreme Court's narrow reading of the act in the US v E. C. Knight Company decision, undermined the law's effectiveness.

What caused the boxer rebellion in China and how did the US respond to it?

The Boxers were an anti-foreign secret society who resented the interference of American missionaries in village life. In 1899, the Boxers hunted down and killed Chinese Christians and missionaries in northwestern Shandong province. Their rampage eventually led to the massacre of some 30,000 Chinese converts and 250 foreign nuns, priests, and missionaries. In August 1900, 2,500 US troops joined an international force sent to rescue the foreigners and put down the uprising in the Chinese capital of Beijing. The European powers imposed the Boxer Protocol in 1901, giving themselves the right to maintain military forces in Beijing and requiring the Chinese government to pay an exorbitant indemnity of $333 million. Afterwards, missionaries voiced no concern at the paradox of bringing Christianity to China at gunpoint. Merchants and Missionaries marched into Asia together.

How was the Revolution financed? What effect did the war have on the economy?

The Continental congress printed money but it quickly deteriorated in value because the congress held no precious metal to back the currency. One method was to borrow hard money from wealthy men in exchange for certificates of debt promising repayment with interest. To pay soldiers, the congress issued land grant certificates. Depreciating currency led to rising prices as seller compensated for the falling value of money. The wartime economy, with unreliable currency and price inflation, was demoralizing. In 1778, in an effort to impose stability, local committees began to fix prices on essential goods, such as flour. Black markets sprung up with promised luxury imports.

Seven Years War

The French and Indian war

What was the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and what did it accomplish?

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was the first sustained protest to claim national attention. In Montgomery Alabama, December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for violating a local segregation ordinance. She refused to give up her seat for a white man, and the bus driver called the police. Both the NAACP and the Women's Political Council had talked about challenging bus segregation. When it was heard that Parks would fight her arrest, WPC leaders mobilized teachers and students to distribute fliers urging blacks to boycott the buses. The Montgomery Improvement Association arranged volunteer car pools and marshaled more than 90 percent of the black community to sustain the yearlong boycott.

What did each side believe it was fighting for? Why did each side believe its cause would prevail?

The Northerners were fighting because of the South's inability to accept the democratic election of the president and the firing on the nation's flag challenged the rule of law, the authority of the constitution, and the ability of the people to self-govern. The North's strategy stemmed from their superior resources. Lincoln declared a naval blockade of the Confederacy, not allowing them to sell it abroad, giving them less money to pay for war necessities, and ordered the army to march into Virginia and through the Mississippi at the same time, to cut the confederacy in two.

What was the Northwest Ordinance, and how did it contribute to sectional differences?

The Northwest Ordinance was a three-step process to outline and allow territories to become states. This contributed to sectional differences because slavery was prohibited in the territory which perpetuated the dynamic of emancipation in the North. The sectionalism based on slavery was slowly becoming more increased as well.

Metacomet

The chief of the Wampanoags who started King Phillip's War

Battle of Fallen Timbers

The confederated Indians ambushed the Americans but were under-armed and Wayne's troops used their guns and bayonets to defeat the Indians. The remaining troops fled to Fort Miami, still held by the British, but their allies locked the gate, and the surviving Indians fled to the woods. The Americans had destroyed their corn fields and villages, thus destroying the indians confidence.

Pocahontas

The daughter of Chief Powhatan who saved John Smith's life by laying her head on top of his own, while risking her own brains being bashed.

Describe the evolution of federal policy on western lands during the 1780s?

The federal policy was first very structured, but also very free with a grid like states perfectly mapped out and the promise of self government and the eventuality of statehood. A year later it was revised with procedures for the mapping and selling of the properties, with the land squares becoming smaller and more restrictions put on how much land was and how much you had to buy and allowed for the resale of the land. The third land act set forth how the sold and established territories could now become state's (first the congress would appoint officials for a sparsely populated area who could adopt a legal code an appoint magistrates, then when the male population of voting age and landowning status reached 5,000, the territory could elect its own legislature and send a nonvoting delegate to congress. When the population reached 60,000, the territory could write a constitution and apply for full admission to the union. The policy evolved from just a plan to an actual way to sell the land and earn money, to allowing the sold territories into an actual part of the US, and become a state.

Popular Sovereignty

The idea that government is subject to the will of the people. Applied to the territories, popular sovereignty meant that the residents of a territory should determine, through their legislatures, whether to allow slavery.

How did the master manage his plantation and what was the concept of "paternalism"

The master of the plantation hired an overseer who went to the fields with the slaves leaving the master free to concentrate on marketing, finance, and the general affairs of the plantation. They used the theory of slavery that emphasized reciprocal duties between masters and their slaves, with slaves providing labor and obedience an masters providing basic care and direction. Whites employed the concept of paternalism to deny that the slave system was brutal and exploitative.

How did women's opportunities for employment expand in the 1880s?

The new white-collar workforce required more elaborate and exact records and a greater volume of correspondence. The adding machine, the cash register, and the typewriter came into use in the 1880s. Employers seeking literate workers soon turned to nimble fingered women. Women became sales clerks and typewriters, working as secretaries. This choice was almost exclusively reserved for white native-born women. Clerical work meant more money for less time. Department stores also became an employment opportunity for women. They earned less than factory workers but still considered themselves superior.

Thomas Hutchinson

The royal governor of Massachusetts in the time leading up/during the American revolution. Hutchinson was a loyalist.

Why were the Alien and Sedition acts passed? How did they further polarize the Federalists and the Republicans?

The sedition act was passed as a federalist effort to muffle republican opposition by making conspiracy and revolt illegal The Alien acts were passed to harass French immigrants in the US and to discourage others from coming due to the XYZ affair and Quasi-War, along with the republican Pro-french stance. These further polarized the Federalists and Republicans because the Republicans opposed these acts, but didn't have the votes to revoke the acts in congress nor could the federal judiciary.

Roosevelt Corollary

Theodore Roosevelt's 1904 follow-up to the Monroe Doctrine in which he declared the US had the right to intervene in Latin America to stop "brutal wrongdoing" and protect American interests. The corollary warned European powers to keep out of the Western Hemisphere.

NSC 68

Top-secret government report of April 1950 warning that national survival required a massive military buildup. The Korean War brought nearly all of the expansion called for in the report, and by 1952 defense spending claimed nearly 70 percent of the federal budget.

Joseph R. McCarthy

Wisconsin senator who was very anti-communist and led the anti-communist crusade, saying communists in the US were more responsible for the success of communism abroad than the soviets.

Ho Chi Minh

a Vietnamese nationalist who founded a coalition called the Vietminh to fight both the occupying Japanese forces and French colonial rulers. In 1954 the Vietminh declared independence from France, and when France fought back they plunged into war.

Holding Company

a company that brought competing companies under administration.

Inchon Landing

a counteroffensive 180 miles behind north korean lines. By october they had pushed North Koreans out of Seoul and back to the 38th parallel.

Denmark Vesey

a free black carpenter who was accused of conspiring with plantation slaves to slaughter Charleston's white inhabitants. Whites hung 35 black men, including Vesey, and banished another 37.

Nathaniel Bacon

a frontier settler who was against the Indians and the planter elite. Was voted into the House of Burgesses, and led the Bacon revolt.

Quok Walker

a massachusetts slave who charged his master with assault and battery and argued he was a freeman under the phrase "all men are born equal and free"

Thomas Jefferson

a master diplomat Washington chose to be the secretary of state to deal with foreign policy

Reports on Manufactures

a proposal by Alexander Hamilton in 1791 calling for the federal government to encourage domestic manufacturers with subsidies while imposing tariffs on foreign imports.

Van Buren's treasury system

a system to perform some of the functions the defunct Bank of United States, funded by government deposits, deal only in hard money, and would exert a powerful moderating influence on inflation and the credit market. It met resistance, but was finally approved in 1840

"Rosie the Riveter"

a term advertisers often used to refer to a woman who worked in a war industry.

Coney Island

a two mile stretch of sand nine miles from Manhattan by trolley or steamship. In the 1890s, it was transformed into the site of some of the largest and most elaborate amusement parks in the country.

Riots of Mid-1960s in Watts, Detroit, Newark, and Washington DC

a white police officer in the Watts district of LA struck a 21 year old African American whom he'd pulled over for driving drunk (1965). The altercation sparked a 5 day uprising, in which young african americans set fires, looted, and attacked police and firefighters. When the riot ended, 34 people were dead, over 3,000 arrested, and many businesses wiped out. Similar altercations happened in Newark and Detroit in July 1967 and the capital in 1968.

Eli Whitney

a yale graduate who invented the cotton gin

Alexander Hamilton

a young New York delegate who participated in the Annapolis convention and Constitutional convention

Phyllis Wheatley

a young black poet freed in 1775, who wrote and called attention upon the hypocrisy of local slave owners.

Indian removal act of 1830

act that directed the mandatory relocation of eastern tribes to territory west of the mississippi. Jackson insisted his goal was to save the indians. Indians resisted the controversial act, but in the end most were forced to comply.

"Corrupt Bargain"

after the house intervened and Clay was out of the race, he backed Adams. What made the bargain look corrupt, was immediately after the election, Adams offered Clay the position of Secretary of State, and he accepted.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff-1909

amended in the senate so that it actually raised the tariff, benefitting big business and the trusts at the expense of the consumer.

Thomas Paine

an English artisan and coffeehouse intellectual who had come to America in 1774. He wrote Common Sense to justify independence.

Contras

an armed coalition seeking to unseat the Sandinistas in Nicaragua

Executive Order #8802

authorized the Committee on Fair Employment Practices to investigate and prevent racial discrimination in employment.

Civil Rights Act of 1968

banned racial discrimination in housing and jury selection, and authorized federal intervention when states failed to protect civil rights workers from violence.

Black Hawk war

black hawk, a leader of the Sauk and Fox indians resisted removal in 1832 (western illinois), volunteer militias chased them into southern wisconsin, where after several skirmishes and a deadly battle Black Hawk was captured and some 400 of his tribesmen were murdered.

Nat Turner

born a slave in Virginia. Set out with 6 friends on the morning of August 22, 1831 to punish slave owners. They killed every white they encountered. They visited 11 farms and killed 57 whites, and added 60 men to their army on the way. He hid for 10 weeks afterwards before he was captured, tried, convicted, and executed.

Native American Policies of Compensation, Termination and Relocation

by 1960, the government had implemented a three-part program. In 1946, Congress established the Indian Claims Commissioner to hear outstanding claims by Native Americans for land taken by the government. When it closed in 1978, the commission had settled 285 cases, with compensation exceeding $800 million. (The awards were based on land values at the time the land was taken and did not include interest.) The second policy, termination, also originated in the Truman administration, when commissioner Dillon S Myer asserted that his Bureau of Indian Affairs should do nothing for Indians which Indians can do for themselves. Beginning in 1953, Eisenhower signed bills transferring jurisdiction over tribal land to state and local governments and ended the trusteeship relationship between Native Americans and the federal government. The government abandoned termination in the 1960s after some 13,000 Indians and more than 1 million acres of their land of had been affected. The Indian Relocation Program, the third piece if the NA policy, began in 1948 and involved more than 100,000 Native Americans by 1973. The government encouraged Indians to move to cities, where relocation centers were supposed to help with housing, job training, and medical care. Most who stayed in cities faced racism, unemployment, poor housing, and the loss of their traditional culture.

Battle of Britain

cleared German bombers from British skies and handed Hitler his first defeat.

"Brains Trust"

convened a conference with economists and other leaders to offer suggestions and advice about the problems facing the nation.

Washington Disarmament Conference

convened in 1921 to establish a global balance of naval power.

People's Republic of China

created at the end of the Chinese Civil War, led by Mao Zedong, communist nation.

Committee on Civil Rights

created by Truman in 1946

National Security Council

created by the NSA to advise the president

Dominion of New England

created so the monarchy could have a more direct way to govern New England.

Agricultural Marketing Act

created the Farm Board, which used its budget of 500 million to buy up agricultural surpluses, and thus, it was hoped, raise prices.

Flexible Response Strategy

defense strategy implemented by JFK in which a wide range of diplomatic, political, economic, and military options are used to deter an attack. Was a response to Eisenhower's New Look strategy.

Ben Franklin

delegate of Pennsylvania who coauthored the Albany plan with Thomas Hutchinson

Navigations Acts

designed to yield customs revenues for the monarchy, and business for the English. Supported by the theory of mercantilism.

Ferdinand Magellan

discovered how much separated the new world and asia when he led an expedition to circumnavigate the globe in 1519. He was first taken to the new world, and then to south america, and then into the pacific. He was killed by philippine tribesmen, but his crew carried on the expedition.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

dropped the voting age from 21 to 18 in 1971.

Affirmative Action

executive order by Johnson for employers to ensure equal opportunity by requiring employers to counter effects of centuries of oppression by acting forcefully to align their labor force with the available pool of qualified candidates.

Expansion of Voting Rights

expanded suffrage to allow all male taxpayers in most states

Elvis Presley

famous pioneer of rock and roll

American Liberty League

founded in 1934 that blamed the New Deal for betraying basic constitutional guarantees of freedom and individual.

Alfred E Smith

four time governor of New York and Democrat candidate for president in 1928. Represented all that rural Americans feared and resented. Cool dude.

headright

free five acres of land for settlers who were able to pay for their own transportation.

National Arts and Humanities Act of 1965

funded artists, musicians, writers, and scholars, and brought their work to public audiences.

Robert Prager

german born baker with socialist leanings who was lynched for being German. Persuaded by the defense lawyer who praised what he called a "patriot murder," the jury at the trial of the killers took only 25 minutes to acquit.

Natural Increase

growth of population through reproduction, as opposed to immigration. In the 18th century, natural increase accounted for about ¾ of the American Colonies' population growth.

Nye Committee Hearings

in 1933, Gerald Nye, a Republican from North Dakota, chaired a Senate committee that concluded that greedy "merchants of death"- American weapons makers, bankers, and financiers- dragged the nation into the war to line their own pockets. International tensions and the Nye Committee report prompted Congress to pass a series of neutrality acts.

Panamanian Intervention

in 1964, riots erupted in the Panama Canal Zone, instigated by Panamanians who viewed the US as a colonial power, since it had seized the land earlier in the century. Johnson sent troops to quell the riots, but also initiated negotiations that would return the land to panama authorities in 2000.

Stock Market Crash of 1929

in the autumn of 1929, the market hesitated. Investor nervously began to sell their overvalued stocks. The dip quickly became a panic on October 24, the day known as black thursday. More panic selling came on Tuesday October 29, Black tuesday, the day the market suffered a greater fall than ever before. In the next 6 months, the market lost 6/7 of its total value.

Expatriates

individuals who have chosen to leave their native country in favor of living abroad

Iwo Jima & Okinawa

japanese islands that the Allies captured. To defend Okinawa, Japanese leaders ordered thousands of suicide pilots, known as kamikaze, to crash their bomb laden planes into Allied ships. Instead, they demolished the last vestige of the Japanese air force.

Oliver Wendell Holmes

justice who wrote utterances such as Schenck's during a national peril were equivalent to shouting "fire!" in a crowded theater.

Frederick Law Olmstead

landscape architect who created New York City's Central Park, completed in 1873. He and Calvert Vaux directed the planting of more than 5 million trees, shrubs, and vines.

John Coode

leader of the protestant association, overthrew the pro-catholic government fearing it would not accept the new king.

Norman Thomas

leaders of the socialist party

Blanket men/ bindle stiffs

migratory agricultural workers who worked the fields in the growing season and wintered in the flophouses of San Francisco.

Turnpikes

mileage increased after 1815, reducing shipping cost

Battle of Buena Vista

on february 23, 1847 Santa Anna's troops attacked Taylor at Buena Vista. American's won but suffered many casualties. During the night,Santa Anna withdrew his forces.

Battle of Fort Stanwix

on the way to reinforce Burgoyne, British and Hessian troops coming from Montreal encountered American Continental soldiers at Fort Stanwix and laid siege, causing local German militiamen and Oneida to rush to the American's support. The defenders of Fort Stanwix eventually repelled the attackers.

Cesar Chavez & Dolores Huerta

organized a movement to improve the wretched conditions of migrant agricultural workers. Chavez was the child of migrant farmworkers and lived in soggy tents, changed schools frequently, and encountered indifference and discrimination. After WWII he started voter registration drives among mexican americans. Huerta grew up in an integrated urban neighborhood and avoided the farmworkers' poverty but witnessed subtle forms of discrimination. Founded the UFW in 1962.

Ernest Hemingway

part of the lost generation

Socialist Party

political party formed in 1900 that advocated cooperation over competition and promoted the breakdown of capitalism. Its members, who were largely middle-class and native-born, saw both the Republican and Democratic parties as hopelessly beholden to capitalism.

Sen. Thaddeus Stevens

radical republican from Pennsylvania who declared the south was like clay in the hands of a potter and demanded that congress needed to begin reconstruction all over again. Wanted land for ex-slaves.

Voter Education Project

raised and distributed funds to civil rights organizations for voter education and registration work in the southern US.

National War Labor Policies Board

resolved labor disputes.

Checks and Balances

separate branches of governments created checks and balances for each other because they all held different power, but also had the power to veto each other

Solid South

after the end of reconstruction, most white voters in the former confederate states stayed loyal Democrats, lasting for the next 70 years.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B Anthony

allies and founders of NWSA in 1869. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was voted the first president of the NAWSA but Susan B Anthony, elected in 1892 emerged as the leading figure in the newly united organization.

Erie Canal

canal finished in 1825, covering 350 miles between Albany and Buffalo and linking the port of New York City with the entire Great Lakes region. The canal turned New York City into the country's premier commercial city.

Joseph Pulitzer

editor of the world

Gideon v Wainwright - 1963

ruled that when an accused criminal could not afford to hire a lawyer, the state had to provide one.

Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle"

sensational account of filthy conditions in meatpacking plant that helped the passage of the Meat inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug act.

Communist Party

some 100,000 americans (workers, intellectuals, and college students) joined the party on the belief that only an overthrow of the capitalist government could save the victims of Depression. Gained a reputation as the most dedicated and fearless champion of the union cause after the Harlan County Coal Strike.

Joseph Stalin

soviet leader, wanted to make germany pay for soviet economic reconstruction and to expand soviet influence in the world.

Brer Rabbit stories

stories when the weak got the better of the strong in which listeners could enjoy the thrill of vicarious victory over their masters.

Mayflower Compact

like their constitution, they all pledged to "covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body politick, for our better ordering and preservation."

Second Continental Congress

Met to discuss wartime strategies. Created continental army and drew up "A Declaration

Mendez v. Westminster

1947 court decision that struck down segregation that barred Mexican American children from going to school with white children. Lawyer was Thurgood Marshall, setting the precedent for the Brown case.

Hernandez v Texas

1954 Supreme Court decision that found that the systematic exclusion of Mexican Americans from juries violated the constitutional guarantee of equal protection.

Brown v Board of Education 1954

1954 Supreme Court ruling that overturned the "separate but equal" precedent established in Plessy v Ferguson in 1896. The court declared that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal and thus violated the fourteenth amendment.

Helsinki Accords

1975 agreement signed by US, Canadian, Soviet, and European leaders, recognizing the post WWII borders in Europe and pledging the signatories to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Panama Canal Treaty

1977 agreement that returned control of the Panama canal from the US to Panama in 2000. To pass the treaty, President Carter overcame stiff opposition in the Senate from conservatives who regarded control of the Panama canal as vital to America's interests.

Battle of Bunker Hill

A british victory in which general Howe sent 2500 soldiers across Charles river to assault bunker hill 3 times before the American ammunition supply gave out and the defenders retreated. 226 British soldiers died, with more than 800 wounded; 140 Americans died with 271 wounded and 30 captured.

What roles did city bosses, widespread corruption and would-be reformers play in the political life of large cities?

A machine was really no more than a political party organized at the grassroots level. Its purpose was to win elections and reward its followers, often with jobs on the city's payroll. The bosses continued to be successful largely because the urban political machine helped the cities' immigrants and poor, who remained the bosses' staunchest allies. Compromise and accommodation, not boss rule, best characterized big-city government by the turn of the twentieth century.

Battle of Saratoga

A multistage battle in New York ending with the decisive defeat and surrender of British general John Burgoyne on October 17, 1777. France was convinced to throw its official support to the American side in the war.

Rock and Roll

A music genre created from country music and black rhythm and blues that emerged in the 1950s and captivated American youth.

committees of correspondence

A network of standing committees to link the colonies and pass along alarming news, proposed by Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Richard Henry Lee in the House of Burgesses. Set up to receive, discuss, distribute, and act on political news.

Dance Halls

A new meeting place for young working class. Young women met prospective husbands here. Men "treated" women, a transaction often implying sexual payback. These became a target for reformers who feared that teenage girls were being lured into prostitution.

John Dickinson

A philadelphia lawyer who wrote "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania" in 1767 in which he proposed the idea that England treated them like no more than slaves

Dorothea Lange

A photographer employed by a New Deal agency to document conditions among farmworkers in California.

Battle of Oriskany

A punishing defeat for Americans in a ravine named Oriskany near Fort Stanwix in New York in August 1777. German American militiamen aided by allied Oneida warriors were ambushed by Mohawk and Seneca Indians, and 500 on the Revolutionary side were killed.

Geronimo

A respected shaman of the Apache who refused to stay at San Carlos and repeatedly led raiding parties in the early 1880s.

Hartford Convention

A secret meeting of New England federalist politicians held in late 1814 to discuss constitutional changes to reduce the south's political power and thus help block policies that injured northern commercial interests.

Why and how did a slave system develop in the Chesapeake and how did it differ from slavery in the West Indies and Carolina?

A slave system developed in the Chesapeake as the planters saw the advantages to slaves rather than indentured servants. Unlike Barbados and Caroline, Chesapeake remained a mostly white majority, and among the freemen there still existed differences in wealth and status. Also, most slaves in the Chesapeake had frequent or constant contact with white people.

Sweatshops

A small room used for clothing piecework beginning in the late nineteenth century. As mechanization transformed the garment industry with the introduction of foot pedaled sewing machines and mechanical cloth-cutting knives, independent tailors were replaced with sweatshop workers hired by contractors to sew pieces into clothing.

Military-industrial complex

A term President Eisenhower used to refer to the military establishment and defense contractors who, he warned, exercised undue influence in city, state, and federal government.

Social Gospel

A vision of Christianity that saw its mission not simply to reform individuals but to reform society. Emerging in the early twentieth century, it offered a powerful corrective to social Darwinism and the gospel of wealth, which fostered the belief that riches signaled divine favor.

What issues surrounded the debate over American Imperialism?

A vocal minority, mostly Democrats and former Populists resiste the country's foray into overseas empire, judging it unwise, immoral, and unconstitutional. William Jennings Bryan concluded that American Expansionism only distracted the nation from problems at home.

Supply-side Economics (Reaganomics)

Economic theory that claims tax cuts for individuals (especially the wealthy) and businesses encourage investment and production (supply) and stimulates consumption (demand) because individuals can keep more of their earnings. Despite promises to the contrary, under President Reagan, supply-side economics created a massive federal budget deficit.

Ida Tarbell- A History of Standard Oil Company, 1902-1905

Editor and journalist who ran a serialization for three years in McClure's Magazine, which chronicled the illegal methods Rockefeller had used to take over the oil industry.

Civil Service reform

Effort in the 1880s to end the spoils system and reduce government corruption. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 created the Civil Service commission to award government jobs under a merit system that required examinations for office and made it impossible to remove jobholders for political reasons.

Briefly explain the system of encomienda. Why did missionaries criticize it? Why did Spanish royal officials criticize it?

Encomienda was set up in New Spain as compensation for the relative lack of gold the other conquistadors received. The encomiendas were control of subdued towns in which the owner was allowed to collect tribute and encourage conversion into christianity, because he had set up law and order in the town. The owners often forced the natives to work, and the natives were uncompensated for their labor, which was the biggest benefit of the owners. A few missionaries criticized the encomiendas because they were horrified by the mistreatment of the natives. The missionaries won over some sympathy for the natives from the Spanish royal officials, which moved them to try to abolish the encomiendas systems in an effort to replace conquistadors with royal bureaucrats.

Puritan Revolution

English Civil War that arose out of disputes between King Charles I and Parliament, which was dominated by Puritans. The conflict began in 1642 and ended with the execution of Charles I in 1649, resulting in Puritan rule in England until 1660.

Quakers

Epithet for members of the Society of Friends. Their belief that God spoke directly to each individual through an "inner light" and that neither ministers nor the bible was essential to discovering God's word put them in conflict with the orthodox puritans.

Fur Trade

Europeans traded with Indians who would trap beavers, deer, and other fur-bearing animals. British, French, Dutch, and Spanish competed for the fur trade. Indians took advantage to improve their prospects. The shifting alliances struck a fragile balance along the frontier.

Election of 1796

Federalists chose John Adams and Thomas Pinckney to run with him, while the republican settled on Aaron Burr with Jefferson. The electoral college could cast two votes for any two candidates but only on one ballot, so the candidate with the most votes became the president, and the candidate with the second most amount of votes became vice president.

First Battle of Bull Run - 1861

First major battle of the Civil War, fought at a railroad junction in northern Virginia on July 21, 1861. The Union suffered a sobering defeat, while the Confederates felt affirmed in their superiority and the inevitability of Confederate nationhood.

Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incan empire in 1532, by capturing the emperor (Atahualpa), until they got enough ransom gold and silver from the Incas, before they murdered the emperor.

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

General Jackson led 2,500 Tennessee militiamen in an attack on Indians. More than 550 Indians were killed and hundreds more died trying to escape across the river. He then extracted land from the defeated tribes in a treaty.

Battle of San Jacinto

General Sam Houston's adopted the massacre of Goliad as a battle cry and rushed Santa Anna's troops in a surprise attack, winning the war and creating the lone star republic.

US Intervention in Mexico in 1916

General Victoriano Huerta seized power by violent means, and Wilson refused to accept him, declaring that he would not support a "government of burchers." In April 1914, Wilson sent 800 Marines to seize the port of Veracruz to prevent the unloading of a large shipment of arms for Huerta. Huerta fled to Spain, and the US welcomed a more compliant government. A rebellion erupted among desperately poor farmers, who believed that the government, aided by US business interests, had betrayed the revolution's promise to help the common people.

George Crook

General chasing the Apache. He combined a policy of dogged pursuit with judicious diplomacy. He relied on Indian scouts to track the raiding parties, recruiting nearly 200 Apache, Navajo, and Paiutes.

Sam Houston

General of the American army who won the battle of San Jacinto

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

General of the Mexican army who led troops northbound to stop the American rebellion in 1836.

Adlai Stevenson

Governor of Illinois and Democrat nominee in 1952 who was accepted by both liberals and southerners.

Thomas E Dewey

Governor of New York and republican presidential candidate, made his reputation as a tough crime fighter.

William Berkeley

Governor of Virginia.

Industrial Cowboys

Henry Miller and Charles Lux and their business.

Hernan Cortes

Hernan Cortes was a Spanish explorer who conquered Mexico through use of diplomacy, and then technology such as strong metal weapons and gunpowder.

Hernando de Soto

Hernando de Soto set out to find another Peru in 1539, and violently made his way through the southeastern part of North America (starting in Florida), before he died in 1542. They found nothing, and his men buried him in the mississippi river before turning back to Mexico.

New York City "Slave conspiracy" and executions

In 1741 when arson and several unexplained thefts plagued NYC, officials suspected a murderous slave conspiracy and executed 31 slaves.

Treaty of Fort Laramie

In 1851 some 10,000 Plains Indians gathered at Fort Laramie, Wyoming to negotiate a treaty that ceded an amount of their land to allow passage of wagon trains heading west. The government promised that the remaining Indian land would remain unviolated in return. The Indians who signed hoped to preserve their land and culture in the face of white attempts of assimilation

Gadsden Purchase

In 1853, diplomat James Gadsden negotiated a 10 million dollar purchase of 30,000 square miles of land in present day Arizona and New Mexico. This purchase furthered the dream of a transcontinental railroad to California and Pierce's desire for a southern route through Mexican territory.

Treaty of Medicine Lodge

In 1867, more than 5,000 warring Comanches, Kiowas, and Southern Arapahos gathered to negotiate a treaty. They wished to preserve limited land and hunting by moving the tribe to the reservation.

Second Battle of Bull Run - 1862

In August of 1862, Lee's smaller army battered John Pope's forces and sent them scurrying back to Washington. Lincoln ordered Pope to Minnesota to pacify the Indians and restored McClellan back to command.

Casablanca Conference

In January 1943, while the North African campaign was still under way, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Casablanca and announced that they would accept nothing less than the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers, ruling out peace negotiations. They concluded that they should capitalize on their success in North Africa and strike against Italy, consigning the Soviet Union to continue to bear the brunt of the Nazi.

What programs did Johnson's Great Society enact in the areas of poverty, education, health care, civil rights, immigration, the arts, and housing?

Johnson entreated Congress to act so that "JFK did not live or die in vain." He signed Kennedy's tax cut bill, and passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It made discrimination in employment, education, and public accommodation illegal. Antipoverty legislation followed soon afterward. In August 1964, Congress passed the Economic Opportunity Act, which authorized ten new programs, allocated $800 million (about 1 percent of the federal budget) for the first year. Many provisions targeted children and youths, including Head Start for preschoolers, work-study grants for college students, and the Job Corps for unemployed young people. The Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) program paid modest wages to volunteers working with the disadvantaged, and a legal services program provided lawyers for the poor. The Community Action Program (CAP) required "Maximum feasible participation" of the poor themselves in antipoverty projects. Poor people began to organize and take control of their neighborhoods and make welfare agencies, school boards, police departments, and housing authorities more accountable to the people they served. The National Welfare Rights Organization, assisted by anti-poverty lawyers pushed administrators of Aid to Families with Dependent Children to ease restrictions on welfare recipients. His elementary and secondary education act of 1965 marked a turning point by involving the federal government in K-12 education. In the same year, the Higher Education Act was passed by Congress. Congress started the medicare and medicaid programs for the poor and elderly, which covered about 37% of the population. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned literacy tests like the one that had stymied Fannie Lou Hamer and authorized federal intervention to ensure access to the voting booth. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished quotas based on national origins that discriminated against non-western European immigrants. The law maintained caps on the total number of immigrants and for the first time limited those from the western hemisphere; preference was now given to to immediate relatives of US residents and to those with desirable skills. In 1965, he sent Congress the first presidential message on the environment, obtaining measures to control water and air pollution and to preserve the natural beauty of the American landscape. The National Arts and Humanities Act of 1965 funded artists, musicians, writers, and scholars, and brought their work to public audiences. In 1968, he pushed out a final civil rights law, which banned discrimination in housing and jury service. He also signed the national housing act of 1968, which authorized an enormous increase in low-income housing- 1.7 million units over three years- and put construction and ownership in private hands.

Sand Creek Massacre

In November 1864 Colonel John M Chivington led his militia against a village of Cheyenne, mostly women and children. Their leader, Black Kettle, raised both a white flag and an american flag to signal surrender but the militia ignored it and slaughtered 270 Indians.

Yom Kippur War

In October 1973, on the Jewish holiday Yom Kippur. Egypt and Syria surprised Israel with a full-scale attack. When the Nixon administration sided with Israel, Arab nations retaliated with an oil embargo that create severe shortages in the US. After Israel repulsed the attack, tensions remained high. The Arab countries refused to recognize Israel's right to exist, Israel began to settle its citizens is the West bank and other territories occupied during the Six-Day war, and no solution could be found for the palestinian refugees who had been displaced by the creation of Israel in 1948.

1960 election

Kennedy surprised many by taking Johnson as his running mate, because many democrats saw him as a typical Texan conservative. He barely defeated Vice President Nixon.

Henry Clay

Kentucky senator who proposed a series of resolutions meant to answer and balance "all questions in controversy between the free and slave states, growing out of the subject of slavery." Admit California as a free state, no restrictions to slavery in the rest of the southwest, require texas to get rid of its claim to parts of new mexico but compensate by assuming its pre-annexation debt, abolish the domestic slave trade in DC but confirm slavery itself in the nation's capital, affirm Congress's lack of authority to interfere with the interstate slave trade, and enact a more effective fugitive slave law.

What policies did T.R. pursue with regard to Venezuela, Panama, Russia and Japan?

In his relations with European powers, he relied on military strength and diplomacy. His proprietary attitude toward the Caribbean became evident in the case of the Panama canal. Roosevelt had long been a supporter of a canal linking the caribbean and the pacific. Having decided on a route across the Panamanian isthmus, then part of Colombia, Roosevelt in 1902 offered the Colombian government a one-time sum of $10 million and an annual rent of 250,000. When the government refused, Roosevelt became incensed at what he called the "homicidal corruptionists" in Colombia for trying to "blackmail" the US. At the prompting of a group of New York investors, the Panamanians staged an uprising in 1903, and with unseemly haste the US government recognized the new government within 24 hours. The Panamanians promptly accepted the 10 million and the building got under way. The canal took 11 years and 375 million to complete, and it opened in 1914. In the wake of the Panama affair, a confrontation with Germany over Venezuela, and yet another default on a European debt, this time in the Dominican Republic, Roosevelt grew concerned that financial instability in the Latin America would lead European powers to interfere. In 1904, he announced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, in which he declared the US had the right to act as "an international police power" in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt stated the US would not intervene in Latin America as long as nations there conducted their affairs with "decency," but would step in to stop "brutal wrongdoing." In Asia Roosevelt inherited the Open Door Policy initiated by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, designed to ensure US commercial entry into china. As European Powers raced to secure CHinese trade and territory, Roosevelt was tempted to use force to gain economic or possibly territorial concessions.His skillful mediation gained him a reputation as an astute player on the world stage and demonstrated the nation's new presence in world affairs. Roosevelt earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his role in negotiating an end to the Russo-Japanese War, which had broken out when the Japanese invaded the Chinese Manchuria, threatening Russia's sphere of influence in the area. Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, in this case working to curb Japanese expansionism. When good relations with Japan were jeopardized by discriminatory legislation in California calling for segregated public schools for Asians, Roosevelt smoothed over the incident by negotiating the Gentleman's Agreement in 1907, which allowed the Japanese to save face by voluntarily restricting immigration to the US. To demonstrate America's naval power and to counter Japan's growing bellicosity, Roosevelt dispatched 16 of the navy's most up to date battleships on a "goodwill mission" around the world. Relations with Japan improved, and in the 1908 Root-Takahira agreement the two nations pledged to maintain the open door and support the status quo in the Pacific.

Acoma uprising

In new mexico, the relations between the natives and the Spanish deteriorated until the natives revolted, and Onate ruthlessly ended it by killing 800 men, women, and children, which reconfirmed Spanish military superiority.

Boston Tea Party

In november of 1773, three ships bearing tea arrived in Boston. The crews, sensing tension (because of the tea act, and the fact the colonists thought it was a ploy to trick americans into buying the taxed tea, and they couldn't find a way around it). The captains wanted to return to britain, but Hutchinson would not let them leave until they paid the tea duty. He gave them 20 days or the tea would be confiscated. At the end of the 20 days, a large crowd gathered at Old South Church to debate a course of action; nothing was decided but immediately after 100 to 150 men dressed as indians boarded three british ships with tea left on them and dumped thousands of pounds of tea into the harbor.

Northern Securities case-1902

In one of Roosevelt's first acts as president, he ordered his attorney general to begin a secret antitrust investigation of the Northern Securities Company. In 1904 the Supreme Court called for the dissolution of Northern Securities.

Force Bill

In response to the official statement of nullification in South Carolina, Jackson pushed this bill in congress, defining South Carolina's stance as treason and authorizing military action to collect federal tariffs.

Seven Days Battle - 1862

Lasted from June 25 to July 1 and was initiated by Robert E Lee, and began McClellan's march back down the peninsula. By the time he reached safety, 30,000 men had been wounded or died. Lee saved Richmond, and Lincoln fired McClellan.

Housing Act of 1949

Law authorizing the construction of 810,000 units of government housing. This landmark effort marked the first significant commitment of the federal government to meet the housing needs of the poor.

Interstate Highway Act of 1956

Law authorizing the construction of a national highway system. Promoted as essential to national defense and an impetus to economic growth, the national highway system accelerated the movement of people and goods and changed the nature of American communities.

Selective Service Act

Law enacted in 1940 requiring all men who would be eligible for a military draft to register in preparation for the possibility of a future conflict. The act also prohibited discrimination based on "race or color."

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Law that responded to demands of the civil rights movement by making discrimination in employment, education, and public accommodations illegal. It was the strongest such measure since Reconstruction and included a ban on sex discrimination in employment.

Slave Codes

Laws enacted in southern states in the 1820s and 1830s that required the total submission of slaves. Attacks by anti-slavery activists and by slaves convinced southern legislators that they had to do everything in their power to strengthen the institution.

Black codes

Laws passed by state governments in the South in 1865 that sought to keep ex-slaves subordinate to whites. At the core of the black codes lay the desire to force freedmen back to the plantations.

Economic Recovery Tax Act

Legislation passed by Congress in 1981 that authorized the largest reduction in taxes in the nation's history. The tax cuts benefited affluent Americans disproportionately and widened the distribution of American wealth in favor of the rich.

National Energy Act of 1978

Legislation that penalized manufacturers of gas-guzzling automobiles and provided additional incentives for energy conservation and development of alternative fuels, such as wind and solar power. The act fell short of a long term, comprehensive program that President Carter advocated.

Juan Ponce de Leon

Leon sailed to Florida in 1521 to try to find riches and gold, but was instead killed by Calusa Indians while in battle.

What was Lincoln's plan under the terms of his Proclamation of Amnesty, and why did congressional radicals oppose it?

Lincoln offered a full pardon, restoring property (except slaves), and political rights to most rebels who renounced secession and accepted emancipation. When 10% of a state's voting population had taken an oath of allegiance, the state could organize a new government and be readmitted into the union. Lincoln's plan did not require ex-rebels to extend social or political rights to ex-slaves or anticipate a program of long-term federal assistance to freedman. This enraged abolitionists who thought that the president thought that blacks should be free but seek nothing else for them. Congress agreed that Lincoln's plan was inadequate. In July, 1864, Congress put forward a plan on its own; it demanded that at least half the voters take the oath of allegiance before reconstruction could begin.

Lone Star Republic

Independent republic, also known as the republic of texas, that was established by a rebellion of Texans against Mexican rule. The victory at San Jacinto in April 1836 helped ensure the region's independence and recognition by the united states.

How did the roles of women, especially young women, change during the 1920s?

Increasing numbers of women worked and went to college, defying older gender norms. When the 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, granted women the vote, feminists felt liberated and expected women to reshape the political landscape. Women began pressuring congress to pass laws that especially concerned women, including measures to protect women in factories and grant federal aid to schools. Black women lobbied particularly for federal court to assume jurisdiction over the crime of lynching. Women's only significant national legislative success came in 1921 when Congress enacted the Sheppard-Towner Act, which extended federal assistance to states seeking to reduce high infant mortality rates. Economically, more women worked for pay- approximately one in four by 1930. The proportion of women working as secretaries, stenographers, and typists skyrocketed. Women almost monopolized the occupations of librarian, nurse, elementary school teacher, and telephone operator. Women also represented 40 percent of salesclerks by 1930. More female white-collar workers meant that fewer women were interested in protective legislation for women; new women wanted salaries and opportunities equal to men's. Increasing earnings gave women more buying power in the new consumer culture. A stereotype soon emerged of the flapper, so called because of the fad of wearing unbuckled galoshes. The flapper had short "bobbed" hair, wore lipstick and rouge, spent freely on the latest styles, and danced all night to wild jazz. The new woman both reflected and propelled the modern birth control movement. Margaret Sanger restated her principal conviction in 1920: "no woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother." By shifting strategy, sanger courted the conservative American Medical Association; linked birth control with the eugenics movement, which advocated limiting reproduction among "undesirable" groups and thus made contraception a respectable subject for discussion. New women challenged American convictions about separate spheres for men and women, the double standard of sexual conduct, and Victorian ideas of proper female appearance and behavior.

English Reformation

Initiated by King Henry 8, where parliament (under his direction) declared the Catholic Church outlawed in England, and that the king was the head of the church of england. This allowed Henry his political goal in running the church, and allowed him to divorce his many wives.

Emmett Till

14 year old black child who supposedly whistled at a white women in 1955 and the white family murdered him.

Robert Fulton

1807, Clermont, the steam propelled boat

Atlanta Compromise

1895 speech from Washington. He stated "in all things that are so purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.

Schenck v US- "clear and present danger" 1919

1919 supreme court decision that established a "clear and present danger" test for restricting free speech. The Court upheld the conviction of socialist Charles Schenck for urging resistance to the draft during wartime.

Johnson-Reed Act

1924 law that severely restricted immigration to the US to no more than 161,000 a year with quotas for each European nation. The racist restrictions were designed to staunch the flow of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and Asia.

Deborah Sampson

A 23 year old woman from Massachusetts who masqueraded as "Robert Shurtliff" for 17 months in Washington's army. She was placed in foster care at five, and becoming a female servant which led her to have skills that helped her later in the army. In the late 18th century she was left "masterless" and poor because of the war, so the cash bounty enticed her to join. When she was discovered, she was discharged. In 1797 she told her life story in a short story and then went on tour reenacting her masquerade.

William Penn

A quaker who set up Pennsylvania as the only genuine quaker colony in America.

Battle of Antietam - 1862

Battle fought in Maryland on September 17, 1862, between Union forces of George McClellan and Confederate troops of Robert E Lee. The battle, a Union victory that left 6,000 dead and 17,000 wounded, was the bloodiest day of the war.

Presidential election of 1884

Blaine v Cleveland, much mudslinging. Mugwumps originally supported Cleveland until it came out that he had fathered an illegitimate child

What impact did commercial TV have on society, culture, and values during the 1950s?

By 1960, nearly 90 percent of Americans homes had television and the average viewer spent more than 5 hours in front of it a day. Audiences were especially attracted by situation comedies, which projected the feminine mystique and family ideal. Eisenhower's presidential campaign used TV ads for the first time and by 1960 it became a big part of election campaigns. Money played a larger role in elections because candidates needed to pay for expensive TV spots. The ability to appeal directly to voters in their living rooms put a premium on personal attractiveness and encouraged candidates to build their own campaign organizations, relying less on political parties. Private enterprise paid for American TV. This became a major vehicle for fostering consumption, and advertisers did not hesitate to interfere with shows that might jeopardize the sale of their products.

Walter Mondale

Carter's vice president, Democrat candidate for president in 1984.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

Federal regulatory agency designed to oversee the railroad industry. Congress created it through the 1887 Interstate Commerce Act after the Supreme Court decision in Wabash v Illinois effectively denied states the right to regulate railroads. The ICC proved weak and did not immediately pose a threat to the industry.

Ellis Island

Immigration facility opened in 1892 in New York Harbor that processed new immigrants coming into New York City. In the late nineteenth century, some 75 percent of European immigrants to America came through New York.

Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr

In 1968, MLK went to Memphis to support striking municipal sanitation workers. He was murdered by an escaped convict on April 4.

Burning of Washington DC

In August 1814 5,000 British troops landed in Chesapeake bay and burned the white house, the capitol, the newspaper office, and a well-stocked arsenal. They then moved onto Baltimore, but the Maryland Militia stopped them.

Suez Crisis

In July 1956, Nasser responded to Dulles' calling off of their agreement by seizing the Suez Canal, then owned by Britain and France, but scheduled to revert to Egypt within 7 years. Israel attacked Egypt, backed by Britain and France. Eisenhower opposed intervention.

Omnibus Strategy of Henry Clay

In May 1850 the Senate considered a bill that joined Clay's resolutions into a single package. Clay bet that the majority of the congress wanted a compromise and that they'd vote for the package, but it backfired and voted the plan down.

Coal Strike of 1902

In May, 147,000 coal miners in Pennsylvania went on strike. The United Mine Workers demanded a reduction in the workday from twelve to ten hours, an equitable system of weighing each miner's output , and 10% wage increase , along with the recognition of the union.

What was the new managerial class and what conditions accounted for its emergence?

In the late nineteenth century a new class of white-collar workers who worked in offices and stores emerged. The new managerial class was composed of previously skilled workers who saw their jobs replaced by mechanization. Some moved into management positions. As large business organizations consolidated, corporate development seperated management from ownership, and the job of directing the firm became the province of salaried executives and managers, the majority of whom were white men drawn from the 8 percent of Americans who held high school diplomas.

Mormons

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints founded by Joseph Smith in 1830. Most Americans deemed the mormons heretics. After Smith's death at the hands of an angry mob in 1844, Brigham Young moved the people to Utah in 1846.

Briefly describe the economic and social structure of New Spain during the 1500s.

New Spain was set up to serve the purposes of the Old Spain. The monarchy gave the conquistadors permission to explore and plunder whatever they found, and the crown took 1/5th of anything the settlers looted.

Nixon's Southern Strategy

Nixon exploited hostility to black protest and new civil rights policies, wooing white southerners and a considerable number of northerners away from the Democratic party.

William McKinley

Ohio governor elected as the Republican nominee, pledging the preservation of the gold standard.

Opechancanough a.k.a. "Mr. O"

Powhatan's brother who took over as chief in 1618, and launched an assault killing 347 colonists in 1622, which started a catalyst of a campaign of the colonists murdering the natives.

Apollo Program

Project initiated by JFK in 1961 to surpass the Soviet Union in space exploration and send a man to the moon.

Describe the daily life of 18th-century slaves

Slaves were expected to work from sunup to sundown. In tobacco fields, most slaves were subject to close supervision. In the lower south, the task system gave slaves control over their pace of work , and discretion to use the rest of their time as they wished. A task was typically defined as a certain area of ground to be cultivated or a specific job to be completed. Slaves valued family ties, kinship structured slaves' relations with one another.

What criticisms of American values were expressed by the Lost Generation of writers?

Some writers felt alienated from America's mass-culture society, which they found shallow, anti-intellectual, and materialistic. They believed business culture blighted American life. Novelist Sinclair Lewis satirized the midwest as a cultural wasteland in Main Street and Babbitt. Humorists such as James Thurber created outlandish characters to poke fun at American stupidity and inhibitions. And Southern writers, led by William Faulkner, explored the south's grim class and race heritage.

Why and how did the New Right emerge during the 1960s and 1970s, and how did Nixon appeal to it?

The New Right appeared with Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater. He defined his purpose as "enlarging freedom at home and safeguarding it from the forces of tyranny abroad." He argued that government intrusions into economic life hindered prosperity, stifled personal responsibility, and interfered with individual rights to determine their own values. Conservatives assailed big government in domestic affairs but demanded a strong military to get rid of communism. The New Right was especially vigorous in the South and West. They were predominantly white areas that contained homogenous, skilled, and economically comfortable populations, as well as military bases and defense production facilities. The signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 pretty much gave some Southern states to the Republican party. Grassroots movements proliferated around what conservatives believed marked the "moral decline" of their nation. Nixon exploited hostility to black protest and new civil rights policies to turn voters towards him. He reluctantly enforced court orders to achieve high degrees of integration in southern schools, but resisted efforts to deal with segregation outside of the South. Busing and integration propelled white flight into the suburbs. Nixon failed to persuade Congress to end court-ordered busing, but after he appointed 4 new justices, the Supreme Court imposed strict limits on the use of busing to achieve integration. His judicial appointments also reflected the southern strategy. When Warren resigned in 1969, Nixon appointed Warren Burger. The Burger Court restricted somewhat the protection of individual rights established by the Warren Court, but it upheld many of the liberal programs of the 1960s. In addition to exploiting racial fears, Nixon appealed to anxieties about women's changing roles and new demands. In 1971, he vetoed a bill providing federal funds for day care centers with a message that parents should purchase child care "in the private, open market," not to rely on government. Nixon also sided with the pro-life movement.

Fall of South Vietnam

The Vietnamese started fighting almost immediately. In 1975, North Vietnam launched a new offensive, seizing Saigon on April 30. The US hastily evacuated, along with 150,000 of their South Vietnamese allies.

How did delegates to the constitutional convention reconcile the Virginia and New Jersey plans, and how did the proposed constitution deal with slavery?

The delegates reconciled the Virginia and New Jersey plans with the great compromise, by creating a bicameral legislation and representation by population. The ⅗ clauses was created constituting ⅗ of slaves were to be counted as people for the southern states appointment of representatives, and potentially kept the property tax low.

What were the goals of the Farmers Alliances and how successful were the Alliances in attaining these goals?

The goals of the Farmers' Alliance were to negotiate better prices, cooperate with each other, and escape the grasp of the merchant/creditor. Were not very successful because they were not a political group.

Union blockade of the South

The united states' use of its navy to patrol the southern coastline to restrict Confederate access to supplies. Over time, the blockade became increasingly effective and succeeded in depriving the Confederacy of vital supplies.

Fort Sumter

Union Fort on an island at the entrance to Charleston Harbor in South Carolina. After Confederate leaders learned President Lincoln intended to resupply Fort Sumter, Confederate forces attacked the fort on April 12, 1861, thus marking the start of the Civil War.

Fidel Castro

leader of Cuban revolution

"Waving the Bloody Shirt"

reminding the voters that the Democrats were "the party of rebellion"

Spoils system

what Jackson's opponents named his process of replacing civil servants with loyalists

Helen Hunt Jackson

wrote "A Century of Dishonor" in 1881 and convinced many readers that Indians had been treated unfairly.

How was the Bill of Rights proposed and ratified and what rights did it guarantee? What basic right did it not guarantee?

It was proposed to states during the ratification process of the constitution. James Madison drew from ideas of state constitutions with existing bill of rights. It guaranteed freedom of speech, press, religion; the right to petition and and assemble; the right to be free from unwarranted search and seizure; and the right to bear arms in support of a "well-regulated militia." It did NOT guarantee the right to vote.

Lee Harvey Oswald

JFK's assassin, shot by a local nightclub operator 2 days later.

Homestead Act

Act that promised 160 acres in the trans-Mississippi West free to any citizen who settled on the land for five years. The act spurred American settlement of the West. Altogether nearly one-tenth of the United States was granted to settlers.

Johnson's Decision Not to Run Again

Added to March 31, 1968 declaration that the US would begin to curtail the bombing of North Vietnam he was prepared to begin peace talks.

Battle of the Coral Sea

Admiral Chester W Nimitz sailed his battle fleet west from Hawai'i to retake Japanese-held islands in the southern and mid-Pacific. On May 7-8, 1942, in the Coral Sea just north of Australia, the American fleet and carrier-based warplanes defeated a Japanese armada that was sailing around the coast of New Guinea.

Congress of Racial Equality

African American civil rights organization in the US that played a pivotal role for AAs in the civil rights movement. One of the "big four" civil rights groups.

How and why did the colonists' attitudes toward Indians change after 1622?

After 1622 the colonists' attitudes towards the Indians changed due to an attack planned by Opechancanough, which effectively killed 347 colonists. The colonists then considered the natives their perpetual enemies, and launched a murderous campaign against the natives.

How and why did Jackson dismantle the Second Bank of the United States and what were the consequences of his actions?

Jackson thought that the bank concentrated undue economic power in the hands of a few. Jackson vetoed the bank's renewal, because he didn't like the bank and he did not like being manipulated. Jackson's veto translated bank controversy into a language of class antagonism and egalitarian ideals that resonated with many americans. Jackson took all the federal money out of the Bank of the United States and put it into state banks. The economy grew due to the deposits, but also had a dowturn in the years after, such as the economic panic of 1819.

Women's Christian Temperance Union

All-women organization founded in 1874 to advocate for total abstinence from alcohol. The WTCU provided important political training for women, which many used in the suffrage movement.

"New Woman"

Alternative image of womanhood that came into the American mainstream in the 1920s. The mass media frequently portrayed young, college-educated women who drank, smoked, and wore skimpy dresses. New Women also challenged American convictions about separate spheres for women and men and the sexual double standard.

George Wallace

American Independent Party segregationist candidate. Appealed to Americans' dissatisfaction with the reforms and rebellions of the 1960s, and their outrage at the assaults on traditional values.

Guadalcanal

American Marines fought over this as a strategic area.

American Expeditionary Force

American armed forces under the command of John Pershing who fought under a separate American command in Europe during World War I. They helped defeat Germany when they entered the conflict in full force in 1918.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

Arms control, trade, and stability in Europe were three areas the US and the Soviet Union had common interests. In May 1972, Nixon visited Moscow, signing agreements on trade and cooperation in science in space. Soviet and US leaders concluded arms limitation treaties that had grown out of the SALT begun in 1969, agreeing to limit ABMs to two each. Giving up defense against nuclear weapons was a crucial move, because it denied both nations an ABM defense so secure against a nuclear attack that they would risk a first strike.

James I

Authorized new translation of the bible, but was not receptive to puritans.

Amboe and Little Ephraim Robin John

Brothers from west africa who were part of a slave trading dynasty headed by their kinsman Grandy King George. British Slave ships captains and African rivals conspired in 1767 to destroy his monopoly. In battle, Little Ephraim and Ancona Robin John were enslaved and transported to the West Indies. They could read and write english, and boarded a ship determined to get home, but that captain took them to Virginia. After their master died in 1772 they heard of a slave ship from Calabar who promised to take them home if they ran away, but he brought them to Bristol, England intending to sell them as slaves. With a captain's help they appealed to the chief justice in england on the grounds that they were unjustly enslaved, and they won their freedom.

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus was an explorer who begged Isabella to fund his exploration to the east by going west- he was the first to land in the Bahamas/Caribbean.

Why was Pennsylvania considered to be "the best poor (white) man's country"?

Coined in 1743 by an indentured servant. Most servants lived in Philadelphia, New York City, or smaller towns. Artisans, small manufacturers, and shopkeepers prized male labor, and most female servants were household servants, where they cooked, cleaned, washed, or minded the children. Immigrants swarmed to Pennsylvania because of the availability of land.

Paul Tibbets

Colonel who dropped the world's first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan.

John M Chivington

Colonel who led his militia in the Sand Creek massacre.

Battle of the Thames

Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry led troops into Canada from Detroit and defeated British and Indians here in October 1813.

Ordinance of 1784

Congress adopted part of Jefferson's plan; the rectangular grid, nine states, and guarantee of self-government w/ eventual statehood. Congress thought the idea of giving the land away was too radical, and the prohibition of slavery was also passed over (7:6)

Wade-Davis Bill-1864

Congress plan for reconstruction sponsored by Henry Winter Davis of Maryland and Benjamin Wade of Ohio that required at least half the voters on a conquered Southern state to pledge allegiance before reconstruction could begin. The bill also banned almost all ex-confederates from participating in the drafting of new state constitutions and guaranteed the equality of freedman before the law.

John Bell

Constitutional Union Party nominee

What was Coxey's Army and what plans did Coxey propose to alleviate the suffering of the poor and employed?

Coxey's Army was unemployed men who marched to Washington DC in 1894 to urge Congress to enact a public works program to end unemployment. Jacob S Coxey of Ohio led the most publicized contingent. The movement failed to force federal relief legislation. Coxey proposed a scheme to finance public works through non-interest-bearing bonds. On May 1, Coxey's army arrived in Washington. When Coxey defiantly marched his men onto the Capitol grounds, police set upon the demonstrators with nightsticks, cracking skulls and arresting Coxey and his lieutenants. Coxey went to jail for 20 days and ws charged 5$ for "walking on the grass" Like the Populists, Coxey's Army called into question the underlying values of the new industrial order and demonstrated how ordinary citizens turned to means outside the regular party citizen to influence politics in the 1890s.

What was Shay's Rebellion, and how did it expose weaknesses of the confederation government?

Daniel Shays, a farmer from Western Massachusetts and a group rebelled by burning down courthouses because they were taxed by their own state and didn't want to be. They are represented in the Government taxing them, so they are convicted of treason. James Madison criticizes the weakness of the Articles of Confederation. He wants a stronger national government to have control over the states because they are too loosely bound.

Railroads

The nation's first railroad laid thirteen miles of track in 1829, and by 1840 three thousand more miles. Most lines were short therefore they did not transport goods effectively, but people flocked for the experience.

Why and how did the Pilgrims found the Plymouth colony? Why and how did the Puritans found the Massachusetts Bay colony?

The pilgrims got permission to go live and work in Virginia, but they landed in Plymouth instead. They drew up the Mayflower compact upon arrival, pledging to "covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politick, for our better ordering and preservation." The Puritans obtained a royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which provided for the usual privileges granted to to joint-stock companies, including land for colonization, and a unique provision permitted the government to be located in the colony rather than in England.

Hard-line Foreign Policy- Containment

The post-World War II foreign policy strategy that committed the United States to resisting the influence and expansion of the Soviet Union and communism. The strategy of containment shaped American foreign policy throughout the Cold War.

Why and how did the proposed constitution put limits on its direct democracy?

The proposed constitution put limits on direct democracy by only giving people a direct voice in the lower house and gave a check on that voice in the senate by electing senators from state legislatures. Also the electoral college was created to keep the presidency away from direct democracy.

Protestant Reformation

The protestant reformation, started by Martin Luther's criticism of the church, happened due to corruption in the church. The reformation was criticized by Charles V in his attempt to defend Orthodox Christianity.

How did the Presidential election of 1876 and the compromise of 1877 end Reconstruction?

The result of the election in the split three states that caused Hayes to win the electoral vote angered some Democrats vowed to refuse Haye's election and rumors of another civil war or a coup were everywhere. The Compromise evaded crisis but promised to take Northern/Federal influence out of the South and the last three Republican governments collapsed as he withdrew. This ended reconstruction because the South was back to the South's control

GI Bill

The servicemen's readjustment act, enacted in 1944, offered 16 million veterans job training and education, unemployment compensation until they found another job, and low-interest loans to purchase homes, farms, and small businesses.

How did the spoils system, religion, race, and gender play a role in the politics of the Post Construction US?

The spoils system meant that thousands of jobs went to party supporters and the choice of party affiliation could mean the difference between having a job or not. Religion and ethnicity also played a role in politics. In the North, Presbyterians and Methodists flocked to the Republican party which championed a sense of moral reforms, including local laws requiring businesses to close on sunday in observance of the Sabbath. In the cities, the Democratic party courted immigrants and working-class Catholic and Jewish voters and charged that Republican moral crusades often masked attacks on immigrant culture.

What was the Stamp Act, how did it differ from previous taxes, and why was it imposed?

The stamp act imposed a tax on all paper used for official documents- newspapers, pamphlets, court documents, licenses, wills, ship's cargo lists- and required an affixed stamp to prove that the tax had been paid. It was imposed simply to raise revenue. It differed from previous taxes because by English traditions, taxes were a gift from the people to their monarchs granted by the people's representatives, but these taxes were given without consent which opposed the English political theory: the idea that citizens had the liberty to enjoy and use their property without fear of confiscation.

Why and how did the temperance and abolition movements evolve, and what were their goals and tactics?

The temperance and abolition movements evolved by moving beyond individual moral suasion into the realm of politics. Their goals were to eradicate sin. "Salvation was open to all, and society needed to be perfected"

What roles did the possible annexations of Texas and Oregon play in the presidential election of 1844, and how were the territories finally annexed.

The want to annex texas was opposed by the North, so the support or opposition of the annexation of Texas helped in certain areas. To make annexation palatable to northerners, Democrats yoked the the annexation to texas with the annexation of oregon, so the balance of Slave states and free states was the same. Polk underscored his faith in manifest destiny in his inaugural address.

Why did the whiskey rebellion happen and how did Washington respond to it?

The whiskey rebellion happened due to the excise tax on whiskey, and the charges filed on 75 farmers for tax evasion. Neville and a federal marshal were attacked, and Neville's house was burned down before the crowd planned a march to protest the attack. President Washington nationalized the Pennsylvania militia and set out, but the dissidents dispersed before blood was shed

In what leisure activities did the working class participate?

The working class took their leisure in the cities' new dance halls, music houses, ballparks, and amusement arcades. Young women no longer met prospective through their families, but sought each other's company in dance halls and other commercial retreats. Young working women counted on being treated by men, a transaction that often implied sexual payback. The dance halls became a favorite target of reformers who feared they lured teenage girls into prostitution. For men, baseball became a national pastime. Coney island was also a favorite of the working class.

Why did the state constitution writers require property ownership in order to qualify to vote or hold office? What were the effect of these requirements?

The writers required property ownership in order to vote or hold office because people who owned property were thought to possess the necessary freedom of mind to make good political choices. Many poor non-property owning white men protested with reasons such as they were fighting in the war, so surely they had legitimate political concerns

New Nationalism

Theodore Roosevelt's 1912 campaign slogan, which reflected his commitment to federal planning and regulation. Roosevelt wanted to use the federal government to act as a "steward for the people" to regulate giant corporations.

Domino Theory

Theory of containment articulated by President Eisenhower in the context of vietnam. He warned that the fall of a non-communist government would trigger the spread of communism to neighboring countries.

What were the causes and consequences of the panic of 1837?

There were many causes of the panic, including bad harvests in europe and a large trade imbalance that caused the Bank of America to call in loans from American merchants, failures in crops markets and a 30 percent downturn in international cotton prices fed the growing disasters, cotton merchants couldn't meet their obligations to to NY creditors, whose firms began to fail. Frightened citizens rushed to banks to try to get their money out, and businesses rushed to liquidate their remaining assets and pay off debts. Prices of stocks, bonds, and real estate fell 30-40 percent. The credit market fell like a house of cards, as it did in 1819. Some Whigs though that Jackson's anti-bank movement caused this, and others identified the competitive, profit-maximizing capitalist system as the problem.

How did the US respond to reports of the Nazi Holocaust in Europe?

Thousands of Jews sought to immigrate to the US but 82 percent of Americans opposed admitting them and they were turned away. Even after hearing reports of the holocaust and the concentration camps, US officials refused to grant asylum to Jewish refugees, believing that the claims were exaggerated.

Securities and Exchange Commission

To prevent the fraud, corruption, and insider trading that tainted Wall Street and contributed to the crash of 1929, New Dealers created this commission in 1934 to oversee financial markets by licensing investment dealers, monitoring all stock transactions, and requiring corporate officers to make full disclosures about their companies. This helped clean up and regulate wall street.

Manhattan Project

Top-secret project authorized by Franklin Roosevelt in 1942 to develop an atomic bomb ahead of the germans. The thousands of Americans who worked on the project at Los Alamos, New Mexico, succeeded in producing a successful atomic bomb by July 1945.

What was Truman's Fair Deal, and what problems did he have getting it through the Republican Congress?

Truman's fair deal hit things Roosevelt's New Deal didn't touch on such as equal opportunities for employment, housing, the ballot, and education. Congress made modest improvements to Social Security, and raised minimum wage, but only passed the housing act of 1949. Southern democrats were the main obstacle, blocking Truman's proposals for civil rights, a powerful medical lobby blocked plans for a universal healthcare program, and conflicts over race and religion thwarted federal aid to education.

How did the US government deal with Native Americans of the Ohio Valley during the 1790s and what was the effect of its policies on the Native Americans?

Two different sets of troops marched into the Ohio Valley looking to claim land from the Indians. Both were defeated tremendously, so Washington doubled the military presence in Ohio, and appointed a new commander. This led to continued violence with the Indians, until the battle of fallen timbers were the Indians were defeated so badly they could no longer refuse a treaty.

Sioux Uprising

Under the leadership of Chief Little Crow, the Dakota (or Santee) had pursued a policy of accommodation, ceding land in return for the promise of annuities. With the people on the verge of starvation, Little Crow led his warriors against the intruders, killing more than 1,000 settlers. American soldiers quelled the uprising and led 1,700 Sioux to Fort Snelling where 400 Indians were put on trial and 38 died in the largest mass execution in American history.

Boxer Uprising

Uprising in China led by the Boxers, an antiforeign society, in which 30,000 Chinese converts and 250 foreign Christians were killed. An international force rescued foreigners in Beijing, and European powers imposed the humiliating Boxer protocol on China in 1901.

Oneida Community

Utopian community organized by John Humphrey Noyes in New York in 1848. Noye's opposition to private property led him to denounce marriage as the root of the problem. The community embraced sexual and economic communalism, to the dismay of its mainstream neighbors.

Douglas MacArthur

WWII hero who Truman appointed to lead UN troops in Korea

What were the basic differences between the approaches of Booker T Washington and WEB DuBois toward achieving equality for African Americans?

Washington urged caution and restraint. He opened the Tuskegee institute to teach vocational skills to African Americans. He emphasized education and economic progress for his race and urged African Americans to put aside issues of political and social equality. DuBois argued for African Americans to fight for civil rights and racial justice.

Henry Knox

Washington's secretary of war

Lowell Mills

Water-powered textile mills constructed along the Merrimack River in Lowell, Massachusetts, that pioneered the extensive use of female laborers. By 1836, the eight mills there employed more than 5 thousand young women, living in boarding-houses under close supervision.

El Salvador

When a leftist uprising occurred in 1981, Reagan sent money and military advisers to prop up the authoritarian government.

Abigail Adams

Wife of John Adams who passed Common Sense around Braintree, Mass. She is impatient for independence and changes that would revolutionize the country. In letters to JA, she outlines obstacles and gave advice. She worried southern slave owners would shrink from a war in the name of independence, and she also hoped women's legal status would improve. John dismissed her concerns but privately rehearsed reasons why these "lesser" people should be excluded from political participation.

Henry Cabot Lodge and Lodge "reservations"

Wilson's archenemy, opposed the Treaty of Versailles. Was not an isolationist, but he thought that much of the 14 points were a general bleat about virtue being better than vice. Lodge expected the us' economic and military power to propel the nation into a major role in US affairs. With Lodge as its chairman, the Senate Foreign Relations committee produced several amendments or reservations that sought to limit consequences of American membership in the league.

Election of 1916

Wilson's diplomacy proved helpful in his reelection in 1916. In the contest against Republican Charles Evans Hughes, the Democratic party ran Wilson under the slogan "He kept us out of war." Appealed to enough of those in favor of peace to eke out a majority. Wilson won, but only by 600,000 popular and 23 electoral votes.

What caused McCarthyism, and what role did Truman play in fostering it?

Wisconsin senator Joseph R McCarthy claimed that the communists in America were more to blame for the success of communism than the soviets. McCarthyism became synonymous with the anti-communist crusade. Truman created loyalty review boards that fostered the red scare by inspecting every federal employee- 2 thousand lost jobs and another 10 thousand resigned.

What were the lives of free blacks in the South like, and how were they treated by the whites?

With the rise of free blacks came the laws that masters could not free their slaves, and free blacks were subject to special taxes. Free blacks were not allowed to have school, participate in politics, partake in interstate travel, and they were required to carry "freedom papers" to prove that they weren't slaves. The same laws applied to them as the ones that applied to slaves. Laws confined most to poverty and independence. Opportunities from them were very slim as planters believed free blacks set a bad example for slaves. Whites treated them as inferiors, still.

New Freedom

Woodrow Wilson's 1912 campaign slogan, which reflected his belief in limited government and states' rights. Wilson promised to use antitrust legislation to eliminate big corporations and to improve opportunities for small businesses and farmers.

Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson's plan, proposed in 1918, to create a new democratic world order with lasting peace. Wilson's plan affirmed basic liberal ideals, supported the right to self-determination, and called for the creation of a league of nations. Wilson compromised on his plan at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, and the US senate refused to ratify the resulting treaty.

Double V Campaign

World War II campaign in America to attack racism at home and abroad. The campaign pushed the federal government to require defense contractors to integrate their workforces. In response, Franklin Roosevelt authorized a committee to investigate and prevent racial discrimination in employment.

George Kennan

a career diplomat and expert on Russia, wrote a comprehensive rationale for what came to be called the policy of containment. He downplayed the influence of communist ideology and instead stressed soviet insecurity and Stalin's need to maintain authority at home, which prompted Stalin to exaggerate threats from abroad and expand soviet power. He believed that the USSR would retreat from its expansionist efforts if the US would respond with "unalterable counterforce."

Bank of the United States

a central bank

joint stock company

a company that is owned jointly by its investors.

Banana Republic

a country run by US business interests.

John C. Fremont

a former army captain and explorer who arrived in California with a party of 60 buckskin-clad frontiersmen spoiling for a fight.

Gen. Josiah Harmar

a general who marched into Ohio's northwest region with 1400 men, burning Indian villages. The Indians ambushed his troops, and Harmar lost an ⅛ of them and retreated.

Sons of Liberty

a group of men mobilized to oppose the stamp act.

Gradual emancipation

a law passed in five northern states that balanced civil rights against property rights by providing a multistage process for freeing slaves, distinguishing persons already alive from those not yet born and providing benchmark dates when freedom would arrive for each group.

John Winthrop

a lawyer and landowner, selected to become governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Iroquois confederacy

a league of six tribes whose land was claimed by New York and Massachusetts in their charters.

Detroit Race Riots of 1943

a long-simmering conflict between whites and blacks over racially segregated housing ignited into a race war. In two days of violence, 25 blacks and 9 whites were killed, and more injured.

Fort Necessity

a makeshift fort Washington and his men put together fearing retaliation.

William Fetterman

a man who had boasted that with 80 men he could ride through the Sioux nation was killed in an Indian attack.

"The Liberator"

a national publication founded in 1831 in Boston that took antislavery agitation to new heights by advocating for immediate emancipation

Popé

a native leader who organized the Pueblo revolt in New Mexico.

astrolabe

a navigational device to help determine latitude.

Nicaragua

a popular movement overthrew an oppressive dictatorship. US officials were uneasy about the leftist Sandinistas who led the rebellion and had ties to Cuba. Once they assumed power in 1979, Carter recognized the new government and sent economic aid, signaling that a way a government treats its citizens was as important as how anti-communist and friendly to American interests it was.

Booker T Washington

a preeminent black leader who urged caution and restraint.

Judith Sargent Murray

a prominent American feminist who wrote a series of essays that favored education that would make women into self-confident rational beings, but would still retain their characteristic trait of sweetness.

Thomas Hooker

a prominent minister who argued with Winthrop over the composition of the church. He argued that men and women who lived godly lives should be admitted to church membership even if they had not experienced conversion. In 1636, he led a group to the Connecticut River Valley.

Bully Pulpit

a public office or position of authority that provides its occupant with an outstanding opportunity to speak the truth. Teddy Roosevelt did this with the White House and advocated conservation and antitrust reforms, and championed the nation's emergence as a world power.

Alice Paul

a quaker social worker, planned the march on washington on the eve of Wilson's inauguration and to lobby for federal amendment to give women the vote.

Rough Riders

a regiment composed of a sprinkling of Ivy League polo players and a number of western cowboys Roosevelt befriended during his stint as a cattle rancher in the Dakotas. Their charge up Kettle Hill and Roosevelt's role in the decisive battle of San Juan Hill made front page news.

Glorious Revolution

a relatively bloodless revolution in which James' was removed from power, and was replaced by William and Mary, which reasserted the protestant influence in England.

Alexander Graham Bell

a scottish immigrant with a passion to find a way to teach the deaf to speak. Instead, he developed a way to transmit voice over wire- the telephone. He demonstrated it at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876. In 1880, American Bell pioneered "long lines," (long distance telephone-service), creating American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) as a subsidiary.

Federalist Papers

a series of 85 essays on the federalist position written by john jay, james madison, and alexander hamilton

Labor Wars

a series of bloody strikes by industrial workers. This included the Homestead strike, the Cripple Creek strike, and the Pullman strike.

Assembly Line

a series of workers and machines in a factory by which a succession of identical items is progressively assembled.

Bacon's Laws

a set of laws that gave settlers more rights including: giving settlers a voice in tax levies, forbid officeholders from demanding bribes or fees to carry out their duties, place a limit on holding multiple offices, and restored voting to all freemen.

Ku Klux Klan

a social club of Confederate veterans that quickly developed into a paramilitary organization supporting Democrats. With too few Union troops in the South to control the region, the Klan went on a rampage of violence to defeat Republicans and restore white supremacy.

Four-minute men

a squad of 75,000 volunteers who were sent around the country to give brief pep talks that celebrated successes on the battlefield and in the factories.

"Middletown"

a study of the inhabitants of Muncie, Indiana, that revealed that Muncie had become, above all, "a culture in which everything hinges on money." moreover, faced with technological and organizational change beyond their comprehension, many citizens has lost confidence in their ability to play an effective role in civic affairs.

Tariff of Abominations

a tariff passed by congress in 1828, which consisted of conflicting duties, some as high as 50%, and was particularly hard on the south.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

after 2 US destroyers were fired at by North Vietnamese gunboats while spying on the Gulf of Tonkin, off the coast of North Vietnam, Johnson won this resolution from congress allowing him to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attacks against the forces of the US to prevent further aggressions."

freedom dues

after the indenture expired, the ex-servant owed their master some form of payment (for their loss of work).

Francis Townsend

also criticized the timidity of the New Deal. Angry that his many of his retired patients lived in misery, Townsend proposed the creation of the Old Age Pension in 1934, which would pay every American over 60 a pension of $200 a month. To receive the amount, the citizens had to agree to spend the entire amount in 30 days, thereby stimulating the economy.

National Consumers League

also fostered cross-class alliance and advocated for protective legislation. Promoted protective legislature to better working conditions for women.

John Brown

an abolitionist whose beliefs turned violent in the wake of the fighting over slavery in Kansas in the 1850s. Led an eight man posse in the midnight slaughter of five allegedly proslavery men on May 24,1856. He took his fight against slavery to the South in 1859, where he invaded Harper's Ferry in Virginia.

non-consumption agreements

an agreement to boycott all British made goods in order to encourage home manufacture and hurt trade so British merchants would pressure for a removal of the duties.

Nicodemas, Kansas

an all black community

Greenback Labor Party

an alliance of farmers and urban wage laborers. They favored issuing paper currency not tied to gold supply, citing the precedent of the greenbacks issued during the civil war.

Edmund Randolph

attorney general, virginian who had attended the constitutional convention but had turned anti-federalist in the ratification.

Rural Electrification Administration

beginning in 1935, the REA made low-cost loans available to local cooperatives for power plants and transmission lines to serve rural communities. Within 10 years, it delivered electricity to 9/10 farms.

Charles Fourier

believed that individualism and competition were evils that denied basic truth that "men... are brothers and not competitors." Few of the communities based off his beliefs lasted more than 2-3 years.

Potsdam Conference

big three (Truman not Roosevelt) met to discuss terms for the end of the war.

Martin Luther King Jr.

black leader who linked racial justice with Christianity.

William H Whyte- "The Organization Man"

blamed the modern corporation for making employees tailor themselves to the group.

Fannie Lou Hamer

boarded a bus on August 31, 1962 to Indianola, Mississippi, intending to register to vote.

"The Grapes of Wrath"

book by John Steinbeck about an Okie family

Russo-Japanese War

broke out when the Japanese invaded the Chinese Manchuria, threatening Russia's sphere of influence in the area. Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, in this case working to curb Japanese expansionism.

1918 Flu Epidemic

brought on a lethal accumulation of fluid in the lungs. Before the flu virus had run its course, 40 million people had died worldwide, including 700,000 americans.

"How the Other Half Lives"

by Jacob Riis who took his camera into the hovels of the poor and opened the nation's eyes to the conditions of the slums.

Ordinance of 1785

called for three to five states, divided the into townships of six miles square, with 36 sections of 640 acres. Land would be sold at public auction for a minimum of a dollar an acre. The minimum purchase was 640 acres, and payment had to be in hard money or certificates of debt from the revolutionary war.

Employment Act of 1946

called on federal government to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, thereby formalizing government's responsibility for maintaining a healthy economy.

Gifford Pinchot

chief forester for Roosevelt. Preached conservation- the efficient use of natural resources.

John Jay

chief justice of the supreme court, helped write federalist papers

Roger Taney

chief justice who was anti-republican and anti-racial equality who wrote the Dred Scott decision.

Child Labor

children under 15 who were employed in a "paying" job.

George Washington

chosen as the new/ 1st president of the usa

Hollywood

discovered the successful formula for combining opulence, sex, and adventure. Admission was cheap ad by 1929, the movies were drawing more than 80 million people in a single week.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

disease discovered in 1981. The disease initially disproportionately affected male homosexuals in the US.

Thomas Jefferson

drafted a policy that proposed dividing the territory north of the ohio river and east of the mississippi into 9 new states. Advocated giving the land instead of selling it, because future property tax on the land would be payment enough. His goal was to encourage democratic settlement and discourage land speculation, and he prohibited slavery in the 9 new states.

Huey Long

elected governor of Louisiana with his slogan "every man is a king, but no one wears a crown." Long championed the poor over the rich, country people over city folk, and the humble over elites. As governor, "The Kingfish" delivered on his promises to provide jobs and build roads, schools, and hospitals, but also behaved ruthlessly to achieve his goals. His supporters elected him to the Senate in 1932, where he introduced a sweeping "tax the rich" tax bill that would outlaw personal incomes more than $1 million and inheritances over $5 million. It was rejected, but he decided to run for president with his "share our wealth" campaign, but it died when Long was assassinated in 1935.

Henry Clay

elected speaker of the house in 1811 and was a leader of War Hawks

Election of 1892

election in which the People's Party gained more than a million votes.

Ulysses S. Grant

emerged as the key Northern commander in Tennessee.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

empowering the federal government to intervene directly to enable African Americans to register and vote, thereby launching a major transformation in southern politics.

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974

established public financing of presidential campaigns and imposed some restrictions on contributions to curtail the selling of political favors.

Truman's Loyalty Program

executive order 9835, issued in March 1947, establishing loyalty review boards to investigate every federal employee.

Air-conditioning

facilitated industrial development and by 1960 cooled nearly 8 million homes in the sun belt.

Babe Ruth

famous baseball player, the rowdy escapades of "sultan of swat" demonstrated that sports offered a way to break out of the ordinances of everyday life.

Free Speech Movement

first large scale protest of white students at Berkeley in 1964. University officials banned the setting up of tables to gain support for various causes. The movement occupied the administration building, and more than 700 students were arrested before the California Board of Regents overturned the new restrictions.

Bill of Rights

first ten amendments to the constitution officially ratified in 1791

Anti-Saloon League

formed in 1895 by protestant clergy, campaigned to stop the sale of liquor.

William Lloyd Garrison

founder and editor of the liberator

Food Stamps

gave poor people greater choice in obtaining food.

Samuel J Ervin

head of a Senate investigating committee

A. Philip Randolph

head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, promised that 100,000 African American marchers would descend on Washington if the president did not eliminate discrimination in defense industries.

Bernard Baruch

headed the War industries Board. Brought industrial management and labor together into a team that produced everything from boots to bullets and made the US troops the best-equipped soldier in the war.

Child Support Enforcement Amendment Act

helped single mothers collect court-ordered child support payments from absent fathers.

McKinley Tariff- 1890

highest tariff in the nation's history (Billion Dollar Congress)

Ethel and Julius and Rosenberg

husband and wife accused of spying for the soviets. They pleaded not guilty but were convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage and electrocuted in 1953.

Elijah Lovejoy

illinois abolitionist editor who was killed by a rioting crowd attempting to destroy his printing press

Declaration of Dependence

in 1776 in NYC, 547 loyalists signed and circulated a broadside, in response to the July 4 Declaration of Independence, denouncing the "most unnatural, unprovoked, Rebellion that ever disgraced the annals of time."

Reciprocal Tariff Reduction

in 1934, Congress gave FDR the power to reduce tariffs on goods imported into the US from nations that agreed to lower their own tariffs on US exports. By 1940, 22 nations had agreed to reciprocal tariff reductions, helping to double US exports to Latin America and contributing to the New Deal's goal of boosting the domestic economy through free trade.

Little Rock Crisis 1957

in 1957, Governor Orval Faubus sent the Arkansas National Guard troops to block the enrollment of 9 black students in Little Rock's central high school. He later allowed them to enter, but withdrew the national guard, leaving the students to face an angry white mob. Eisenhower was forced to send regular army troops, the first federal military intervention in the south since reconstruction.

Boycott of 1980 Moscow Olympics

in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter imposed economic sanctions on the Soviet Union, barred US participation in the 1980 summer Olympic games in Moscow, and obtained legislation requiring all 19 year old men to register for the draft.

Spanish Civil War

in spain, a civil war broke out in July 1936 when nationalists (fascist rebels led by General Francisco Franco) attacked the democratically elected Republican government. Both Germany and Italy reinforced Franco, while the soviet union provided much less aid to the Republican loyalists. The Spanish civil war did not cause European democracies or the US government to help the loyalists, despite sympathy for their cause. Abandoned by the Western nations, he Republican loyalists were defeated in 1939, and Franco built a fascist bulwark in Spain.

Cyrus McCormick

in the 1840s, he experimented with designs for the mechanical reaper, by the 1850s a reaper allowed for a farmer to harvest 12 acres a day and cultivate more land, doubling the corn and wheat harvests between 1840 and 1860.

Charles Darwin- Origin of Species

in which Darwin theorized that in the struggle for survival, adaptation to the environment triggered among species a natural selection process that led to evolution.

Washington's Farewell Address

in which Washington stressed the need to maintain a "unity of government" and urged the US to stay away from permanent alliances with foreign countries.

Counterinsurgency Forces

included the army's Green Berets and the navy's SEALs, established under Eisenhower to aid groups fighting against communist-leaning groups. They were trained to wage guerilla warfare and equipped with the latest technology.

Committee on Public Information

independent agency of the government created to influence US public opinion regarding American participation in WWI

Transcendentalists

individuals should conform neither to the dictates of the materialistic world nor to the dogma of formal religion.

Antinomians

individuals who believed that christians could be saved by faith alone and did not need to act in accordance to God's law..

Jackie Robinson

integrated major league baseball, playing for the brooklyn dodgers and won the rookie of the year award in 1947.

Al Capone

italian leader of a gang related to the liquor trade. Machine-gunned 7 members of a rial irish gang on St Valentine's Day 1929. Was sent to prison for income tax evasion.

My Lai Massacre

killing of an entire village by Lieutenant William Calley's company despite the village had not come into contact with the enemy and the village was composed mostly of old men, women, and children.

Reservation

land given by the federal government to American Indians beginning in the 1860s in an attempt to reduce tensions between Indians and western settlers. On reservations, Indians subsisted on meager government rations and faced a life of poverty and starvation

Department Stores

large stores with ornate facades as monuments to the material promise of the era.

Margaret Sanger

launched the birth control movement in 1915. A nurse who had worked among the poor

Mao Zedong

leader of China's Communist Party, who mobilized peasants against Jiang Jieshi.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

leader of a growing group of American expansionists.

Red Grange

led the way for football becoming a commercial spectacle by going from stardom at the University of Illinois to the Chicago Bears in the new professional football league.

University of California v Bakke

limited the range of affirmative action but allowed universities to attack the results of past discrimination if they avoided strict quotas and racial classifications.

Bills of rights in state constitutions

lists of individual liberties that the government could not abridge.

Sedition Act of 1917

made it a federal law to use "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the constitution, the government, the american uniform, or the flag.

Students for Democratic Society

main organization of white student protest, founded in 1960.

New Jersey Plan

maintained single-house congress, one state= one vote, plural presidency. Gave congress right to tax, regulate trade, and use force on unruly states.

De-industrialization, Service Economy

many factories moved abroad (such as to Mexico or Korea). Service industries expanded and created new jobs at home, but at substantially lower wages.

Pennsylvania "Dutch"

name given by other colonists to German immigrants in the middle colonies; an English corruption of the German term Deutsch. Germans were the largest contingent of migrants from continental Europe to the middle colonies in the 18th century.

Redeemers

name taken by southern Democrats who harnessed white rage in order to overthrow Republican rule and black political power and thus, they believed, save southern civilization.

Second Bank of the United States

national bank with multiple branches chartered in 1816 for twenty years. Intended to help regulate the economy, the bank became a major issue in Andrew Jackson's reelection campaign in 1832, framed in political rhetoric about aristocracy versus democracy.

Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

nicknamed for holding the line at manassas,

Poor whites

northern classification of poor white southerners, saying they weren't just poor but also ignorant, diseased, and degenerate. In reality they were hardworking, with the prospects of becoming a yeoman.

Executive Order #9066

on February 19, 1942, Roosevelt issued this executive order, which authorized sending all Americans of Japanese descent to ten makeshift internment camps.

Zimmermann Telegram-1917

on February 25, 1917, British authorities informed Wilson of a secret telegram sent by the German foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German minister in Mexico. It promised that in the event of war between the US and Germany, Germany would see that Mexico regained its "lost provinces" of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, if Mexico would declare war against the US.

American Party aka Know-Nothing Party

party made up of nativists who swore never to vote for foreign-born or roman catholics and not to reveal anything about the organization. When questioned, they answered "I know nothing"

Bossism

pattern of urban political organization that arose in the late nineteenth century in which an often corrupt "boss" maintains an inordinate level of power through command of a political machine that distributes services to its constituents.

Self-determination

people governing themselves. Wilson did not clarify how they would be split up or decided what kind of unit was in mind.

Okies

people migrating from Oklahoma, which was a dust bowl and not suitable for farming.

Iron Puddlers

people who manufactured iron. The process of puddling was an improved way to convert pig iron into wrought iron with the use of a reverberatory furnace.

Separatists (Pilgrims)

people who sought withdrawal from the Church of England. These are the pilgrims.

Home Protection

phrase used by Frances Willard arguing that women needed to vote to protect home and family.

Battle of Long Island

pitted the redcoats against the green CA. Howe attacked and inflicted casualties and took 1000 prisoners but failed to press forward. Washington retreated farther north.

Henry Ford

produced cars. He was considered an American hero, when the decade started he had already produced 6 million automobiles. In 1920, a Ford car cost 845, by 1928 the price was less than 300, within the range of most of the country's skilled workingmen.

"The Shame of the Cities"

publication by Lincoln Steffens, found that business leaders who refused to mingle socially with the bosses nevertheless struck deals with them.

Olaudah Equiano

published an account of his enslavement. He was bought by a the captain of a tobacco ship and spent ten years traveling as a slave between England, North America, and the west Indies for ten years before he bought his freedom in 1766.

Underconsumption

purchases of goods and services at a level lower than their supply.

William Henry Harrison

ran as a regional candidate against Van Buren. Whig to run/ win presidency against Van Buren

Warren Harding

republican candidate and president campaigned normalcy

Herbert Hoover

republican candidate for president in 1928, the energetic secretary of commerce and leading public symbol of the 1920s prosperity.

Radical Republicans

republicans who favored drastic and usually repressive measures against the south during reconstruction.

Tax Reform

roosevelt urged a graduated tax on corporations, an inheritance tax, and an increase in maximum personal income taxes. Congress endorsed Roosevelt's basic principle by taxing those with higher incomes at a somewhat higher rate.

Emma Goldman

russian-born advocate of women's rights, labor strikes, and birth control. In 1919, after a stay in prison for denouncing military conscription, she was ordered deported by J Edgar Hoover, the director of the Justice Department's Radical division.

Alien Land Law

signed in 1913 by Hiram Johnson, which barred Japanese immigrants from buying land in California.

Sarah and Angelina Grimke

sisters who delivered impassioned speeches about the evils of slavery.

House servants

slaves who worked in the big house. Mostly female.

Field hands

slaves who worked in the field

Anti-Ballistic Missiles

surface to air missile designed to counter ballistic missiles (used to deliver nuclear, chemical, biological, or conventional warheads in a ballistic flight trajectory).

Spoils systems

system in which politicians doled out government positions to their loyal supporters. This patronage system led to widespread corruption during the Gilded Age.

Jim Crow Laws

system of racial segregation in the South lasting from after the twentieth century. Jim Crow laws segregated African Americans in public facilities such as trains and streetcars, curtailed their voting rights, and denied other basic civil rights.

Equal Rights Amendment

the National Woman's party fought for this amendment that stated flatly "men and women shall have equal rights throughout the US" put in front of congress in 1923, the amendment went to defeat.

Chivalry

the South's romantic ideal of male-female relationships. Chivalry's underlying assumptions about the weakness of white women and the protective authority of men resembled the paternalistic defense of slavery.

Overwork

the allowance of slave families to work on their own: tilling gardens, raising pigs and fowl, chopped wood, and selling the products in the market for pocket change

Thirteenth Amendment-1865

the amendment abolishing slavery, which became a part of the Constitution in December 1865.

Jay Gould

the area's most notorious speculator. Bought his first railroad before the age of 25. It was only 62 miles long, in bad repair, and on the brink of failure, but he sold it for a profit on 130,000 in only 2 years. He looked for vulnerable railroads and bought just enough stock to take control, and threatened to undercut his competition until they bought him out at high profit.

Violence in Colfax, Louisiana

the black majority in the area had made the area a Republican stronghold until 1872 when Democrats used intimidation and fraud to win the local election. Republicans refused to accept this and occupied the courthouse in town. After 3 weeks 165 white men attacked and set the courthouse on fire. Even when blacks tried to surrender, the evil men murdered them. At least 81 men died that day. The federal government indicted the attackers but the supreme court ruled they didn't have the right to prosecute. Since the white neighbors could not prosecute neighbors who killed blacks, the attackers went free.

Depression of 1893-1897

the country plunged into the worst depression it had yet seen. Cleveland clung to the economic orthodoxy of the gold standard. Individuals and investors, rushing to trade in their banknotes for gold strained the country's monetary system. JP Morgan and a group of bankers would purchase 65 million in US Government in bonds and paid in gold.

E. C. Knight Case (1895)

the court ruled that "manufacture" did not constitute "trade" which allowed American Sugar Refining Company which had bought out a number of other sugar companies and controlled 98 percent of the production of sugar, to continue with its virtual monopoly.

John Roebling

the creator of the Brooklyn Bridge, although he died in a freak accident almost as soon as construction began.

Middle Passage

the crossing of the atlantic by slave ships traveling from West Africa to the Americas. Slaves were crowded together in extremely unhealthful circumstances, and mortality rates were high.

November 22, 1963

the date that JFK was assassinated as his motorcade passed through Dallas, Texas.

Mary McLeod Bethune

the energetic cofounder of the National Council of Negro Women who was sponsored by Eleanor Roosevelt to be appointed as head of the Division of Negro Affairs in the National Youth Administration.

John Rolfe

the english husband of Pocahontas, and panted tobacco seeds in virginia in 1612, and discovered they thrived.

What personal qualities and political skills did Lyndon Johnson bring to the presidency?

Lyndon Johnson was a self-made man from the Texas Hill Country. He had won election to the House of Representatives in 1937 and in 1948 to the Senate, where he served skillfully as Senate majority leader. His modest upbringing, his admiration of FDR, and his ambition to outdo the New Deal spurred his commitment to reform.

Tet Offensive

Major campaign of attacks launched throughout South Vietnam in early 1968 by the North Vietnamese and Vietcong. A major turning point in the war, it exposed the credibility gap between official statements and the war's reality, and it shook Americans' confidence in the Government.

Internment Camps

Makeshift prison camps, to which Americans of Japanese descent were sent as a result of Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066, issued in February 1942. In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld this blatant violation of constitutional rights as a "military necessity."

What impact did the California Gold Rush of 1849 have on the Chinese, Hispanic, and Indian residents of California?

Many people rushed to california to search for gold. Prospectors faced cholera and scurvy, exorbitant prices for food, deadly encounters with claim jumpers, and endless backbreaking labor. By 1851, 25,000 Chinese lived in california and their religion,language, dress, queues, eating habits, and use of opiums convinced americans that they were not fit citizens. The foreign miners' tax law was against the Chinese, and they were segregated residentially and occupationally, and along with blacks and indians, they were denied public education and the right to testify in court. Americans took the land of hispanic people and through discriminatory legislation, pushed Hispanic professionals into the ranks of unskilled labor. For indians, their population fell to 25000 by 1854. Starvation, disease, and a declining birthrate took a toll, along with wholesale murder.

Boston Massacre

March 5, 1770 when a crowd taunted 8 British officers guarding the customs office (throwing snowballs and rocks and daring the soldiers to fire), until one did. Someone then yelled "Fire!" and the other soldiers shot into the crowd, hitting 11 men and killing 5 of them

What effect did the assembly line and mass production of goods have on the economy?

Mass production allowed a line of related business to be put in place. It became standard in almost every factory and improved efficiency. Between 1922 and 1929, productivity in manufacturing increased by 32 percent, although wages only increased by 8 percent. Mass production fueled corporate profits and national economic prosperity.

Paul and John Cuffe

Massachusetts free men who refused to pay taxes because they could not vote and were therefore not represented, and were thrown in Jail, their petition extended suffrage to taxpaying free blacks in 1783.

Sen. Charles Sumner

Massachusetts radical republican

Daniel Webster

Massachusetts senator who addressed the Senate after response to Clay. Like Clay, he defended compromise. He told Northerners that Southerners had legit complaints, but told the South that secession from the Union would mean civil war. He argued the Proviso's ban on slavery was unnecessary because the climate effectively prohibited the expansion of cotton and slaves into the American Southwest.

Gen. Arthur St. Clair

Military governor of the Northwest Territory who pursued peaceful negotiations in the 1780s, but after Harmar's operation, he led 2000 men along Harmar's route in 1791. A surprise attack in the Wabash River left 55% of the American troops dead or wounded.

Jefferson Davis

Mississippi senator who became president of the Confederation

Chicano Movement

Mobilization of Mexican Americans in the 1960s and 1970s to fight for civil rights, economic justice, and political power, and to combat police brutality. Most notably, the movement worked to improve the lives of migrant farmworkers and to end discrimination in employment and education.

Describe the events of the presidential election of 1824 and how they ruined the administration of John Quincy Adams.

Most of the presidential candidates had been from Monroe's cabinet, until supporters put General Andrew Jackson's name forward, and voters in the south and west reacted with enthusiasm. 18/24 states had the power to choose members of the electoral college directly in the hands of voters, making this the first election to have a popular vote tally for the presidency. Jackson has the most electoral college votes, but he lacked the majority so the house stepped in for the second time in US history. Clay backed Adams and Adams won by one vote in the house. This ruined Adams Administration because he allowed opposition into his inner circle.

Black Hills

Mountains in western South Dakota and northeast Wyoming that are sacred to the Lakota Sioux. In the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, the US guaranteed Indians control of the Black Hills but broke its promise after gold was discovered there in 1874.

Global Migration

Movement of populations across large distances such as oceans and continents. In the late 19th century, large-scale immigration from southern and eastern Europe into the United States contributed to the growth of cities and changes in American demographics.

"The Hundred Days"

the first months of Roosevelt's presidency (because he promised "direct, vigorous action")

Daniel Webster

National republican senator who decided to force the issue of the second national bank

Underground Railroad

Network consisting mainly of black homes, black churches, and black neighborhoods that helped slaves escape to the north by supplying shelter, food, and general assistance.

1972 Presidential election

Nixon won 60.7% of the popular vote and every state except massachusetts. Although Democrats maintained control of Congress, Nixon won majorities among traditional Democrats- southerners, Catholics, urbanites, and blue-collar workers.

How successful were workers in organizing and striking for higher wages the 1830s?

Not very successful because the workers were seen as easily replaceable and the labor turned to immigrant families.

Battle of Trenton

On december 25th,Washington stealthily moved his army across the delaware and made a quick capture of the unsuspecting German troops, and lifted the soldiers morale

Juan de Onate

Onate tried to set up a settlement in New Mexico, but instead suppressed the Acoma uprising by killing 800 natives, before heading back to Mexico.

Election of 1800

Openly organized along party lines. Adams had lost a lot of Federalist support, so Jefferson won the election.

American Federation of Labor

Organization created by Samuel Gompers in 1886 that coordinated the activities of craft unions throughout the United States. The AFL worked to achieve immediate benefits for skilled workers. Its narrow goals for unionism became popular after the Haymarket bombing.

American Indian Movement

Organization established in 1968 to address the problem Indians faced in American cities, including poverty and police harassment. AIM organized Indians to end relocation and termination policies and to win greater control over their cultures and communities.

How did Pennsylvania differ from the Chesapeake region and New England?

Pennsylvania used more indentured servants than indentured servants, since slaves were an expensive short term investment. Only affluent colonists could afford the long term investment of a slave, and there weren't huge plantations in the middle colonies. Pennsylvania harvested more wheat, which was their biggest export. After 1720, the standard of living in rural Pennsylvania was higher than any agricultural region in the 18th century. This meant they also spent more on British imports.

Mass Production

the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

New (Christian) Right

Politically active religious conservatives who became particularly vocal in the 1980w. The New Right criticized feminism, opposed abortion and homosexuality, and promoted "family values" and military preparedness.

Anthony Wayne

the new military commander appointed in the Ohio Valley region. His army engaged in skirmishes throughout 1794, into the decisive battle of fallen timbers.

Eisenhower Doctrine

President Eisenhower's 1957 declaration that the US would actively combat communism in the Middle East. Following this doctrine, Congress approved the policy, and Eisenhower sent aid to Jordan in 1957 and troops to Lebanon in 1958.

Truman Doctrine

President Harry S Truman's commitment to "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures." First applied to Greece and Turkey in 1947, it became the justification for US intervention into many countries during the Cold War.

Election of 1836

the party apparatus was sufficiently developed to give van Buren a shot at presidency. Three regional candidates opposed van Buren. Not one of them could win, but they could deny van Buren the majority. Van Buren won with 170 electoral votes

Lying out

the period when a slave ran away, the temporary refuge from their work before they gave up or were found.

The Square Deal

the phrase that became used in Roosevelt's campaign slogan in 1904 based off of the deal with the miners.

grandees

the planter elite.

Lecompton Constitution

Proslavery forces in kansas met in Lecompton and drafted a proslavery constitution and applied for statehood. Everyone knew that free-soilers outnumbered proslavery but president buchanan instructed congress to admit Kansas as the 16th slave state. Senator Douglas broke with the democratic administration and denounced the constitution, and congress killed the bill. When kansas reconsidered the Lecompton constitution in an honest election, they rejected it 6:1.

Scots-Irish

Protestant immigrants from northern ireland, scotland, and northern england. Deteriorating economic conditions in their European homelands contributed to increasing migration to the colonies in the 18th century.

Richard Nixon

RNC presidential nominee. Played on resentments that fueled the Wallace campaign, calling for "law and order," and attacked liberal supreme court decisions, busing for school desegregation, and protesters.

Transcontinental railroad

Railroad completed in 1869 that was the first to span the North American continent. Built in large part by Chinese Laborers, this railroad and others opened access to new areas, fueled land speculation, and actively recruited settlers.

Air Traffic Controllers' Strike by PATCO

Reagan loosened regulations protecting employee health and safety, and weakening labor unions. When members of the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (one of the few unions to support him in 1980) struck in 1981, he fired them.

Bombing of Marine Barrack in Lebanon

Reagan sent 2,000 troops to join an international peacekeeping mission. In April 1983, a suicide attack on the US embassy in Beirut killed 63 people, and in October a Hezbollah fighter drove a bomb-filled truck into US barracks there, killing 241 marines. The attack prompted the withdrawal of troops.

James Watt

Reagan's first secretary of the interior, who released federal lands for private exploitation.

What were the main goals of the Progressive movement?

Reformers founded settlement houses, professed a new Christian social gospel, and campaigned against vice and crime in the name of "social purity." Progressives attacked the problems of the city on many fronts. Settlement houses helped to bridge the growing gap between the wealthy and the poor and created social work. Churches confronted urban social problems by enunciating a new social gospel, one that saw its mission to not only reform individuals, but to reform society.

Lord Dunmore

the royal governor of Virginia who removed all gunpowder from the Williamsburg powder house to a ship, away from Angry Virginians, and even threatened to arm slaves to ward off attacks from colonists

Warren G Harding

Republican President, Ohio Senator who in his 1920 campaign called for "a return to normalcy" by which he meant the end of public crusades and return to private pursuits.

John C. Fremont

Republican candidate in the election of 1856. He did not have much political experience, but his wife knew the political map well.

Crime of '73

Republican congress voted to stop buying and minting silver, deemed the "crime of '73." By sharply contracting the money supply at a time when the nation's economy was burgeoning, the Republicans had enriched bankers and investors at the expense of cotton and wheat farmers and industrial wage workers.

Irreconcilables

Republican senators who condemned the treaty of versailles for entangling the US in world affairs.

Election of 1936

Republicans thought that people would be against Roosevelt and nominated Kansas governor Alfred Landon, Roosevelt triumphed spectacularly. He won 60.8 of the popular vote.

Election of 1940

Roosevelt decided to run for a third term and won handily, but provided no mandate for involvement in the European war. The Republican candidate, Wendell Willkie , a former Democrat who generally favored New Deal measures and Roosevelt's foreign policy, attacked Roosevelt as a warmonger.

Bolshevik Revolution

Russian revolution. Bolsheviks forced Czar Nicholas II to abdicate and seized power in Russia in 1917.

Herbert Hoover

Secretary of Commerce, hedged government authority by encouraging trade associations that ideally would keep business honest and efficient through voluntary cooperation.

John Hay

Secretary of State who wrote a series of notes calling for an "open door policy" that would ensure trade access to all and maintain chinese sovereignty in 1899-1900.

Charles Sumner

Senator of Massachusetts who gave a speech titled "The Crime Against Kansas" which included a personal attack to South Carolina senator Andrew P Butler.

Lewis Cass

Senator of Michigan who (in 1847) offered a compromise through a doctrine of popular sovereignty, by which the people who settled the territories would decide slavery's fate. Democrat candidate for the election of 1848.

John C Calhoun

Senator of South Carolina who denied that Congress had the constitutional authority to exclude slavery from the nation's territories.

Settlement House Movement

Settlement established in poor neighborhoods beginning in the 1880s. Reformers like Jane Addams and Lillian Wald believed that only by living among the poor could they help bridge the growing class divide. College-educated women formed the backbone of the settlement house movement.

How did JFK deal with the communists in the Bay of Pigs (Cuba), the Vienna Summit, West Berlin, and the threat of communism in the third world?

Shortly before Kennedy's inauguration, Khrushchev publicly encouraged "wars of national liberation, " thereby aligning the soviet union with independence movements in third world countries that were often anti-western. Cuba was the first crisis for Kennedy. The revolution led by Fidel Castro had moved Cuba into the Soviet orbit, and Eisenhower's CIA had been planning an invasion of the island by Cuban exiles who lived in Florida. Kennedy ordered the invasion to proceed, even those his advisers only gave it a fair chance of success. On April 17, 1961, about 1,400 anti-Castro exiles trained and armed by the CIA landed at the Bay of Pigs on the south shore of Cuba. Contrary to US expectations, no uprising materialized. Kennedy refused to provide direct military support, and the invaders quickly fell. Days before the Bay of Pigs, the Soviet Union delivered a psychological blow when a soviet astronaut became the first human to orbit the earth. Kennedy called for a new commitment to the space program, with the goal of sending a man to the moon by 1970. Congress authorized the Apollo program and boosted appropriations for space exploration. When the two leaders meet in Vienna, Khrushchev took the offensive. He demanded recognition of the two germanys and questioned America's occupation rights in and access to West Berlin. Khrushchev was concerned about the mass exodus of East Germans into West Berlin. To stop this flow, in August 1961 East Germany erected a wall between east and west berlin. With the Berlin wall stemming the tide of escapees and Kennedy declaring West Berlin "the great testing place of Western courage and will," Khrushchev backed off from his threats. Kennedy used the Berlin crisis to add 3.2 billion to the defense budget.He increased draft calls, mobilized the reserves and national guard, adding 300,000 troops to the military. Kennedy publicly supported third world aspirations, believing that the US could win the hearts and minds of people in developing nations by helping to fulfill their hopes for autonomy and democracy. He created the peace corps, to help the people in developing nations, but it didn't address the nation's larger economic and political structures. Kennedy also used direct military means to bring political stability. He expanded the elite special forces corps, established under Eisenhower to aid groups fighting against communist-leaning movements. This included the Army's Green Berets and the Navy's SEALs, who were trained to wage guerilla warfare and equipped with the latest technology.

Treaty of Ghent

Signed in December 1814 settled few of the surface issues that lead to the war. No land changed hands, and no victory was claimed from either side. Instead, America dropped their plea for the end of impressments, which stopped once Britain and France stopped fighting in 1815. America gave up any claim to Canada, and the British stopped aiding the Indians. There was nothing said about shipping rights.

Stono Rebellion

Slave uprising in Stono, South Carolina,in 1739 in which a group of armed slaves plundered six plantations, and killed more than 20 whites. Whites quickly suppressed the rebellion.

Medicare & Medicaid

Social programs enacted as part of Lyndon Johnson's Great Society. Medicare provided the elderly with universal compulsory medical insurance financed primarily by Social Security taxes. Medicaid authorized federal grants to supplement state-paid medical care for poor people of all ages.

mercantilism

the theory that there was a set limit of wealth in the world and that is what was important and what inspired most of the actions of the Europeans in the 15-17th centuries

George McGovern

South Dakota Senator, clear nominee for the DNC. His support for busing, a generous welfare program, and immediate withdrawal from Vietnam alienated conservative democrats.

Viet Cong

South Vietnamese insurgents, because the Saigon government refused to hold elections. The rebels saw no choice but to take up arms.

What was the relationship between the spread of cotton production and the spread of slavery?

Southerners were propelled west, looking for more land south of the Mason-Dixon line, where climate and geography was ideally suited for the cultivation of cotton. The South's cotton boom rested on the backs of slaves. As cotton production moved westward, whites shipped more than a million enslaved people from the Atlantic coast across the continent. Victims were forced to march hundreds of miles southwest to new plantations. Cotton, slaves, and plantations moved (west) together.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Soviet head of state how assumed power in 1985 determined to revitalize an economy incapable of delivering basic consumer goods

Valeriano Weyler

Spanish general who herded Cubans into crowded and unsanitary concentration camps to isolate the guerrillas.

Democratic Republican party

Strongest in the south and west, and embraced Andrew Jackson's vision of limited government, expanded political participation for white men, and the promotion of an ethic of individualism.

Berlin Wall

Structure erected by East Berlin in 1961 to stop the massive exodus of East Germans into West Berlin, which was an embarrassment to the communists.

Strike of 1919

the year of 1919 saw nearly 3,600 strikes. The most spectacular happened in February in Seattle, where shipyard workers had been put out of jobs by demobilization. When a coalition of the IWW and the moderate AFL called a general strike, the largest work stoppage in American history shut down the city. Newspapers claimed the walkout was a Bolshevik effort to start an evolution. The suppression of the strike by city officials cost the AFL many of its wartime gains.

Carter Doctrine

threatening the use of any means necessary to prevent an outside force from gaining control of the Persian gulf.

Virginia Plan

three-branch government, representation based on population.operated directly on people, not states. Congress has rights to veto state legislation and coerce states militarily, but allowed other two branches to jointly veto congress' actions.

Republican Motherhood

through the 1790s advocates for female education argued that education would produce better mothers who would produce better citizens.

Partible Inheritance

System of inheritance in which land was divided equally among sons. By the 18th century, this practice in Massachusetts had subdivided plots of land into units too small for subsistence, forcing children to move away to find sufficient farmland.

Dollar Diplomacy

Taft's diplomacy in which he championed commercial goals rather than the strategic aims that Roosevelt has pursued.

Yellow Journalism

Term first given to sensationalistic newspaper reporting and cartoon images rendered in yellow. A circulation war between two NYC papers provoked the yellow journalism tactics that fueled popular support for the Spanish-American War in 1898.

"Bleeding Kansas"

Term for the bloody struggle between proslavery and antislavery factions in Kansas following its organization in the fall of 1854. Corrupt election tactics led to a proslavery victory, but free-soil Kansans established a rival territorial government, and violence ensued.

Buffalo

The American bison, which the white americans decimated through the growth of the railroad and newer, more accurate rifles. The Buffalo was a way of life for Plains Indians they used it as a source of food, fuel, shelter, and as a part of their religions and rituals. Without the Buffalo the Plains Indians could only starve or go to the reservations.

Why did the Americans' attempts to capture Quebec and to defend New York City fail?

The Americans' attempt to capture Quebec and defend NYC failed due to inadequate supplies and inexperienced troops, along with smallpox/disease and lagging morale.

Briefly describe the structure of the government established by the Articles of Confederation.

The Articles of Confederation defined the union as a loose confederation of states existing to maintain a common defense. Like the previously existing congress, the government had no executive or judicial branches. Each state had two-seven delegates with each delegation casting one vote. Routine decisions only required seven votes which was majority, but momentous decisions required supermajority, or nine votes.

Why did the Americans win at Saratoga, and why was the victory so important?

The British retreat at Fort Stanwix left General Burgoyne without the additional troops he needed. Camped at a small village called Saratoga, he was left with dwindling food supplies a deserters. General Horatio Gates began to move his troops to Saratoga, but Burgoyne decided to attack first. They won, but lost 600 men. At the second stage three weeks later, the British lost another 600 men. This victory was important because it was the Americans first decisive victory, and it convinced the French to support them.

Republic Steel Strike in Chicago

The CIO hoped to ride organizing success in auto plants to victory in the steel mills. But unionizing the giant US Steel, the CIO ran up against determined opposition from smaller steel firms. Following a police attack that killed 10 strikers at Republic Steel outside Chicago in May 1937, the battered steelworkers halted their campaign.

What were the Puritans' religious beliefs and practices, and how did these affect their government and land distribution?

The Massachusetts Bay Colony were Puritans, meaning they wanted to reform the Church of England rather than separate from it. John Winthrop gave the "city on a hill" speech saying that they had to be a moral compass and act as a community rather than a group of individuals. They were determined to keep their covenant and live according to God's laws, unlike the backsliders and compromisers who accommodated to the Church of England. Several ministers sought to carry the message of Christianity to the Indians and established "praying towns" to encourage Indians to adopt English ways. The majority of these immigrants were farmers or tradesmen, and indentured servants only accounted for only a fifth of the people headed towards Massachusetts. Puritans believed in predestination, and also that if a person lived a rigorously godly life- constantly winning the daily battle against sin- their behavior was likely to be a visible sign that they were one of God's chosen few. Despite the centrality of the Church, churches played no direct role in the government, because they didn't want to mimic the Church of England, which they considered a puppet of the king and not an independent body. But they did try to bring public life into conformity with God's law. Fines were issued for Sabbath-breaking activities such as working, traveling, playing a flute, smoking a pipe, and visiting neighbors. They refused to celebrate Christmas or Easter, outlawed religious wedding ceremonies (couples were to be married by a magistrate in a civil ceremony), banned cards, dice, shuffleboard, and games of chance, along with music and dancing. The general court granted land for town sites to pious petitioners, once the Indians agreed to relinquish their claim to the land in exchange for manufactured goods. Town founders apportioned land among themselves and any newcomers they approved. Most family plots were about 50 to 100 acres, resulting in more equal distribution in New England than the Chesapeake.

What groups of women composed the women's right movement, what tactics did they use, and what achievements did they attain?

The National Organization for Women was founded in 1966. Many women walked out of the New Left and created and independent women's liberation movement. Women's liberation began to gain public attention when dozens of women picketed the Miss America beauty pageant in 1968, protesting against beings forced to "compete for male approval and enslaved by ludicrous 'beauty' standards." Women began to speak publicly about personal experiences that had always been shrouded in secrecy, such as rape and abortion. Radical feminists, who called their movement "women's liberation" differed from feminists in NOW and other more mainstream groups. NOW focused on equal treatment for women in the public sphere; women's liberation emphasized ending women's subordination in family and other personal relationships. Groups such as NOW wanted to integrate women into existing institutions; radical groups insisted that women's liberation required a total transformation of economic, political, and social institutions. Women of color criticized white feminists for their inadequate attention to the disproportionate poverty experienced by minority women and to the additional layers of discrimination based on race or ethnicity. Feminism also struggled with the refusal of mass media to take women's grievances seriously.

What new federal government agencies were established in the late 1940s to deal with national security and intelligence gathering?

The National Security Act of 1947 created both the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency.

Why did the US Senate fail to ratify the treaty?

The US Senate failed to ratify the treaty because many feared American participation in world affairs or that participation would jeopardize the US' ability to act independently. Henry Cabot Lodge opposed the treaty. As chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee he produced many reservations aiming to restrict the the consequences of American participation in the league. Several reservations required approval of both the house and the senate before the US could participate in league sponsored economic sanctions or military cause. It became clear that the ratification became dependent on acceptance of the Lodge reservations. Wilson argued that the reservations cut the heart out of the treaty. He went on a speaking tour to bring the issue straight to the people, but he was exhausted, and collapsed & suffered a stroke. From his bedroom, he sent messages instructing democrats in the senate to hold firm against all reservations. This left Wilson six votes short of the majority he needed to ratify the treaty.

What destroyed the second American Party system (Whigs vs. Democrats) in the 1850s, and how was the electorate realigned?

The Whig party could only please its proslavery following in the south or its antislavery following in the north, and its division made it no longer a strong national party, and it collapsed shortly afterward. This left democrats as the only national party. Popular sovereignty nearly destroyed the democrats, as it divided northern democrats and destroyed the dominance of the democratic party in the free states. This led to the emergence of many new political opportunities vying for attention: mainly the American Party and the Republican party.

How did the Second Continental Congress pursue both the aims of winning and seeking reconciliation with Britain in 1775 and early 1776?

The army pursued victory, while the congress pursued reconciliation. Delegates from middle colonies who depended on trade with Britain insisted that channels for negotiation to remain open.

General Court

The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company empowered the company's stockholders, known as freemen, to meet as a body to make laws and govern the company's affairs. In 1631 it expanded freemen to include all male church members to ensure godly men would decide the policies.

Charles Townshend

The chief financial minister (chancellor of the exchequer) persuaded by William Pitt, the Prime minister of England. He turned to taxation as a way to raise revenue again.

Explain the concept of republican motherhood and how it altered gender roles.

The concept of republican motherhood was because the change in viewing women, advocates for women's education argued that education would produce better mothers, who in turn would produce better citizens. Gender relations remained pretty unaltered, as women were still seen as subservient and compliant.

How did the supreme court's ruling in Dred Scott vs Sanford affect the issue popular sovereignty, and how did it strengthen the republican party?

The court ruled that Scott could not legally claim violation of his constitutional rights because he was not a citizen of the united states, the laws of his home state, Missouri determined his status, and Congress's power to make "all needful rules and regulations" for the territories did not include the right to prohibit slavery. His ruling outraged Republicans, but actually strengthened the young party because it proved that a hostile slave power conspired against northern liberties.

How did the widespread cultivation of tobacco affect the Virginia colony?

The cultivation of tobacco affected Virginia because most of the colonists life was devoted to farming tobacco, and because of the need for labor, it attracted workers/indentured servants to help.

Battle of New Orleans

The final battle in the War of 1812, fought and won by General Andrew Jackson and his militiamen against the much larger British army in New Orleans. The celebrated battle made no difference since the peace had already been negotiated.

Roanoke Island, North Carolina

The first English settlement in North America. All of the colonists vanished in 1590, leaving only the word Croatoan carved into a tree.

What was the First Continental Congress and what did it do?

The first continental congress was an assembly of delegates from all colonies except Georgia, in which delegates sought to articulate their liberties as british subjects and debated possible responses to the coercive acts. They produced a declaration of rights which seemed radical to the british, as the rights were already assumed to exist. To put pressure on the british, the Americans had agreed on a staggered and limited boycott of trade.

Jamestown

The first permanent English Settlement, in Jamestown, Virginia.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

The former German capital lay in the Eastern part of Germany, but all 4 allies jointly occupied it. As western allies prepared to organize west germany into a separate nation, the soviets blocked roads and railways, cutting off essentials to 2 million inhabitants. US and British pilots airlifted goods to them until Stalin lifted the blockade in 1949.

Why did the fugitive slave act and "Uncle Tom's Cabin" galvanize northern opposition to slavery?

The fugitive slave act stated that to seize an alleged slave, a slaveholder simply had to appear before the commissioner and swear that the runaway was theirs. The commissioner earned 10 for every slave captured but only 5 for every slave set free. The law stipulated that all citizens were expected to assist officials in capturing runaways. Northerners were horrified but even more were turned against slavery by a book. Uncle Tom's Cabin helped to crystallize northern sentiment against slavery and confirm Southern suspicion that they no longer received any sympathy in free states.

Peter Stuyvesant

The governor of New Netherlands from 1647 to 1664, who tried to enforce conformity of the reformed church, and surrendered to James II, the Duke of York.

Edmond Andros

The guy who was sent to govern the dominion of New England.

James I

The king of England in 1606, and during the time of the first English settlements in the New World.

Charles II

The king of england, whose father was executed by puritans.

Goliad Massacre

A few weeks after the Alamo, Mexican forces captured and executed almost 400 Texans as "pirates and outlaws" in a small town called Goliad.

United Farm Workers Association

to gain leverage for striking workers, the UFW mounted a nationwide boycott of California grapes, gaining a wage increase for the workers in 1970.

Election of 1924

to oppose Coolidge, the Democrats nominated John W Davis, a corporate lawyer whose conservative views varied little from Republican principles. Only the Progressive Party and its candidate, Senator Robert La Follette, offered genuine alternative. La Follette championed labor unions, regulation of business, and protection of civil liberties. Republicans coined the slogan "Coolidge or Chaos," and voters chose Coolidge in a landslide.

Clayton Antitrust Act-1914

to outlaw unfair competition- practices such as price discrimination and interlocking directorates (directors from one corporation sitting on the board of another).

Farm Credit Act

to provide long-term credit on mortgaged farm property, allowing debt-ridden farmers to avoid foreclosures that were driving thousands off their land.

Invasion of Cambodia

to support a new, pro-western Cambodian government installed through a military coup and to show the enemy that they were still serious, Nixon ordered a joint US-ARVN invasion of Cambodia in April 1970.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

to try to help agricultural prices, the highest rates of a tariff in history.

Mechanical Reaper

tools usually powered by horses or oxen that enabled farmers to harvest twelve acres of wheat a day, compared to the two or three acres a day possible with manual harvesting methods.

Monitor vs. Merrimack - 1862

two ironclad ships, one Union (monitor) and one Confederate (Merrimack) that hurled shells at each other for 2 hours but ended in a draw.

River Rouge Killings

unemployed autoworkers demanded work at Henry Ford's River Rouge factory. They pelted the private security guards with rocks and the guards responded with gunfire, killing four.

Racial Segregation

unfair separation of blacks and whites, often giving blacks lower quality positions, areas, and facilities.

National Security Act

united the military branches under a single secretary of defense and created the NSC to advise the president.

Senate

upper house of legislature with each state represented equally w/ 2 senators each.

John Adams

vice president

WEB DuBois

a harvard graduate who urged African Americans to fight for civil rights and racial justice.

Great Awakening

wave of revivals that began in Massachusetts and spread through the colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The movement emphasized vital religious faith and personal choice. It was characterized by large, open-air meetings at which emotional sermons were given by itinerant preachers.

"Vast Wasteland"

what Newton Minow, chairman of the Federal Communications Commission called TV in 1961.

What policies did LBJ pursue in Latin America and why?

13 times during the 1960s, military coups toppled Latin American governments, and local insurgencies grew apace. In 1964, riots erupted in the Panama Canal Zone, instigated by Panamanians who viewed the US as a colonial power, since it had seized the land and made it a US territory early in the century. Johnson sent troops to quell the disturbance, but also initiated negotiations that eventually returned the Panamanian authority in 2000. In 1961, voters in the Dominican Republic ousted a longtime dictator and elected a constitutional government headed by reformist Juan Bosch, who was overthrown by a military coup two years later. In 1965, when Bosch supporters launched an uprising against the military government, Johnson sent more than 20,000 soldiers to suppress what he perceived to be a leftist revolt to take control of the island. Johnson had justified intervention as necessary to "prevent another Cuba," although no communists were found among the rebels, and US intervention kept Boschists from returning to power. Moreover, Johnson did not consult the Dominicans or the Organization of American States, to which the US had pledged to respect national sovereignty in Latin America.

What events led to the Homestead lockout and what were its consequences?

1892 lockout of workers at the Homestead, Pennsylvania, steel mill after Andrew Carnegie refused to renew the union contract and workers prepared to strike. Union supporters attacked the pinkerton national agency guards hired to protect the mill, but the national guard soon broke the strike. In 1892, Carnegie resolved to crush the Amalgamated Iron and Steel Workers; when the Amalgamated attempted to renew its contract at the Homestead mill, they were told that the unions were a minority and they've decided to give the place to the majority (non-union). Carnegie did not want to be directly involved in union busting, so he sailed off to Scotland and left Henry Clay Frick in charge. He erected a 15 foot fence with barbed wire and hired 316 Pinkertons for 5$ a day, more than double the wage of the average homestead worker. The lockout started when Frick locked the doors of the mills on June 28 and prepared to bring in strikebreakers. On July 6, a lookout spotted 2 barges moving up the Monongahela River at 4 am. Frick was attempting to smuggle his Pinkertons into homestead. Workers sounded the alarm and within minutes a crowd of more than a thousand, hastily armed with rifles, hoes, and fence posts, ran to the riverbank. When the Pinkertons attempted to come ashore, gunfire broke out and more than 1 dozen pinkertons and some 30 strikers fell, killed or wounded. The pinkertons retreated to the barges, For more than 12 hours the workers, joined by their families, threw everything they had at the barges. Finally the Pinkertons hoisted a white flag and arranged with O'Donnell a surrender. As the hated "Pinks" came up the hill, they were forced to run a gauntlet of screaming, cursing men, women, and children. One young guard dropped to his knees and a woman used her umbrella to poke his eye out. In the aftermath of the battle, the workers took control of the plant and elected a council to run the community. At first public opinion was in favor of the strikers. The action of the strikers struck at the heart of the capitalist, pitting workers' right to their jobs against the rights of private property. Four days after the confrontation, Pennsylvania's governor yielded pressure from Frick and ordered 8,000 National Guard troops into Homestead to protect Carnegie's property. The workers thinking they had nothing to fear, welcomed the the troops with a brass band. But the troops' occupation not only protected Carnegie's property but also enabled Frick to reopen the the mill and bring in scabs. Berkman attempted to assassinate Frick but failed. This turned the public's opinion against them.

Battle of Glorieta Pass - 1862

A band of Colorado miners ambushed and crushed Confederate soldiers at glorieta pass, outside of Santa Fe, effectively ending dreams of confederate empire beyond Texas.

What changes occurred in agriculture, manufacturing and transportation fueled the rapid economic growth between 1840 and 1860?

A shift from water power to steam power as a source of energy, especially with the railroad was made that increased the speed of the railroad and cut costs. Farmers pushed west, towards the treeless prairie, where they could spend less time clearing the land. Agricultural improvements such as John Deere's plow, mechanical reapers, and federal land policy allowed for the agricultural productivity that fueled the economic growth. Mechanization allowed manufacturers to produce more with less labor. Standardized parts allowed for unskilled, cheaper workers could be employed. The national economy was accelerated by the growth of railroads which linked farmers and factories. By 1861, telegraph wires and railroad lines stretched across the continent to the pacific ocean, accelerating communication.

What stands did the US Supreme Court take on racial segregation?

A unanimous Court, headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren declared "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" and thus violated the 14th amendment.

What roles did African Americans, Hispanics, Mormons and Chinese Americans play in the West?

African Americans, Hispanics, Mormons, and Chinese Americans were among those who were the most oppressed in the West. They were often told the west was "for whites only" and all black communities arose in response. Most were soldiers who served in the west during the indian wars, and stayed to settle. They were called Buffalo and despite discrimination, they served with distinction and boasted the lowest desertion rates. Hispanics had lived in the west since Juan de Onate had led pioneer settlers up the Rio Grande in 1598. They were turned into a "minority" when the US annexed Texas in 1845. At first they were owners of large Ranchos in California and treated conquest as an economic opportunity but racial prejudice soon ended their optimism. Many ended up in urban barrios in their own homeland. They became increasingly impoverished due to the anglos taking the best jobs. Mormons also faced prejudice and hostility. Due to their religion and practice of polygamy they were criticized and caused Utah's statehood until 1896. Chinese were the most brutally treated at the hands of employers and other laborers. Miners were successful in passing prohibitive foreign license laws to keep the Chinese out of the mines. In Nevada, the Chinese took jobs abandoned by whites. Charles Crocker hired some 12,000 Chinese to work on laying tracks across the Sierra Nevada, and completed the first transcontinental railroad in 1869. They were still denied access to citizenship and continued to be seen as a threat to American Labor,

Marshall Plan

Aid program begun in 1948 to help European economies recover from World War II. Between 1948 and 1953, the US provided 13 billion to seventeen Western European nations in a project that helped its own economy as well.

Election of 1876

An election in which nobody knew the results until March 1877. Democrats nominated New York's governor Samuel J Tilden, who attacked the Grant administration and the despotism of reconstruction; the Republicans nominated Rutherford B Hayes, the governor of Ohio. Tilden won the popular vote but Hayes won the electoral vote- the electoral vote of three states were in doubt because both parties claimed victory. Congress created a special commission to arbitrate the disputed returns. All of the commissioners gave the vote to Hayes putting him over the top in electoral votes

How did Andrew Carnegie achieve vertical integration in the steel industry?

Andrew Carnegie achieved vertical integration in the steel industry by cutting prices, scooping the market, and running the mills full. He was a millionaire and was able to control the mining of iron ore, the transportation, and the production of steel so that he didn't have to pay a price, profit, or royalty to an outsider.

Why was Andrew Johnson impeached and why did the senate fail to convict him?

Andrew Johnson was impeached due to his abuse of constitutional powers and his failure to fulfill constitutional obligations and his removal of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton without the Senate's consent. The senate failed to convict him because they were one vote too short for ⅔ of the vote for guilty.

George Whitefield

Anglican, preached messages of sin and salvation to large audiences in England. Visited North America many times to preach, and even attracted Benjamin Franklin and Olaudah Equiano.

Jacques Cartier

Another Frenchman who sailed up to St. Lawrence River in search for the northwest passage, and returned afterwards to attempt to set up a colony in 1541.

Who were the loyalists? Why were they loyal to Britain? What tactics did they use against the patriots?

Around ⅕ of Americans remained loyal to the crown in 1776, and another ⅖ tried to remain neutral, which provided the British a strong base. The loyalists believed that their social stability depended on a monarchy and aristocracy. They feared the patriots were just democratic tyrants, looking for power for themselves. The most visible loyalists were royal governors, local judges, and customs officers. Wealthy merchants gravitated towards loyalism as a way to maintain trade protections of the navigation acts and the British navy. Urban lawyers admired the stability of British law and order, and some colonists chose loyalism simply to oppose pro-revolutionaries. Southern slaves had their resentments against the white slaving owning america, and supported Britain in hope of their freedom. They were most vocal between 1774 and 1776, and challenged the Patriots with pamphlets and newspapers.

What forces led to the emergence of the women's right movement during the 1960s?

As more women took jobs, the importance of their paid work to the economy and their families challenged traditional views of women and awakened many women workers to the inferior conditions of their employment. The democratization of higher education brought more women to college campuses, where their aspirations exceeded the confines of domesticity and of routine, subordinate jobs. In 1961, Assistant Secretary of Labor Esther Peterson persuaded President Kennedy to create the President's Commission on the Status of Women.

What policies did Andrew Jackson pursue as president? How did he change the nature of the presidency?

As president, Jackson offered unprecedented hospitality to the public but replaced every government officials with loyalists. He favored a limited federal government, opposed federal support of transportation and grants of monopolies and charters that benefited the wealthy investors. He anticipated the rapid settlement of the interior, where land sales would spread economic democracy, so making a law to remove Indians was a priority. He also believed that citizen's tax dollars should be spent on general projects, not local ones.

What was Bacon's Rebellion and what were its consequences?

Bacon's rebellion happened over a disagreement towards Virginia's Indian policy. In 1644 Chief Opechancanough led another assault, killing 500 colonists in two days. The settlers eventually captured and killed the chief, and in an effort to minimize contact between the settlers and the natives, they agreed that all English settled land was theirs, and all of the land beyond, in the wilderness was reserved for Indian use only. The Chesapeake colony had grown in population, and violence between the groups flared in the 60's and 70's along the frontier. Frontier settlers wanted revenge against the Indians, and claimed that the elite planters operated the government for their personal gain. Governor Berkeley, in an attempt to maintain the peace, declared Bacon and rebel and threatened to punish him on grounds of treason. Berkeley then called a recall for the House of Burgesses, hoping that he'd get more support for his new policy; instead, only local leaders (including Bacon) were elected. In 1676 the legislature passed a series of laws in order to give the small planters more rights. The elite planters convinced Berkeley that this group was more dangerous than the Indians. After Berkeley called Bacon a traitor again, Bacon declared war on him. They fought for three months before Bacon unexpectedly died. The rebellion only strengthened the elite planters: as the king learned of the turmoil he ordered an investigation. The officials replaced Berkeley, nullified Bacon's laws, and instituted an export tax on tobacco (in order to pay the expenses of the government without having to get the consent of the House of Burgesses.

What measures did Presidents Kennedy and Johnson take to secure civil rights?

Both Presidents were reluctant to alienate southern voters and their congressional representatives, and tended to only take action when events gave them little choice. The civil rights act of 1964 guaranteed access for all Americans to public accommodations, public accommodations, public education, employment, and voting, and it extended constitutional protections to indians on reservations. Title VII banned discrimination in employment, which not only attacked racial discrimination, but also outlawed discrimination against women. Responding to black voter registration drives in the South, Johnson demanded legislation to remove "every remaining obstacle to the right and the opportunity to vote." Johnson also declared the need to realize "not just equality as a right and theory, but equality as a fact and result." He issued an executive order in 1965 to require employers holding government contracts to take affirmative action to ensure equal opportunity. The affirmative action program required employers to counter the effects of centuries of oppression by acting forcefully to align their labor force with the available pool of qualified candidates. In 1968, he passed the civil rights act that banned racial discrimination in housing and jury selection, and authorized federal intervention when states failed to protect civil rights workers from violence.

Why did Woodrow Wilson back off from Progressive reform in 1914 but then begin leading reform again in 1916?

By the fall of 1914, Wilson declared that the progressive movement had fulfilled its mission and the country needed a "time of healing." Progressives watched in dismay as he repeatedly obstructed or obstinately refused to endorse further reforms. He failed to support labor' demand for an end to court injunctions against labor unions. He twice threatened to veto legislation providing farm credits for nonperishable crops. He refused to support child labor legislation or woman suffrage.He used the rhetoric of the New Freedom to justify his actions. But, his stance often reflected the interests of his small-business constituency. In the congressional elections of 1914, the Republican party, no longer divided by the Bull Moose party, won substantial gains. Democratic strategists recognized that Wilson needed to pick up votes by capturing votes from former progressives. Wilson responded belatedly by lending his support to reform in the months leading up to the 1916 election. To please labor, he appointed progressive Louis Brandeis to the supreme court. To woo farmers, he threw his support behind legislation to obtain rural credits. And he won praise from labor by supporting workers' compensation and the Keating-Owen child labor law (1916), which outlawed the regular employment of children under 16. When a railroad strike threatened in the months before the election, he ordered congress to establish an eight-hour day on the railroads.

Who opposed the women's rights movement and why?

By the mid 1970s, feminism faced a powerful countermovement, organized around opposition to an Equal RIghts Amendment to the constitution that would outlaw differential treatment of men and women in all state and federal laws. Phyllis Schlafly, a conservative activist, mobilized thousands of anti-feminism women. They persuaded enough male legislators to block ratification so that when the time limit had run out in 1982, only 35 states had ratified, three short of the three-fourths majority. Strong opposition arose with abortion.

How and why did JFK and LBJ did the US become increasingly involved in the Vietnam conflict?

By the time Kennedy took office, more than 1 billion in aid and seven hundred US military advisers had failed to stabilize South Vietnam. Two major stood in the way of the stabilization of Vietnam. The south Vietnamese insurgents (and the North Vietnamese supplying them with arms), and the South Vietnamese government would not meet the insurgents needs but the Army of the Republic of Vietnam could not defeat them with force. In response, Kennedy gradually escalated the US commitment. By the spring of 1963, military aid had doubled, and 9,000 Americans served in Vietnam as military advisers, occasionally participating in actual combat. Johnson remembered how Truman had suffered politically when China turned communist. He believed that American credibility was on the line, and he believed conceding defeat would undermine his ability to achieve his Great Society. Johnson understood the ineffectiveness of his South Vietnamese allies and agonized over sending young men into combat. He continued to dispatch more military advisers, weapons, and economic aid, and in August 1964, seized an opportunity to increase the pressure on North Vietnam. While spying the Gulf of Tonkin, off the coast of North Vietnam, two US destroyers reported that North Vietnamese gunboats had fired on them. Johnson quickly ordered air strikes on North Vietnamese torpedo bases and oil storage facilities. Concealing the uncertainty about whether the second attack had even occurred, he won the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution from Congress, authorizing him to take "all necessary measures to repel any armed attacks against the forces of the US and to prevent further aggression." Soon after winning the election of 1964, Johnson widened the war. He rejected peace overtures from North Vietnam, which insisted on American withdrawal and a coalition government in South Vietnam as steps towards unification. In February 1965, Johnson authorized Operation Rolling Thunder, a strategy of gradually intensified bombing of North Vietnam. Less than a month later, he ordered the first US combat troops to vietnam, and in July he shifted US troops from defensive to offensive operations, dispatching 50,000 more soldiers.

Oliver Hazard Perry

Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British fleet at the western end of lake erie, and then drove an army into canada from detroit in October 1813 and defeated the British and Indians at the Battle of the Thames

What was the Iran-Contra Scandal, and what political effects did it have?

Congress repeatedly instructed the president to stop aiding the Contras, but the administration continued to secretly provide them with weapons and training. They also helped wreck the Nicaraguan economy. Secret aid to the Contras was part of a larger project that came to be known as the Iran-Contra scandal. It began in 1985 when officials of the National Security Council and CIA covertly arranged to sell arms to Iran, then in the midst of an 8 year war with Iraq, even while the US publicly supplied Iraq with funds and arms. The purpose was to get Iran to pressure Hezbollah to release American hostages being held in Lebanon. Funds from the arms sales were then channeled through Swiss bank accounts to aid the Nicaraguan Contras. Over the objections of his secretary of state and secretary of defense, Reagan approved the arms sales, but the three subsequently denied knowing that the proceeds were diverted to the Contras.

What forms of rebellion occurred in sexual mores, music, literature, and art?

Consumption was associated with women and their presumed greater susceptibility to manipulation. Men, required to conform to get ahead, moved farther away from the masculine ideals of individualism and aggressiveness. Playboy, which began publication in 1953, idealized masculine independence in the form of bachelorhood and assaulted the middle-class norms of domesticity and respectability. By associating the bachelor with good wine, music, furnishings, the magazine made consumption more masculine while promoting sexual freedom (for men). Rock and roll, a new form of music that combined country with black rhythm and blues were a form of musical revolution. Elvis Presley shocked parents with tight pants, hip-rolling gestures, and rock-and roll. The most blatant revolution against conventionality came from the self-proclaimed Beat generation, a small group of primarily male literary figures based in New York City and San Francisco. They rejected nearly everything in mainstream culture- patriotism, consumerism, technology, conventional family life, and discipline. Bold new style in visual arts also showed the 1950s to be more than a decade of bland conventionality.

Shay's Rebellion

Daniel Shays, a farmer from Western Massachusetts and a group rebelled by burning down courthouses because they were taxed by their own state and didn't want to be. They are represented in the Government taxing them, so they are convicted of treason.

What forces led to the Great Railway Strike of 1877 and the Haymarket Massacre of 1886 and what impact did these events have?

Depression following the Panic of 1873 threw many people out of a job. People who managed to keep their jobs saw pay cuts erode wages until they couldn't feed their families. In the summer of 1877 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad announced a 10 percent wage cut at the same time it declared a 10 percent dividend to its stockholders. Angry Brakemen whose wages had already decreased from 70 a month to 30 a month walked out on strike. They touched off the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, a nationwide uprising. Within a few days nearly 100,000 railroad workers had walked off the job and another 500,000 sympathetic railway workers had joined them. In Reading, Pennsylvania, militiamen refused to fire on the strikers. Rail traffic ground to a halt. Violence erupted as the strike spread. In Pittsburgh, militia from Philadelphia fired on crowds, killing 20 people. Angry workers retaliated by reducing an area two miles long beside the tracks to rubble. Within 8 days the governors of nine, states acting at the prompting of the railroad owners and managers, defined the strike as an "insurrection" and called for federal troops. After hesitation, the president called the army. By the time they got there, the violence had run its course and the troops did not shoot a single striker. They acted as strikebreakers, opening rail traffic, protecting "scabs" and maintaining peace along the lines. Middle-class americans had originally sympathized with the conditions that led to the strike, but condemned the strikers for the violence and property damage that occurred. The Haymarket massacre happened on May 1, 1886. Many groups had decided that this would be the day for nationwide strikes in support of an 8 hour workday. All factions of the labor movement came together in Chicago. Chicago's Knights of Labor rallied to the cause even though Terence Powderly and the Union's national leadership, worried about the increasing activism, refused to endorse the movement for shorter hours. Across town there was a strike at the McCormick reaper works. Strikers watched helplessly as the company brought in scabs to work under the protection of the Chicago police and security guards. During the May day rally, 45,000 workers peacefully paraded down Michigan Avenue in support of the 8 hour day. Trouble came two days later when strikers attacked strikebreakers outside the McCormick works and police opened fire, killing or wounding 6 men. Angry radicals urged workers to arm themselves and appear at a rally in Haymarket square. Mayor Carter Harrison mingled conspicuously, pronounced the meeting peaceable and went home to bed. Police captain John "Blackjack" Bonfield marched his men into the crowd, by now fewer than 300 people, and demand they disperse. Someone threw a bomb into the police ranks and the police pulled their revolvers. At the end seven policemen and an unknown number of others lay dead. Eight men went on trial and although the state could not link the defendants to the bombing, the jury found them all guilty. To commemorate, labor made may 1 an annual international celebration of the worker. It also effectively scotched the eight-hour work day movement and turned the public opinion against the Knights of Labor. Many skilled workers turned to the American Federation of Labor.

What shifts occurred in the ethnic makeup of the American colonists between 1670 and 1770?

Due to immigration, by 1770 the colonists were less English and less white. Fewer than 10% of 18th century immigrants came from England; about 36 percent were Scots-Irish, 33 from Africa (mostly involuntary immigration, most were slaves), and nearly 15 percent from German language principalities. In 1670, more than 9 out of 10 colonists were of English descent and only 1 out of 25 was of African ancestry. In 1770, only about half the colonists were of english descent, while more than 20 percent were of African ancestry.

What were the causes, major battles, and consequences of the War of 1812?

Due to impressment, a want to justify wars against Indians and expansion led to the declaration of war on Britain in June 1812. Major battles include the battle of the thames, the battle of horseshoe bend, and the battle of new orleans. Afterwards, there was an increase in nationalism, paranoia of British tyranny disappeared, a disarmament treaty. The republican party profited most from the war, while the indians suffered; with their most influential leader dead, the prophet was discredited, the homeland was seized, and their protectors are gone.

What accounted for the key demographic trends of the 1950s- suburbanization and migration to the sunbelt- and what effect did these trends have?

Eleven million new homes went up in the suburbs, and by 1960 one in four americans lived there. The government subsidized home ownership by guaranteeing low-interest mortgages and by making interest on mortgages tax deductible. The growing suburbs helped polarize society, each Levittown homeowner pledged not to rent to sell to a non-caucasian. The supreme court declared such covenants unenforceable in 1948, but suburban America remained segregated. Pleasant scenery and economic opportunity fueled the migration to the sun belt. Air conditioning facilitated industrial development and by 1960 nearly 8 million houses in the sunbelt. The defense industry was so important in the sun belt that it was later nicknamed the gun belt. The aerospace industry was popular in LA and Dallas Fort Worth, and military bases helped underwrite prosperity in such cities as San Diego and San Antonio. The sunbelt captured the majority of cold war defense spending. By the 1960s, nearly every 1 in 3 california workers held a defense related job. The population soon threatened the environment, providing sufficient water and power to cities and to agribusiness meant building dams and reservoirs on rivers. Native Americans lost fishing sites and dams on the upper mississippi displaced 900 Indian families. Suburban settlement without transportation contributed to blankets of smog in the sunbelt.

Why did the US remain isolationist between 1933 and 1939, and what were the costs of that isolationism?

FDR believed that the nation's highest priority was to attack the domestic causes and consequences of the depression. The depression forces Roosevelt to retreat from his previous internationalism. He came to believe that an active involvement in foreign affairs would divert resources and support from domestic recovery. In office, FDR sought to combine domestic recovery with low profile foreign affairs that encouraged disarmament and free trade. After an opinion poll demonstrated popular support for recognizing the soviet union, Roosevelt established formal diplomatic relations in 1933. When the League of Nations condemned German and Japanese aggression, Roosevelt did not support the league's attempt to keep peace because he feared jeopardizing isolationists' support of the New Deal. Roosevelt worried that the actions would threaten world peace but he reassured Americans that the nation would not use its armed forces for the settlement of disputes anywhere. In 1933, Roosevelt announced that the US would pursue the policy of a good neighbor, which meant that no nation had the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another. This permitted the rise of dictators in in Nicaragua, Cuba, and elsewhere, who exploited and terrorized their nations with private support from US businesses.

What personal qualities, experiences, and political views did FDR bring to the presidency?

FDR was born wealthy and privileged, which contributed to his optimism, self confidence, and vitality. In the summer of 1921, FDR caught polio, paralysing both his legs. Tireless physical therapy helped him regain his vitality and intense desire for high political office. By 1928, Roosevelt had recovered sufficiently to campaign for governor of New York. As governor of the nation's most populous state, Roosevelt showcased his activist policies, which became a dress rehearsal for his presidency. As the Great Depression spread hard times throughout the nation, Governor Roosevelt believed that government should intervene to protect citizens from economic hardships rather than wait for the law of supply and demand to improve the economy.

What technological and economic forces contributed to the prosperity of the 1950s?

Farmers achieved unprecedented productivity through greater crop specialization, use of fertilizers, and mechanization. Between 1945 and 1960, the number of labor hours needed to manufacture a car feel by 50 percent. Technology revolutionized industries such as electronics, chemicals, and air transportation. It promoted the growth of television, plastics, computers, and other newer industries. American businesses enjoyed access to cheap oil, ample markets abroad, and little foreign competition. Labor unions had great success and earnings for production workers went up by 40 percent. Company funded-programs won by unions provided for retirement, health care, etc. This was called a private welfare state and disadvantaged those not in unions or with irregular employment. The economy shifted from production to service as more workers distributed goods, performed services, provided education, and carried out government work. By the end of the 1950s, women held a third of all jobs.

Why did the germans and scots-irish migrate to America and where did they settle?

Germans made up the largest contingent of migrants from the European continent to the middle colonies. Most came from southwestern Germany, where it was noted that peasants were not as well off as cattle elsewhere. Economically, they made up the middle class; the richest did not want to leave and the poorest could not afford to go. They settled in Pennsylvania and other middle colonies because of civil and religious tolerance. Deteriorating economic condition in northern Ireland, Scotland, and England pushed the Scots-Irish towards America. Most were farm laborers or tenant farmers fleeing droughts, crop failures, high food prices, and rising rent. Both groups had heard that Pennsylvania was the best place for farmers and artisans.

Freedman's Bureau Bill- 1866

Government organization created in March 1865 to distribute food and clothing to destitute Southerners and to ease the transition of slaves to free persons. Early efforts by the bureau to distribute land to the newly freed blacks were later overturned by President Johnson vice president who was inaugurated after Lincoln's assassination

What was Andrew Jackson's Indian policy and how did it led to the removal of the Cherokee Indians?

He wanted to relocate all Indians in the east to a territory west of the mississippi to "save them," because white civilization destroyed Indian resources. Jackson saw them as subjects who needed to relocate to ensure their survival. Congress agreed and passed the Indian Removal act of 1830, where about 100 million acres would be vacated for eventual white settlement. Women wrote petitions arguing the removal and the mistreatment of indians was discussed, particularly in the north; Jackson ignored this. Many tribes resisted the removal, including the Cherokee who had made several attempts to assimilate. In 1831 when Georgia announced it's plans to take all Cherokee property, the tribal leadership took the case to the US supreme court (worcester v georgia), the court recognized the territorial sovereignty of the Cherokee people. An angry president ignored the court and pressed them to move west. In 1835 some unauthorized acculturated leaders signed a treaty selling the tribal lands to the state, which resold them to white settlers. Chief John Ross and several thousand Cherokees petitioned the US Congress to ignore the fake treaty to no avail. Most Cherokees refused to leave, so in may 1838, the deadline for voluntary removal, federal troops arrived to remove the Cherokee. Under armed guards, the Cherokees embarked on a 1200 mile journey called the trail of tears, in which a quarter of the cherokee people died en route.

What was Ike's position on civil rights?

Ike had the ultimate responsibility for enforcement of the Supreme Court decision Brown v The Board of Education, but he refused to endorse it. He also kept silent at the 1955 killing of Emmett Till. His preference for limited federal intervention in the states, and a leadership style that favored consensus and gradual progress, Eisenhower kept his distance from civil rights, which fortified southern resistance.

Why did the British lose the war? What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris?

In 1781, as Cornwallis though he was succeeding in Virginia, he marched to Yorktown with over 4,000 black troops. As the general waited for backup troops, smallpox and typhus began to set in among the black recruits. A naval battle between the French and English prevented rescue of Cornwallis's army. On land, General Cornwallis and his 7,500 troops faced a combined French and American army of 16,000. For 12 days the Americans and French bombarded the British Fortifications; Cornwallis ran low on food and ammunitions. The siege brought him to the realization that neither victory nor escape was possible. He surrendered on October 19, 1781. The Treaty of Paris stated that the king would acknowledge the US as a free sovereign and independent nation, set the western boundary at the Mississippi river, and guaranteed that creditors on both sides that they would be paid in sterling money. Britain agreed to withdraw its troops quickly, but more than a decade late the promise had not been fully kept. Another agreement prohibited British from carrying away any negroes or other property of the American inhabitants. The Treaty of Paris had nothing to say about the Indian participants.

Harlan County Coal Strike of 1931

In 1931, the communist party, through the National Miners Union, moved to Harlan County, Kentucky, to support a strike by brutalized coal miners. Mine owners unleashed thugs and eventually beat the miners down.

How did the US defeat Japan in the Pacific?

In 1943, British and American forces, along with Indian and Chinese allies, launched an offensive against Japanese outposts in southern Asia, pushing through Burma and into China, where Jiang's armies continued to resist conquest. The island-hopping campaign began in August 1942, when American Marines landed in Guadalcanal in the southern Pacific. For the next six months, a savage battle raged for control of the strategic area. Finally, during the night of February 8, 1943, Japanese forces withdrew. In mid-1943, Allied forces launched offensives in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands that gradually secured the south Pacific. In the central Pacific, amphibious forces conquered the Gilbert and Marshall islands, which served as forward bases for air assaults on the Japanese home islands. While the island-hopping campaign kept pressure on the Japanese, the Allies invaded the Philippines in the fall of 1944. In the four day battle of Leyte Gulf, the American fleet crushed the Japanese armada, clearing the way for Allied victory in the philippines. In mid-july 1945, american scientists tested a secret weapon at an isolated desert site near Los Alamos, New Mexico. Truman ordered an atomic bomb dropped on a Japanese city after offering an ultimatum. The bomb that Colonel Paul Tibbets and his crew dropped on Hiroshima on August 6 leveled the city and incinerated about 100,000 people. Japan refused to surrender and a second was dropped on Nagasaki three days later.

What policies did Truman pursue on civil rights for African Americans and Mexican Americans?

In 1946, Truman created the President's Committee on Civil Rights, and in February 1948 he asked congress to enact the committee's recommendations. He asserted that all americans should have equal rights to housing, education, employment, and the ballot. He failed to act aggressively. Congress rejected his proposals. Running for reelection in 1948 he issued an executive order to desegregate the armed services, but it was not implemented until the Korean War.

Dominican Republic Intervention

In 1961, voters in the Dominican Republican ousted a longtime dictator and elected a constitutional government headed by Juan Bosch, who was overthrown in a military coup two years later. In 1965, Bosch supporters launched an uprising against the military government. The US sent 20,000 soldiers to suppress what was perceived as a leftist revolt to take control of the Island. Johnson justified it by claiming he was trying to prevent another Cuba, even though no communists were found in the rebels. The president had not consulted the Dominicans or the Organization of American States, to which the US had pledged to respect the sovereignty of Latin American Countries.

What effect did the Vietnam war have on on the returning veterans and on the entire nation?

In 1971, Vietnam veterans became a visible part of the peace movement, the first men in US history to protest a war in which they had fought. They held a public investigation of "war crimes," in Vietnam, rallied in front of the Capitol, and cast away their war medals. In May 1971, Veterans numbered among the 40,000 protesters who engaged in civil disobedience in an effort to shut down Washington. Public attention focused on the court-martial of Lieutenant William Calley, which began in November 1970. During the trial, Americans learned that in 1968 Calley's company had killed every inhabitant of My lai, even though it had encountered no enemy forces and the four hundred villagers were nearly all old men, women, and children. Twelve officers and enlisted men were charged with murder or assault, but only Calley was convicted. Military morale sank in the last years of the war. Having been exposed to the anti-war movement at home, many of the remaining soldiers had less faith in the war. Racial tensions among soldiers mounted, many soldiers sought escape in illegal drugs, and enlisted men committed hundreds of attacks on soldiers.

Battle of Mexico City

In August 1847, Scott began his assault on Mexico City. Santa Anna backed his army into the city. At the battle of of Churubusco, the mexicans took 4000 casualties in a single day and the americans more than 1000. At the castle of Chapultepec, American soldiers scaled the walls and fought the mexican defenders hand to hand. After, Mexican officials persuaded Santa Anna to evacuate the the city to save it, and on September 14, 1847.

Describe US/ Soviet Union competition in nuclear arms and space during the late 1950s?

In August 1957, the Soviets tested their first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) and 2 months later beat the US into space by launching sputnik, the first man-made satellite to circle the earth. The US launched their own satellite in January 1958, but Sputnik raised fears that the Soviets led not only in missile development and space exploration but also in science and education. He established NASA and signed the National DEfense Education Act, providing support for students in math, foreign language, and science and technology. In Eisenhower's presidency, the stockpile of nuclear weapons quadrupled.

How did the Allies defeat Germany in the year following the Normandy Invasion?

In February 1945, while Allied armies relentlessly pushed German forces backward, Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt met secretly at the Yalta conference. While Allied armies sped towards Berlin, Allied warplanes dropped more bombs after D Day than in all previous European bombing raids combined. By April 11, Allied Armies reached the banks of the Elbe River and paused while Soviets smashed into Berlin. The Red Army captured Berlin on May 2. Hitler had committed suicide on April 30, and the provisional German Government surrendered unconditionally on May 7.

What led to the Boston Massacre and what were its consequences?

In January of 1770, crowds smeared the Hutchinson brother's doors with excrement. In February a crowd surrounded the house of a confrontational customs officer who panicked and shot a musket, killing a young boy in the street. The Sons of Liberty mounted a massive funeral procession to mark the first instance of violent death in the struggle with Britain. For the next week there was tension in Britain, until March 5, 1770 when a crowd taunted 8 British officers guarding the customs office (throwing snowballs and rocks and daring the soldiers to fire), until one did. Someone then yelled "Fire!" and the other soldiers shot into the crowd, hitting 11 men and killing 5 of them. Hutchinson immediately removed the regiment to an island in the harbor to prevent further bloodshed, jailing Captain Thomas Preston and his soldiers for their protection, and promised a trial. The Sons of Liberty staged elaborare martyrs' funerals for the victims. In the fall of 1770 the soldiers had their trials, represented by John Adams and Josiah Quincy (both tied to the Sons of Liberty, but Adams was determined to give the men a fair trial). The trial ended in acquittal for all but two of the soldiers (they were convicted on manslaughter).

What led to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and what was the US response?

In July 1941 Roosevelt announced a trade embargo that denied Japan access to oil, scrap iron, and other essential goods for its war machines. Instead, the embargo played into the hands of Japanese militarists headed by General Hideki Tojo, who seized control of the government in October 1941 and persuaded other leaders, including emperor Hirohito, that swift destruction of American naval bases in the pacific would leave Japan free to follow its destiny. On December 7, 1941, 183 aircraft lifted off six Japanese carriers and attacked the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor on the Hawai'ian island of Oahu. The surprise attack sank all of the fleet's battleships, killed more than 2,400 Americans, and almost cripples US war-making capacity in the Pacific. Japanese pilots failed to destroy oil storage facilities and any of the nation's aircraft carriers. Americans instantly united in their desire to fight and avenge the attack. On December 8, Congress endorsed the president's call for a declaration of war. Both Hitler and Mussolini declared war against America on December 11, bringing the US into all-out war with the axis powers in Europe and Asia.

What changes occurred in New England land distribution and the New England economy between 1670 and 1770?

In New England, individual families were given land. Many practiced partible inheritance, giving their sons equal amounts of the land, and the land plots were subdivided. Many plots became too small to support a family. Sons who were unhappy moved away. During the 18th century, the governments needed revenue, and sold land to individuals. Money, rather than membership in a community bound by a church covenant, determined whether a person could obtain land. By 1770, New Englanders only had ¼ as much wealth per capita as free colonists in the South. Merchants stocked imported good (British textiles, ceramics, metal goods, chinese tea, west indian sugar, and chesapeake tobacco). Farmers supported shoemakers, tailors, wheelwrights, and carpenters. Larger cities had skilled tradesmen such as cabinetmakers, silversmiths, and printers. Fish accounted for more than a third of New England's exports. Livestock and timber made up another third. Almost all the exports were to Britain and continental Europe.

What social forces and artistic figures created the Harlem Renaissance?

In New York City, hope and talent came together. New York City's black population jumped 115 percent in the 1920s, and in Harlem in uptown Manhattan an extraordinary mix of black artists, sculptors, novelists, musicians and poets set out to create a distinctive African American culture that drew on their identities as Americans and Africans. This became to be known as the Harlem Renaissance, building on the independence and pride displayed by by black soldiers during the war, black artists sought to defeat the fresh onslaught of racial discrimination and violence with poems, paintings, and plays. Langston Hughes, James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Zora Neale Hurston, and Aaron Douglas led the renaissance. Despite the vibrancy, Harlem for most whites remained a separate black ghetto known only for its lively nightlife. Fashionable whites crowded into Harlem's segregated nightclubs, the most famous of which was the cotton club, where they believed they could hear "real jazz", in its "natural surroundings"

Why was Hoover unable to prevent or alleviate the Great Depression?

In November 1929, to keep the stock market collapse from ravaging the entire economy, Hoover called a white house conference of business and labor leaders. He urged them to join in a voluntary plan for recovery: businesses would maintain production and keep their workers on the job; labor would accept existing wages, hours, and conditions. However, within a few months, the bargain fell apart. As demand for their products declined, industrialists cut production, sliced wages, and laid off workers. Poorly paid or unemployed workers could not buy much, and their decreased spending led to further cuts in productions and further loss of jobs. To deal with rural America, Hoover got congress to pass the Agricultural Marketing act in 1929. Hoover hoped this would raise prices, but instead prices declined. To stop the decline, Hoover joined conservatives in urging protective tariffs on agricultural goods. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 established the highest rates in history. The same year, congress also authorized $420 million for public works projects to give the unemployed jobs and create more purchasing power. In 3 years, the Hoover administration nearly doubled federal public works expenditures. Tariffs did not end the suffering of farmers because foreign nations retaliated with increased tariffs of their own that crippled American farmers' ability to sell abroad. In 1932, Hoover hoped to help hard-pressed industry with the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, a federal agency empowered to lend government funds to endangered banks and corporations. He hoped to use the theory of trickle-down economics to help the poor, but in the end very little trickled down to the poor. Meanwhile, hundreds of thousands workers lost their jobs each month. There was no direct federal assistance, and state services and private charities were swamped. Hoover's response revealed the limits of his conception of the government's proper role in fighting the economic disaster. He compared direct federal aid to the needy to the "dole" in britain, which he thought destroyed the moral fiber of the chronically unemployed. The poor, he said, could rely on their neighbors to protect them from hunger and cold. In 1931, he allowed the Red Cross to distribute government-owned agricultural surpluses to the hungry. In 1932, he relaxed his principles further to offer small federal loans, not gifts, to the states to help them in their relief efforts.

Once the war in Europe began, what role did the US play in supporting the Allies?

In November 1939, Congress agreed to allow belligerent nations to buy arms, as well as nonmilitary supplies, on a cash-and-carry basis. In practice, the revises neutrality law allowed Britain and France to purchase American war material and carry it across the Atlantic in their own ships, thereby shielding American vessels from attack by German submarines lurking in the atlantic. By late summer 1940, Roosevelt concocted a scheme to deliver fifty old destroyers to Britain in exchange for American access to British bases in the Western Hemisphere, the first steps toward building an Anglo-American alliance against Hitler. In January 1941, FDR proposed the Lend-Lease Act, which allowed the British to obtain arms from the US without paying cash but with the promise to reimburse the US when the war ended. The purpose was to defend democracy and human rights throughout the world. In 1941, after Hitler attacked the Soviet Union, the US extended the the Lend-Lease Act to the Soviet Union.

What role did women, african americans, hispanics, asian americans, and native americans play in the New Deal?

In the bottom tier, millions of neglected Americans- women, children, old folks, unorganized, unskilled, uneducated, and unemployed- fell through the cracks of the New Deal. Tens of thousands of women in southern textile mills commonly received wages of less than 10 cents an hour and were fired if they protested. Domestic workers (mostly women) and agricultural workers (many African, Hispanic, or Asian) were neither unionized nor eligible for Social Security. About half of black citizens in cities were jobless, more than double the unemployment rate among whites. In the rural south, conditions were worse, given the New Deal agricultural policies such as the AAA favored landowners, who often pushed blacks off the land they farmed. Disfranchisement by intimidation and legal subterfuge prevented southern blacks from protesting their plight at the ballot box. Eleanor Roosevelt sponsored the appointment of Mary McLeod Bethune to the head of the Division of Negro Affairs in National Youth Administration. She led black professionals to posts within New Deal agencies. Ultimately about 1 in 4 African Americans got access to New Deal relief programs. Despite these gains, by 1940 African Americans still suffered severe handicaps. Most of the 13 million black workers toiled at low-paying menial jobs. Segregated and unequal schools were the norm, and only 1% of black students earned college degrees. During the Depression, field workers saw their wages plunge lower still to about a dime an hour. To preserve scarce jobs for US citizens, the federal government choked off immigration from Mexico and deported tens of thousands of Mexican Americans, many with their American born children. New Deal programs throughout the west often discriminated against Hispanics and other people of color. Asian Americans had similar experiences. They were still excluded from citizenship and in many states were not permitted to own land. By 1930, more than half of Japanese Americans had been born in the US, but were still liable to discrimination. Native Americans also suffered neglect from New Deal agencies. Under the leadership of the New Deal's commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Collier, the New Deal's Indian Recognition Act of 1934 largely reversed the earlier policy of the Dawes Act. The IRA provided little economic aid to Native Americans but it did restore their right to own land communally and have greater control over their own affairs. The IRA brought little immediate benefit to Native Americans, but it provided an important foundation for Indians' economic, cultural, and political resurgence a generation later.

Creek Indians

Indians occupying lands extending from Georgia into Mississippi, whom land-hungry Georgians had many skirmishes with.

Welfare Capitalism

Industrial programs for workers that became popular in the 1920a. Some businesses improved safety and sanitation inside factories. They also instituted paid vacations and pension plans. This encouraged loyalty to companies rather than independent labor unions.

What foreign policies did Carter pursue and how successful were they?

Jimmy Carter promised to reverse US support of dictators, secret diplomacy, interference in the internal affairs of other countries, and excessive reliance on military solutions. The Carter administration applied economic pressure on governments that denied their citizens basic rights, and refusing aid or trading privileges to nations such as Chile and El Salvador. In other situations, Carter sacrificed human rights ideals to strategic and security considerations, invoking no sanctions against repressive governments in Iran, South Korea, and the Philippines. Carter recognized the government in Nicaragua and sped up negotiations over the Panama Canal and in 1977 signed a treaty providing for Panama's takeover of the Canal in 2000. Supporters viewed the treaty as restitution for the US seizure of Panamanian territory in 1903. Seeking to promote peace in the middle east, Carter seized on the courage of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat, the first Arab leader to risk his political career by talking directly with Israeli officials. In 1979, Carter invited Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin to Camp David, Maryland, where he applied his tenacious diplomacy for 13 days. Carter had nurtured the first meaningful steps toward peace in the middle east. Carter preferred to pursue national security through nonmilitary means and initially sought accommodation with the nation's Cold War enemies. In 1979 he officially recognized the People's Republic of China. In the same year, he and Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev signed a second strategic arms reduction treaty. His human policy fell by the wayside as the US stepped up aid to the military dictatorship in Afghanistan's neighbor, Pakistan, and the CIA funneled in secret aid through Pakistan to the Afghan rebels.

What led to the cuban missile crisis, and how did JFK handle it?

Kennedy upped the number of nuclear weapons based in Europe from 2,500 to 7,200 and multiplied fivefold the supply of intercontinental ballistic missiles. Concerned that this buildup would enable the US to launch a first strike and wipe out Soviet Union missile sites before they could respond, the Soviet Union stepped up its own ICBM program. In 1962, Khrushchev decided to install nuclear missiles in Cuba to protect Castro's regime from further US attempts at intervention and to balance the US missiles aimed at the Soviet Union from Europe. On October 22, after the CIA showed Kennedy aerial photographs of missile launching sites under construction in Cuba, Kennedy announced that the military was in full alert, and that the navy would turn back any soviet vessel suspected of carrying offensive missiles to Cuba. He warned that any attack launched from Cuba would trigger a full nuclear assault against the soviet union. Kennedy refused advice from the military to bomb the missile sites. On October 24, Russian Ships carrying nuclear warheads toward Cuba suddenly turned back. When one ship crossed the blockade line, Kennedy ordered the navy to follow the ship rather than attempt to stop it. Kennedy and Khrushchev negotiated an agreement. The Soviets removed the missiles and pledged not to introduce new offensive weapons into Cuba. The US promised not to invade Cuba. Secretly, Kennedy also agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey. The Cuban crisis contributed to Khrushchev's fall from power two years later.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Land act of 1787 that established a three-stage process by which settled territories would become states. Also banned slavery in the northwest territory. The Ordinance guaranteed that western lands with white population would not become colonial dependencies

What was the reservation system, and what were its consequences?

Land was given to Indians by the federal government in an attempt to reduce tensions. The whites continually disregarded that the land was reserved and took it. In 1851 the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed in order to allow passage of white settlers on certain land in exchange for the promise that the rest of the land would remain unviolated. The Indians who signed had hoped to preserve their land and culture. Settlers and miners cut down trees, polluted streams, and killed off the bison. Whites brought alcohol, guns, and disease. Between 1780 and 1870, Plains population decreased by half. Poverty and starvation was prevalent in the reservations. The Indians were confined by armed forces and survived on government rations.This was seen described as being similar to colonial societies ruled by outside bureaucrats who saw their cultures assaulted, religions outlawed and their children sent away. There was an air of superiority among the whites which led to the military Sand Creek massacre, in which Colonel John M Chivington led his militia against a village of Cheyenne.

How did John Brown's raid, the splitting of the democratic party, and the election of Abraham Lincoln lead to the the secession of southern states?

Led to secession because southern whites believed that they had to protect their slavery.

What effect did the war have on women and African Americans?

Millions of women took their places on assembly lines in defense industries. At the start of the war a quarter of adult women worked outside the home, but few women worked in factories, except for textile mills and sewing industries. Wartime mobilizations left factories for women to work. Government advertising urged women to take industrial jobs by assuring them that their household chores had prepared them to work for the "victory line." Contributing to the war effort also paid off in wages. The majority of married women remained at home, occupied with domestic chores and child care. They too supported the war effort, planting victory gardens, saving tin cans and newspapers for recycling into war material, and buying war bonds. In 1941, black organizations demanded that the federal government require companies receiving defense contracts to integrate their workforces. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 that authorized the Committee on Fair Employment Practices to investigate and prevent racial discrimination in employment. In 1940, nine out of ten black americans lived below the federal poverty line, and those who worked earned an average of just 39% of whites' wages. In search of better jobs and living standards, 5.5 million blacks migrated to the north and west, making a majority of African American city-dwellers for the first time in US history. Severe labor shortages and government fair employment standards opened assembly line jobs in defense plants, causing black unemployment to drop 80 percent. More jobs did not mean equal pay, although the average income improved, families only made half of what white families made. However, their migrations to defense jobs intensified racial antagonisms. In the summer of 1943, 242 race riots erupted in 47 cities.

In what ways did Eisenhower follow the policy of moderate Republicanism (the middle way) in his domestic policies?'

Moderate Republicanism meant resisting additional federal intervention in economic and social life, but not turning the clock back to the 1920s. Democratic control of the congress further contributed to Ike's approach. He tried to distance himself from the anti-communism of Truman's administration, even while intensifying Truman's loyalty program, allowing federal executives to dismiss employees on grounds of loyalty, security, or suitability. Eisenhower refused to denounce McCarthy publicly. Eisenhower sometimes echoed conservatives conviction that government was best left to the states and economic decisions of private business. But, he signed laws bringing 10 million more workers under social security, increasing the minimum wage, and creating a new Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. When polio became an epidemic, Eisenhower obtained funds from congress to distribute a vaccine when conservatives wanted to leave that to the states. His greatest initiative was the Interstate Highway and Defense System Act of 1956, which authorized the construction of a national highway system (the federal government paid for most of the costs through increased fuel and vehicle taxes), promoted as essential to national defense and an impetus to economic growth, which accelerated the mobility of people and goods, and it benefited the the trucking, construction, and automobile industries that had lobbied hard for the law. In other areas, Eisenhower restrained federal activity in favor of state governments. His large tax cuts directed most benefits to business and the wealthy, and he resisted federal aid to primary and secondary education as well as strong WH leadership on behalf of civil rights. He opposed national health insurance, preferring the growth practice of private insurance provided by employers.

What events led to the Pullman Strike and what were its consequences?

Nationwide railroad workers' boycott of trains carrying Pullman cars in 1894 after pullman workers, suffering radically reduced wages, joined the ARU and union leaders were fired in response. The boycott ended after the US Army fired on strikers and ARU leader Eugene Debs was jailed. George Pullman's town was nice, but expensive. He refused to "sell an acre under any circumstances" and made the workers rent the land. The depression brought hard times to pullman. Workers say their wages slashed 5 times between may and december 1893, with cuts totaling at least 28 percent. At the same time, pullman refused to lower the rents in his model town, insisting that "the renting of the dwellings and employment of workmen at Pullman are in no way tied together." When workers went to bankers to cash their checks, they found that the rent had already been taken out. Pullman also continued to pay his stockholders an 8 percent dividend, and the company accumulated a 25 million surplus. The desperate workers flocked the ARU, led by Eugene Debs. Pullman responded by firing three of the union's leaders. Angry men and women walked off the job in disgust. This quickly blossomed into a strike that involved more than 90% of the Pullman's 3,300 workers. Pullman countered by shutting down the plant. The ARU boycotted Pullman cars after Pullman refused arbitration. Beginning on June 29, switchmen refused to handle any train that carried Pullman cars. The General Managers Association recruited strikebreakers and fired all the protesting switchmen. Entire train crews walked off the job in a show of solidarity with the Pullman strikers. Even the GMA was forced to concede that the railroads had been fought to a standstill. The boycott remained peaceful. Attorney General Richard B Olney was determined to put down the strike, but John Peter Altgeld, the governor of Illinois, stood in his way. To get around him, Olney convinced President Cleveland that federal troops had to intervene to protect the mails. 2 Chicago judges issued an injunction barring Debs from speaking publicly. By issuing the injunction, the court made the boycott a crime punishable by a jail sentence for contempt of court. Olney's strategy worked, Cleveland called out for the Army. On July 5, nearly 8,000 troops marched to chicago, becoming violent almost immediately. Troops killed 25 strikers and wounded more than 60. Without its leader, the ARU fell with the boycott. Pullman reopened his factories, hiring new workers to replace many of the strikers and leaving 1,600 without jobs. A special commission investigated the events through workers and George Pullman himself.

How did the "cult of domesticity" affect household organization, the role of domestic servants, and the image of womanhood?

Nineteenth-century belief that women's place was in the home, where they should create havens for their families. This sentimentalized ideal led to an increase in the hiring of domestic servants and freed white middle-class women to spend time in pursuits outside of the home. This changed the patterns of hiring household help. The live-in servant, or domestic, became a fixture in the North, replacing the hired girl of the previous century. For women of the white middle-class, domestics were a boon, freeing them from household drudgery and giving them more time to spend with their children, to pursue club work, or to work for reforms.

What policies did Nixon pursue to end the Vietnam War, and what was the ultimate outcome of the war?

Nixon gradually withdrew ground troops, but he was not willing to let south vietnam fall to the communists. From 1969 to 1972, Nixon and Kissinger pursued a three pronged approach. First they tried to strengthen the South Vietnamese military and Government. ARVN forces grew to more than a million and the South Vietnamese Air Force became the fourth largest in the world. The US also promised land reform, village elections, and the building of schools, hospitals, and transportation facilities. Second, Nixon gradually reduced the US presence in Vietnam, which somewhat disarmed the anti-war campaign at home. Third, the US replaced US forces with intensive bombing. In spring of 1969, Nixon began a ferocious air war in Cambodia, hiding it from Congress and the public for more than a year. He sought to knock out North Vietnamese sanctuaries in Cambodia, and Americans dropped 100,000 tons of bombs on Cambodia. Congress was mad, the Senate voted to terminate the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, and to cut off funds for the Cambodian operations. The House refused to go along, but by the end of June 1970, Nixon had pulled troops out of Cambodia. Nixon and Kissinger continued to believe that intensive power could bring the North Vietnamese to their knees . In March 1972, responding to a North Vietnamese offensive, the US resumed sustained bombing of the North, mined Haiphong and other harbors for the first time, and announced a naval blockade. With peace talks stalled, Nixon ordered the most devastating bombing yet. On January 27, 1973, representatives of the US, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the Vietcong (now called the Provisional Revolutionary Government) signed a formal peace accord in Paris. The war left divisions among Americans, diverted money from domestic programs, and sounded the death knell for Johnson's Great Society. The war created federal budget deficits and triggered inflation. The predictions about Vietnam and the domino theory were false. Although Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia fell into the communist camp in 1975, the entirety of Southeast Asia did not. The pursuit of victory in Vietnam complicated the US' relations with other nations.

Why and how did Nixon move toward detente with the Soviet Union and China?

Nixon perceived that the "rigid and bipolar world of the 1940s and 1950s' was changing and America's European allies were seeking to ease East-West tensions. In addition, the two nations might be use to help the US extricate itself from Vietnam. Following 2 years of negotiations, Nixon became the first president to set foot on Chinese soil. As Nixon and Kissinger had hoped, the warming of US-Chinese relations furthered their strategy of detente, their term for easing conflict with the Soviet Union. It focused on issues of common concern, such as arms control and trade. Containment would be achieved not just by military threat, but also by ensuring that the Soviets and Chinese had stakes in a stable international order. Nixon's goal was a "stronger, healthy US, Europe, Soviet Union, China, Japan, each balancing the other." in May 1972, Nixon visited Moscow to engage in talks about Us and USSR common interests and arms limitations. Although Detente made little progress after 1974 US, canadian, soviet, and European leaders signed a historic agreement in 1975 in Helsinki that formally recognized post WWII boundaries in Europe. It was controversial because they acknowledged Soviet domination over Eastern Europe, yet they also committed the signing countries to recognize "the universal significance of human rights and fundamental freedoms."

What policies did Nixon pursue regarding desegregation, affirmative action, women's rights, and Native Americans?

Nixon was reluctant to use federal power to compel integration, but the Supreme Court overruled the administration's efforts to delay court ordered desegregation. Nixon began to implement affirmative action among federal contractors and unions, and his administration awarded more government contracts and loans to minority businesses. In 1971, Congress passed the 26th amendment, which reduced the voting age to 18. Nixon vetoed a comprehensive child care bill and publicly opposed abortion, but he signed Title IX, guaranteeing all aspects of education, and allowed his Labor Department to push affirmative action. He gave more public support for justice to Native Americans than to any other protest group. He signed measure recognizing claims of Alaskan and New Mexican Indians and set in motion legislation restoring tribal land and granting Indians more control over their schools and other service institutions.

1973 Peace Accords

Officials from US, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the Vietcong signed a formal peace accord in Paris in 1973. The agreement required removal of all US troops and military advisers from South Vietnam, but allowed North Vietnamese forces to remain. Both sides agreed to return prisoners of war. Nixon called the agreement "peace with honor," but it only allowed a face-saving withdrawal.

How did the Watergate affair lead to the resignation of Nixon, and what laws were passed to prevent similar abuses in the future?

On June 17, 1972, five men working for Nixon's reelection campaign crept into the Democratic Party headquarters in the Watergate complex in DC. They had intended to repair bugs installed in an earlier break-in, they were discovered and arrested. After hearing about the arrests, Nixon plotted to conceal links between the burglars and the White House, while publicly denying any connection. In April 1973, after investigations by a grand jury and the Senate suggested that White House aides had been involved in the cover up effort. Nixon accepted official for Watergate but denied any knowledge of the break-in or cover-up. He also announced the resignations of 3 WH aides and the attorney general. In May, he authorized the appointment of a special prosecutor, Archibald Cox, to conduct an investigation. It was revealed that Nixon recorded all Oval Office conversations, and additional disclosures exposed Nixon's misuse of federal funds and tax evasion. In August 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned after an investigation revealed that he had taken bribes while governor of Maryland. Nixon's choice of House minority leader Gerald Ford of Michigan to succeed Agnew was approved, but his resignation further tarnished the administration. In February 1974, the House voted to begin an impeachment investigation. In July 1974, they voted to impeach the president on three counts: obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of congress.To avoid impeachment, Nixon announced his resignation to a national television audience on August 8, 1974. The Federal Election Campaign Act established public financing of presidential campaigns and imposed some restrictions on contributions to curtail the selling of political favors. The Supreme Court struck down limitations on campaign spending as a violation to freedom of speech. President Ford established new controls on covert operations, and Congress created permanent committees to oversee the intelligence agencies.

National American Woman Suffrage Association

Organization formed in 1890 that united the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association. The NAWSA pursued state-level campaigns to gain the vote for women. With successes in Idaho, Colorado, and Utah, woman suffrage had become more accepted by the 1890s.

What elements characterized the southern economy, in terms of cash crops, the relationship between the northern and southern economies, and the South's lack of immigrants and urbanization?

Plantation slaves produced more than 75 percent of the South's export crops, the backbone of the South's economy. The South's major cash crops consisted of tobacco, sugar, rice, and cotton- all of which were grown on plantations. Plantation slavery enriched the nation. By 1840, cotton accounted for more than 60 percent of American exports. Most of the profit from the exportation of cotton returned to the planters, but some went to northern middlemen who bought, sold, insured, warehoused, and shipped cotton to the mills overseas. Middlemen invested their profits in the booming northern economy, industrial development received a much needed boost of capital. Southern Plantations benefited northern industry by providing an important market for textiles, agricultural tools, and manufactured goods. The south did not industrialize much because the planters put their money into more land slaves. The south developed fewer cities without economic diversification. Without cities or industrial jobs, the south attracted few immigrants

Why and how did the US provoke war with Mexico, and how was ensuring victory in the Mexican war achieved.

Polk wanted the northern regions of Mexico, that were continually attacked and weakened by the Indians. Polk wondered about Mexico's ability to control these provinces. Polk tried to buy the territory, but Mexico refused to sell, and Polk concluded military force would be necessary to realize the US' Manifest Destiny. Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor and his army to head to the banks of the Rio Grande, which the Mexicans saw as an act of aggression, and attacked the army, killing or wounding 16 and capturing the rest, on April 25, 1846. The president told the congress that Mexico invaded the US and shed American blood upon American soil, and congress issued a declaration of war. The Americans realized the only way to ensure victory would be to capture Mexico's capital city.

Why was the system of indentured servitude practices and what were its advantages and disadvantages?

Poor people who could not afford to go to Virginia were granted indentures, as credit for passage across the Atlantic, and were given to a tobacco planter for four to seven years, and the planter gave them food and shelter. It's advantages were cheap labor, and more land for every servant purchased, along with profit for the servant's work; BUT it perpetuated the gender imbalance, was harsh on the laborers, large punishments, and woman who gave birth had to add an extra two years.

Peace Corps

Program launched by President Kennedy in 1961 through which young American volunteers helped with education, health, and other projects in developing countries around the world. More than 60,000 volunteers had served by the mid-1960s.

Queen Liliuokalani

Queen of Hawi'i who was overthrown by a rebellion by American sugar interests in 1893.

What policies did Reagan pursue in regard to nuclear weapons systems, international interventions, and relations with the soviet union?

Reagan expanded the military with new bombers and missiles, an enhanced nuclear force in Europe, a larger navy, and a rapid deployment force. He startled many of his advisers in March 1983 by announcing plans for research on the SDI. Immediately dubbed "star wars" by critics who doubted its feasibility, the project could deploy lasers in space to destroy any enemy missiles before they could reach their targets. Such defense would allow the US to strike first and not fear retaliation. The USSR were angry because SDI violated the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty and because they'd have to make huge investments to develop their own. In 1982, a rally demanding a freeze on additional nuclear weapons drew 700,000 people in New York City. That same year, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops issued a call for nuclear disarmament. The terrorist organization Hezbollah, composed of Shiite Muslims and backed by Iran and Syria, arose in Lebanon in 1982 after Israeli forces invaded that country to stop the Palestine Liberation Organization from using sanctuaries in Lebanon to launch attacks on Israel. The Reagan administration sought to contain leftist movements across the globe. In October 1983, 5,000 US troops invaded Grenada, a small Caribbean nation where Marxists had staged a successful coup. In Asia, the US quietly aided the Afghan rebels' war against Afghanistan's Soviet-backed government. In Angola, the US armed rebel forces against the government supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba. Reagan also sided with the South African government, which was brutally suppressing black protest against apartheid, forcing Congress to override his veto in order to impose economic sanctions against South Africa.

Describe the candidates, parties and issues in the presidential election of 1912. Who won and why?

Roosevelt was convinced that Taft was inept and in February 1912, he announced his candidacy, but Taft refused to step aside. Roosevelt took advantage of the newly passed primary election laws and ran in 13 states, winning 278 delegates to Taft's 48. At the Chicago convention, Taft's bosses refused to seat the Roosevelt delegates. Fistfights broke out as Taft won nomination on the first ballot. The roosevelt supporters fled the party and created the Progressive Party and nominated Roosevelt. Roosevelt knew the party was doomed- even if there were progressives, they stuck under the Republican umbrella. The Democrats, delighted at the split in the Republican party nominated Woodrow Wilson, the governor of New Jersey. Voters in 1912 could choose among 4 candidates who claimed to be progressive. Even Eugene Debs styled himself a progressive. The presidency was really between Roosevelt and Wilson- Roosevelt believed in federal planning and regulation and Wilson believed in limited government and states rights. Roosevelt accepted the inevitability of big business but demanded that government act as "a steward of the people" to regulate the giant corporations. Wilson promised to use antitrust legislation to get rid of big corporations and to give small businesses and farmers better opportunities in the marketplace. No candidate claimed a majority in the race, and Wilson won with 42%, Roosevelt pulled 27%, Taft 23%, and Debs captured 6%.

Describe the economy and culture of white, slave owning society in the south

Slave labor bestowed prosperity among their masters. The southern colonies supplied 90 percent of all North American imports to Britain. They exported tobacco, rice, and indigo. Rice and indigo made up three fourths of lower South exports, nearly ⅔ of them going to Britain and most of the rest to the West Indies. By 1770, tobacco represented ⅓ of all exports from British North America. Under the provisions of the Navigation Acts, nearly all of it went to britain, where the monarchy put a tax on it. The products of slave labor made the southern colonies the richest. At the top of the wealth pyramid stood the Rice Grandees of the lower south and the tobacco gentry of the Chesapeake. The vast difference of wealth engendered envy and occasional tension between rich and poor, but the planters publicly acknowledged their lesser neighbors as equals by belonging to the "superior" race. The slaveholding gentry dominated the politics and economy of the southern colonies. In Virginia, only adult white males who owned at least 100 acres of property could vote. The gentry also set the cultural standard; they entertained lavishly, gambled, and attended Anglican church services more for social than religious reasons.

Describe the process of enslavement of African Americans, the middle passage, voyage to America, and acculturation in America

Slave ships brought almost 300,000 Africans to British North America between 1619 and 1780. Captured in war, kidnapped, or sold into slavery by other Africans, and brought to the cost to be sold to African traders. Two hundred to three hundred slaves were then packed aboard ships that carried them across the middle passage and sold them to merchants or southern planters.

Why and how did Stephen P. Douglas engineer the Kansas-Nebraska act, and how did it repeal the missouri compromise?

Stephen P. Douglas wanted the transcontinental railroad for Chicago, but would have to pass through a region that congress had deemed a "permanent" Indian reserve in 1830. Douglas proposed giving the territory an Indian name, "Nebraska," and then throwing the indians out. This repealed the Missouri compromise because Douglas needed the support of southerners, but they would never vote for a free state (b/c it was above the latitude that deemed it a slave state) and for the railroad to pass through the north. Southerners agreed to help if the territory was organized based on popular sovereignty, giving slavery a chance in the Territory, which repealed the Missouri compromise because it gave slavery a chance in a placed deemed free by the compromise (and Douglas added an explicit repeal at the insistence of the Southerners.) The act divided the territory into Nebraska and Kansas, and pushed the Plains Indians farther west.

What technological, economic and social forces led to physical change in cities?

Structural steel made enormous advances in building possible. Across the US, municipal governments undertook public works on a scale never before seen. They paved streets, built sewers and water mains, replaced gas lamps with electric lights, ran trolley tracks on the old horsecar lines, and dug underground to build subways, tearing down the unsightly elevated tracks that had clogged city streets. Urban public parks were built to complement the new buildings. American cities did not overlook the mind in their efforts at improvement. They created a comprehensive free public school system that educated everyone from the children of the middle class to the sons and daughters of immigrant workers. Municipalities across the US provided free secondary school education for all who wished to attend. To educate those who didn't go to school, American cities created the most extensive free public library system in the world.

Free Silver

Term used in the late nineteenth century by those who advocated minting silver dollars in addition to supporting the gold standard and the paper currency backed by gold. Western silver barons and poor farmers in the West and South hoped this would result in inflation, effectively providing them with debt relief.

What were the military strengths and weaknesses of the Americans and the British? What was each side's military strategy?

The Americans were inexperienced, raw, not unified, and undermanned, but it was never as bad as the British assumed.. The war quickly became a rebellion and they overthrew long-established authority. Congress set the enlistment for the army at 1 year, which was inadequate as the war progressed. Incentives were offered for longer service, 20 dollars bonus for three years, a hundred acres of land for enlistment for the duration of the war. Women also served, cooking, washing, and nursing the wounded- some even helped serving water and ammunition to soldiers during battle. Later in the war, free blacks and slaves (with master's consent) served in the war due to the need for increased. The British wanted to put down the rebellion and restore monarchical power in the colonies, but they weren't sure how to go about it. They were unwilling to burn towns or steal food, so they captured port cities because of the constant need for supply. They also assumed many loyal americans would come to their aid. Overall their strategy was to divide and conquer. The severely underestimated the colonies, which proved to be a problem.

What incidents led to the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts and what were their consequences?

The Boston Tea Party led to the coercive acts. They were Lord North's response, as a way to punish Massachusetts. The acts were soon known as the intolerable acts. 1: The Boston Port act closed Boston harbor to all shipping as of June 1, 1774, until all the destroyed tea was paid for. The goal was to halt the commercial life of the city. 2: The Massachusetts Government act greatly altered the charter, underscoring Parliament's claim to supremacy over MA. The royal governor's powers became augmented, and the governor's council became appointed instead of elected, meaning the governor could now appoint all judges, sheriffs, and officers to the court. No town meeting could be held without the governor's approval, and every agenda item needed approval. 3: The Impartial Administration of Justice act stated that any royal official accused of capital crime would be tried in court in Britain. 4: The Quartering act allowed military commanders to lodge soldiers wherever was necessary, even in private households. The acts finally made colonists from New Hampshire to Georgia realize the problems of British rule went beyond questions on non-consensual taxation; it infringed upon liberty and denied self-government.

What were the main reasons the British were so eager to establish colonies in North America?

The British were so eager to establish colonies in North America, hoping to copy the Spanish's success of gaining a New World empire. The colonists hoped to find an exotic crop, gold or silver, or to steal from the Spanish in order to get rich. Strengthen England Mercantilism

What were the Monroe Doctrine and the Open Door Policy and how were these used by the US to justify its foreign policy?

The Monroe Doctrine came to be interpreted as establishing the Western Hemisphere as an American "sphere of influence" and warned European powers to stay away or risk war. The Open Door Policy dealt with maintaining market access to China. American diplomacy actively worked to buttress the Monroe Doctrine with its assertion of American hegemony in the Western Hemisphere. In the 1880s, Republican secretary of state James G Blaine promoted hemispheric peace and trade through Pan-American cooperation but at the same time used American troops to intervene in Latin American border disputes. In 1895, President Cleveland risked war with Great Britain to enforce the Monroe Doctrine when a conflict developed between Venezuela and British Guiana. In Central America, American business triumphed in a bloodless takeover that saw french and british interests routed. The United Fruit Company of Boston virtually dominated the Central American nations of Costa Rica and Guatemala. As American interests in China grew, the US became more aggressive in defending its presence in Asia and the Pacific. Theodore Roosevelt ordered the US fleet to Manila in the Philippines in 1897 in a position to capture the islands as a stepping stone to China.

How did the rights of African Americans, women, and homosexuals, and the protection of the environment fare under Reagan?

The New Right opposed the Equal Rights Amendment and abortion rights, key goals of women's rights activists. Feminists focused more on women's economic and family problems. The Child Support Enforcement Amendment helped single and divorced mothers collect court-ordered child support payments from absent fathers. The retirement equity act of 1984 benefited divorced and older women by strengthening their claims to their husbands' pensions and enabling women to qualify more easily for private retirement pensions. With higher poverty rates than men, women suffered most from Reagan's cuts in social programs. They won a key decision from the supreme court ruling that sexual harassment in the workplace constituted sex discrimination. The LGBT rights movement helped closeted homosexuals "come out," and their visibility increased awareness, if not not always acceptance, of homosexuality among the larger population. The Christian Right targeted gays and lesbians as symbols of national immorality, and they succeeded in overturning some homosexual rights measures. Many states removed antisodomy laws from the books, but in 1986 the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of such laws.

When, why and how did the North gradually abandon Reconstruction and turn control of the South back to white southerners?

The North gradually abandoned Reconstruction and turned control back to white southerners because of several reasons. Because of the economic collapse in 1873, Northerners wanted to invest in the south but believed that the recurring federal intrusion itself was a major cause of instability. Congress too no longer wanted to deal with reconstruction but southern republicans begged for protection against Klan violence. By the early 1870's the republicans had lost most of the advocates for african american rights and other republicans concluded that equality was mistaken and naive. In 1872 Congress restored the right of office to almost all ex-rebels, and began to believe that traditional white leaders offered the best hope for the south. Underlying this was the north's racial prejudice in which they believed in black freedom, but not black equality.

Why did the Northerners oppose the extension of slavery to the western territories, and why did Southerners support it?

The Northerners opposed the extension of slavery to western territories because they wanted to preserve the west for free labor (hardworking, self relying men), not for slaveholders. ] Southerners supported it because it excluding them was a slap in the face to Southern veterans of the Mexican-American war. They also sought to maintain the political parity with the North to protect the South's interests. Then, if the states were free the North would be able to override the South due to the imbalance of free vs. slave states.

What were the goals and strategies of the Populist movement and who were its leaders?

The Populist Movement sought economic democracy, a subtreasury, land reform (championing a plan to claim excessive land granted to railroads or sold to foreign investors), and government ownership of the railroads and the telegraph system to put an end to discriminatory rates. They also supported free silver and called for the direct election of Senators and for other electoral reforms including the secret ballot, the right to initiate legislation, recall elected official, and submit issues to the people by means of a referendum. They championed an eight hour work day. They were successful in everything- fifty years later.

What economic, social and religious changes occurred in the Puritan colonies from 1630-1700?

The Puritan Revolution in England meant that the rulers championed Puritanism from 1649 to 1660. When it began, the streams of immigrants dwindled to a trickle, creating hard times for the colonists. When immigrant ships became rare, colonists faced high prices for scarce English goods and few customers for their own colonial products. By the 1640s, Furbearing animals had become scarce unless traders ventured far beyond the frontier. Trees proved a long-lasting resource. Masts for ships and staves for barrels of Spanish Wine and West Indian sugar were crafted from new England timber. Their most important export was fish, They found markets in southern Europe and the West Indies, and it stimulated colonial shipbuilding. The population continued to boom, doubling every 20 years. After 1640, population grew faster than church membership. By the 1680s, women were the majority of churchgoers. Many children of the visible saints failed to get conversion.

What was the British Strategy to conquer the southern colonies and why did it fail?

The South had valuable crops and a large slave population, a destabilizing factor that might keep rebellious southerners in line. Georgia and the Carolinas appeared to hold a large number of loyalists, providing the British with a strong base for support. Georgia fell at the end of December 1778, and South Carolina, although more resistant, fell in May 1780. General Clinton left to go back to New York and left General Charles Cornwallis to finish pacifying South Carolina. He quickly chased the remaining continentals out and established military rule by mudsummer. By August, American troops arrived from the North to strike back. The battle of camden was a devastating defeat, however. Britain's southern strategy succeeded in 1780 because of information about American troop movements. Arnold's betrayment revived Americans of the patriot cause. Shock over Gate's defeat at Camden and Arnold's treason revitalized rebel support in western South Carolina. The backcountry of the south soon became the site of guerilla warfare. Loyalist militia units of the British were met by fierce rebel militia units. Guerilla warfare soon spread to Georgia and North Carolina. The British Southern strategy depended on sufficient loyalist strength to hold reconquered territory as Cornwallis' army moved north. The Americans won few battles in the south, but harassed the British forces and prevented them from foraging for food. The Battle of King's Mountain proved that the British were stretched too thin to even hold two colonies.

What were the Townshend Duties? Why and how did the colonists resist them?

The Townshend Duties were a British law that established new taxes (duties) on tea, glass, lead, paper, and painters' colors imported into the colonies. It was to be paid by the importer but passed it on to consumers in retail price.The colonists resisted the Townshend Duties because the principle of the duties embodied (taxation through trade bodies) looked different in the wake of the stamp act.The distinction between internal and external taxes was wiped out due to the belief that external taxes were now only a way to raise money (opposed to a way to direct the flow of trade). Governments of the colonies again protested. The assembly circulated a letter with Adams' argument against the Townshend acts to other colonial assemblies so they would coordinate their protests. They also called for the boycott of all British imported goods.

How did the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan and Berlin airlift seek to resist the Soviet threat in western Europe?

The Truman Doctrine sought to fight against the spread of communism in Europe by not only resisting Soviet military power but to support "free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." It set the precedent for 40 years of cold war interventions that would aid any kind of government if the only alternative appeared to be communism. In March 1948, Congress approved the Marshall Plan, sending 13 billion to restore economies of 16 western european nations. Marshall invited all European nations and the USSR to cooperate in a request for aid, but the soviets objected to American terms of free trade and financial disclosure. The Marshall plan also helped boost American economy because the participating European nations spent most of the dollars to buy american products and europe's economic recovery created new markets and opportunities for american investments. As the western allies prepared to make western germany a separate nation, soviets retaliated by blocking roads and railway lines between west germany and the western-held sections of berlin, cutting off food, fuel, and other essentials to 2 million inhabitants. To avoid confrontation, US and British pilots airlifted 2.3 million tons of goods to sustain the west berliners. Stalin hesitated to shoot down the cargo planes, and in 1949 he lifted the blockade.

Thomas Lofton Johnson

Democrat mayor of Cleveland. In his mayoral campaign, he pledged to reduce the streetcar fare from five cents to three cents. His election touched off a 7 year war between Johnson and the streetcar moguls.

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

In 1639, the towns adopted this quasi-constitution that could be altered by a vote of free men, who did not have to be church members.

Briefly describe the characteristics of the state constitutions established during the 1770s and 1780s.

In 1776, congress recommended that the state's write constitutions. By 1778, 10 colonies had done so, with three more updating their original charters. All state constitutions shared the conviction that government rests on the consent of the governed, and republicanism that promoted the people's welfare.

Federal Land Grants to Railroads

In 1855 Congress had granted railroads more than 20 million acres of federal land, thereby underwriting construction costs and promoting the expansion of the railroad, and the integration of the domestic market.

John D. Rockefeller- Standard Oil Company

In 1865 at the age of 25 he was in control of the largest oil refinery in Cleveland. He abandoned partnership or single proprietorship to embrace the corporation as the business structure best suited to maximize profit and minimize personal liability. In 1870 he incorporated his oil business, founding Standard Oil Company. As the largest refiner, he demanded illegal rebates from the railroads in exchange for his steady business. This allowed him to drive out his competitors through predatory pricing.

What policies did the US pursue in world affairs during the 1920s?

The US emerged from WWI with its economy intact and enjoyed a decade of stunning growth. New York replaced London as the center of world finance,and the US became the world's chief creditor. One of the Republican's most ambitious foreign policy initiatives was the Washington Disarmament Conference, which convened in 1921 to establish a global balance of naval power. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes shaped the Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922. The treaty led to the scrapping of more than 2 million tons of warships, by far the world's greatest success in disarmament. By fostering international peace, Republicans also helped make the world safer for American trade. A second major effort on behalf of world peace came in 1928, when secretary of state frank kellogg joined French foreign minister Aristide Briand to produce the Kellogg-Briand pact. Nearly 50 nations signed the solemn pledge to renounce war and settle international disputes peacefully. Republican administration preferred private sector diplomacy to state action. With the blessing of the White House, a team of American financiers led by Charles Dawes swung into action when Germany suspended its war reparation payments in 1923. Impoverished, Germany was staggering under a massive bill of $33 billion presented by the victorious Allies. When Germany failed to make its annual payment, France occupied Germany's industrial Ruhr Valley, creating the worst international crisis since the war. In 1924, the Dawes Plan halved Germany's annual reparation payments, initiated fresh American loans to Germany, and caused the French to retreat from the Ruhr.

Sharecropping

Labor system that emerged in the South during reconstruction. Under this system, planters divided their plantations into small farms that freedmen rented, paying with a share of each year's crop. Sharecropping gave blacks some freedom, but they remained dependent on white landlords and country merchants.

Lend-Lease Act

Legislation in 1941 that enabled Britain to obtain arms from the US without cash but with the promise to reimburse the US when the war ended. The act reflected Roosevelt's desire to assist the British in any way possible, short of war.

New York Female Moral Reform Society

An organization of religious women inspired by the Second Great Awakening to eradicate sexual sin and male licentiousness. Formed in 1833, it spread to hundreds of auxiliaries and worked to curb male licentiousness, prostitution, and seduction.

Harry S Truman

Senator from Missouri that Roosevelt chose as his running mate. He satisfied urban Democratic leaders and didn't worry white southerners who were nervous about challenges to racial segregation.

Why did settlers start migrating to Oregon? What effect did their migration have on them and the Indians who lived in the West?

Settlers started migrating to Oregon to cultivate the land, most were American expansionists. Their migration affected the Indians in the west because many settlers encountered them. The plains indians struck fear in the settlers, but the Indians had more to fear from the whites. Whites brought epidemics and alcohol, and hunted buffalo for the international hide market and sometimes just for fun.

Nikita Khrushchev

Stalin's replacement

How did the resurgence of Nativism and of the Ku Klux Klan, the Scopes trial, and the election of 1928 reflect the clash between urban and rural values?

The Johnson-Reed act restricted immigration specifically of those from south or eastern europe and asia. The nation's sour antiforeign mood struck a responsive chord in members of the KKK. The Klan first appeared in the South during reconstruction. In 1915, the Klan was reborn in Georgia but when it expanded its targets beyond black americans, it spread beyond the south. Under a banner proclaiming "100 percent Amercianism" the Klan promised to defend family, morality, and traditional American values against the threats posed by blacks, immigrants, radicals, feminists, catholics, and jews. Building on the frustrations of rural America, the Klan in the 1920s spread the throughout the nation, influencing politics. In 1925 in a Tennessee courtroom, old-time religion and the new spirit of science went head-to-head. Several southern states passed legislation against the teaching of Darwin's Theory of Evolution in the public schools. John Scopes, a young biology teacher in Tennessee offered to test the state's ban on teaching evolution. On the stand Bryan declared that he did believe the world had been created in 6 days. The Tennessee court punished Scopes with a 100 dollar fine. The trial revealed the disdain urban people felt for country people and the values they clung to. Democratic presidential candidate, Alfred Smith seemed to represent all that rural Americans feared and resented. He was a child of immigrants who got his start in politics with the help of New York's Tammany Hall political machine, to many the epitome of big-city corruption. He denounced immigration quotas, signed New York State's anti-Klan bill, and opposed prohibition, believing that it was a nativist attack on immigrant customs. He was the first catholic to run for president. Hoover, who neatly combined the images of morality, efficiency, service, and prosperity, won the election by a landslide.

How did the Newburgh Conspiracy reflect the economic problems and other weaknesses of the Articles government during the 1780s?

The Newburgh Conspiracy reflected the economic problems and weaknesses of the articles of confederation and confederation congress during the 1780s by showing how congress had no reliable source of income and was unable to pay or amend the articles because unanimity is so difficult, and the payment promised added to the confederation's debt.

How did the Treaty of Fort Stanwix acquire land for the US, exploit Native Americans and establish the primacy of the Confederation government over the states?

The Treaty of Fort Stanwix acquired the Iroquois Confederacy's land by enclosing it as a part of the US, it exploited the Indians who lived on the land and were not present for the treaty because they did not know they were giving up their land, and tried to disavow the treaty. It also established the primacy of the Confederation over the states by allowing sole jurisdiction to negotiate with the Indians (their authority was recognized over the states).

How did the US react to the communist takeover of China in 1949?

The US provided 3 billion dollars in aid to the nationalists, but recognized the ineptness of Jiang's government so Truman refused to provide further aid. The US refused to recognize the PRC and blocked its admission to the UN.

Why and how were New Jersey and Pennsylvania settled?

The duke of york divided his grant and gave a portion to two of his friends. William Penn was called to settle their dispute over New Jersey, and was himself interested in setting up a "religious experiment," and the king finally allowed him 45,000 square miles of land.

1984 Presidential Election

The economic upswing and Reagan's popularity posed a formidable challenge to the democrats in the election. They nominated Carter's Vice President to head the ticket, but even his precedent breaking move in choosing a woman as his running mate did not save Democrats from humiliating defeat.

Conservation Movement

The movement to use natural resources efficiently.

Clarence Darrow

a brilliant defense lawyer from Chicago who represented Scopes

Lucretia Mott

leader of women's rights activists

Salvador Allende

overthrown by the Nixon administration. A self proclaimed Marxist who was elected president of Chile in 1970. After Allende became president, Nixon ordered the CIA director to destabilize his government, and in 1973 the CIA helped the Chilean military engineer a coup, killing Allende.

How did the US government respond to resistance offered by Nez Perce, Apaches and Ghost Dance?

The US government used the army to chase them down and kill the. They chased the Nez Perce across Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana before they attacked and killed the Nez Perce 50 miles from their intended destination. The Apaches resorted to armed resistance. They perfected a hit-and-run guerrilla warfare that terrorized white settlers and the army throughout the 1870s and 1880s. General George Crook pursued them and was successful in persuading most of the Apache to settle on the San Carlos reservation. Geronimo, a respected shaman, did not accept this and continued to lead raiding parties. He evaded General Crook until Crook resigned his post and General Nelson Miles replaced him. He adopted a policy of hunt and destroy. Although only about 35 Apache had been considered hostile, when General Miles induced them to surrender the government rounded up nearly 500 Apache and sent them as prisoners to the South. By 1889 a quarter of them had died so they were moved to Fort Sill. Many tribes turned to a nonviolent form of protest- a new religion called the Ghost Dance. It combined elements of Christianity and traditional Indian religion. This frightened the whites especially when a Sioux taught that wearing a white ghost shirt made indians immune to soldiers' bullets. Whites began to fear an uprising, and President Benjamin Harrison dispatched several thousand federal troops to Sioux country to handle any outbreak. In December 1890, when Sitting Bull attempted to join Ghost Dance, he was killed by police as they tried to arrest him. His people, fleeing the scene, were apprehended by Custer's old regiment, near Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota. As the Indians laid down their arms, a soldier attempted to take a rifle from a deaf Miniconjou man, and the gun went off. The soldiers opened fire, and more than 200 indians were killed.

What decisions did the Warren Court make during the 1960s to expand equality and protect the rights of the accused?

The Warren Court expanded the Constitution's promise of equality and individual rights, the Court's decisions supported an activist government to prevent injustice and provided new protections to disadvantaged groups and accused criminals. Following Brown v The Board of Education, the Court struck down southern state's stratagems to avoid integration and defended civil rights activists' rights to freedom of assembly and speech. In Loving v Virginia, the Court invalidated state laws banning interracial marriage, calling that institution one of the "basic civil rights of man." The Baker v Carr case set the "one person, one vote" precedent which led to the redrawing of most electoral districts. The Warren Court also reformed the criminal justice system, overturning a series of convictions on the grounds that the accused had been deprived of "life, liberty, or property, without the due process of law." Gideon v Wainwright established that if the accused could not afford a lawyer, the state would provide one. Miranda v Arizona established that the police had to inform the suspect of their rights upon arrest. Abington School District v Schempp ruled that requiring Bible reading and prayer in the schools violate the 1st amendment principle of separation of church and state. Later judgments banned official prayer in public schools even if students were not required to participate.

What role did the tariff issue play in American politics in the late 19th century?

The concept of a protective tariff to raise the price of imported goods and stimulate American industry became a political issue again in 1861 by enacting a measure that both raised revenues for the Civil War and rewarded their industrial supporters, who wanted protection from foreign competition. After the war, the pro-business Republicans continued to raise the tariff. Manufactured goods and some agricultural products benefited from protection. Most farm products did not benefit. In the 1880s, the tariff produced more than 2.1 billion in revenue. To many americans, the answer was simple: lower the tariff. In 1887 Cleveland called for a tariff reform. He attacked the tariff as a tax levied on American consumers by powerful industries. He pointed out that high tariffs impeded the expansion of American markets abroad at a time when American industries needed to expand. The Republicans countered by arguing that "tariff tinkering" would only unsettle prosperous industries, drive down wages, and shrink the farmers' home market.

What events and issues led to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823?

The concession from Texas and Cuba in the Adams-Onis treaty and consequent declaration of the Spanish colonies as independent led to the Monroe doctrine. To discourage Spain or other European countries from reconquering the colonies, Monroe formulated a declaration in 1823 stating "the American Continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." In exchange for noninterference, Monroe pledged that the United states would stay out of European struggles.

What impact did the French Revolution, the Reign of Terror and the state of the war between France and England, and the Haitian Revolution have on American politics?

The conflicts impacted American politics in that it made Politicians afraid of an uprising from the people and from the slaves

How were John Adams, a federalist, and Thomas Jefferson, a republican, elected president and vice president respectively, in 1796?

The constitution did not call for parties and tickets, and the electoral college had two votes and could vote for any two candidates, so the one with the most votes became president and the one with the second most became vice president; thus a Federalist president and a Republican vice president.

What was the agenda of the Republican party of the Southern states, and how effective were the programs to implement that agenda?

The constitutions adopted universal male suffrage, abolished property qualifications for holding office, made more offices elected/ fewer appointed, enacted prison reform (made the state responsible for caring for orphans, insane, deaf/mute, and exempted debtors' homes from seizure). Republicans inaugurated a system of public schools, which were segregated and underfunded,but literacy rates rose sharply. Republicans resisted from efforts to segregate public transportation; Mississippi levied fines for owners of transportation that pushed blacks into "smoking cars" or to lower decks. Despite their efforts, segregation developed due to white insistence. State legislatures chartered banks and industrial companies to fix ruined levees and drain swamps and built railroads. The efforts fell short because Republican spending to stimulate economic growth also meant taxes rose and enormous debts siphoned funds from schools and other programs.

Wabash v Illinois (1886)

The court reversed itself by ruling that because railroads crossed state boundaries, they fell outside state jurisdiction.

What organizations and tactics were devised to better the conditions of women who worked in factories?

The creation of the WTUL that created an alliance between middle class women and working women in order to organize working class women into unions under the auspices of the AFL. Their most notable success came in 1909 with the "uprising of twenty thousand." They garnered support and held the strike through the winter. By the time the strike ended in February 1910, the workers had won important demands in many shops. The solidarity shown by women workers proved to be the strike's biggest success. The uprising failed to fundamentally change conditions for women workers. The WTUL turned to lobbying for protective legislation-laws that would limit hours and regulate women's working conditions.

What were the defining issues of the election of 1896, who were the candidates and what was its outcome?

The defining issues of the election of 1896 mostly had to do with free silver. William McKinley, the republican nominee was promoted on a platform promising to preserve the gold standard. The Democratic nominee was William Jennings Bryan who championed free silver and was the youngest presidential candidate ever. McKinley was supported by Mark Hanna. Bryan, with few assets beyond his silver tongue, struggled to make up in energy and eloquence what his party lacked in campaign funds. On election day, 4 out of 5 voters went to polls in unprecedented turn out. Although McKinley won 23 states to Bryan's 22, the electoral vote was lopsided 271 to 176 in McKinley's favor. The biggest losers of the election were the Populists. On a national level, they polled fewer than 300,000 votes. Nevertheless, it set the domestic political agenda for the US in the next decades, highlighting issues such as railroad regulation, banking and currency reform, electoral reforms and an enlarged role for federal government in the economy.

How and why did the end of World War II create tension between the US and the Soviet Union in Europe?

The delay in opening a second front in the West during the war aroused Soviet suspicions. The Soviets lost a lot in the war, whereas the US emerged from the war as the most powerful nation, with an expanded economy and a monopoly on nuclear weapons.American officials believed that a healthy economy depended on opportunities abroad. The Cold War first emerged over a clashing of Soviet and US interests in Eastern Europe. Stalin insisted that wartime agreements gave him a free hand in the countries defeated or liberated by the red army, just as the US was unilaterally reconstructing governments in Italy and Japan. Stalin used harsh methods to install communist governments in Poland and Bulgaria. He initially tolerated non-communist governments in Hungary and Czechoslovakia. In early 1946, he responded to pressure in the west and removed troops from iran, allowing the US to access the rich oil fields there. Stalin saw hypocrisy as US officials demanded democratic elections in Eastern Europe while supporting dictatorships friendly to US interests in Latin America. In 1946, both sides wanted to demilitarize Germany, but the US sought rapid industrial revival to foster European economic recovery and thus America's long term prosperity. The USSR wanted Germany weak both militarily and economically, and Stalin demanded heavy reparations from Germany to help rebuild the devastated Soviet Economy. The allies divided Germany

James Buchanan

The democratic presidential candidate in 1856. Another northern man with southern ideals.

What were the causes and consequences of the economic panic of 1819?

The economic panic of 1819 was caused by the boom years from 1815-1818, that resulted in the first sharp large scale economic downturn. This pattern was repeated again in the 1830's. Some people blamed the panic on the second Bank of the United States for failing to control an economic bubble and then contracting the money supply. This was made worse by an financial crisis in Europe in 1819, where the price of American goods plummeted by more than 50 percent. When the banks began to call in their outstanding loans, American debtors involved in the trade could not come up with the money. Bankruptcies skyrocketed. The intricate web of credit and debt meant that anybody involved in the commercial economy was affected. As a consequence, thousands of Americans lost their savings and property, and half a million people lost their jobs. Recovery from the panic took several years.By the mid-1820s, the economy was back on track, but credit financing was still driving the system. This meant that an undertone of anxiety about economic change continued to shape the political views of Americans.

What consequences did the end of the war have on the US economy and on labor unions and how did these consequences lead to the red scare?

The end of the war started demobilization which caused many people to be out of jobs. The wartime gains laborers had made had disappeared. There were nearly 3,600 strikes in 1919. Newspapers claimed that the most significant one was a bolshevik effort to start a revolution. A strike by Boston policemen underscored postwar hostility toward labor militancy. Suppression of labor strikes was one response to the widespread fear of internal subversion that swept the nation. The red scare had homegrown causes: the postwar recession, labor unrest, terrorist acts, and the difficulties of reintegrating millions of returning veterans. Unsettling events abroad also contributed to it. Bolshevism had created the Comintern, a worldwide association of communists sworn to revolution in capitalist countries. A communist uprising in the US was unlikely, but Americans, faced with a flurry of terrorist attacks believed otherwise.

What led to the migrations of African Americans and Mexicans, and what consequences did those migrations have?

The first world war provided African Americans with the opportunity to escape the South's cotton fields and kitchens. When war channeled almost 5 million American workers into military service and almost ended European immigration, northern industrialists turned to black labor. Black men found work in northern steel mills, shipyards, munitions plants, railroad yards, automobile factories, and mines. From 1915 to 1920, a half a million blacks boarded trains heading to industrial cities. Many whites, fearful of losing jobs and status lashed out at the new migrants. Cities within cities emerged in the north, providing a foundation for black protest and political organization in the years ahead. Between 1910 and 1920, Mexican born population in the US soared. Mexican immigration resulted from developments on both sides of the border.When Mexicans revolted against their dictator, it initiated a 10-year civil war and immigrants flooded northward. The chinese exclusion act and WWI cut off the supply of cheap labor and caused industries to look south for laborers. Wages were better than in mexico but living conditions were dismal and the work was hard. Signs warning "no mexicans allowed" increased rather than declined.

What were the major policies of Congressional (or Radical) Reconstruction?

The major policies were the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. The 14th states that all native born or naturalized persons were US citizens and prohibited the states from abridging the rights of national citizens which tried to provide equality to blacks. This allowed them to vote-even in the south where if they refused their congressional representatives would be kicked out. The only southern state to approve the fourteenth amendment was Tennessee and Johnson urged the rest of the southern states to oppose it. They opposed Johnson's state governments and initiated military rule of the south. The military would start with voter registration, including black men, and then would elect delegates to state conventions to draw up new constitutions. Each would guarantee black suffrage. When they were done they could submit its work to congress, and if approved, the senators and representatives could be seated and political reunification would be accomplished. This extended beyond the limited suffrage provisions of the 14th Amendment. This plan promised to cripple any neo-confederate movement and guarantee republican state governments in the south. In 1869, Republicans passed the 15th amendment which prohibited states from depriving citizens the right to vote based on "race, color,or previous condition of servitude," which extended black suffrage nationwide.

How did the republican language of equality in state constitutions and in the Declaration of Independence affect attitudes toward the institution of slavery?

The republican language of equality in state constitutions led several slaves to petition for their freedoms, and was abolished in Massachusetts by 1789, do to the constitution stating "all men are born free and equal," thus deeming slavery unconstitutional.

During the postwar years, what was the six-pronged defense strategy of the US, and how was each of these five policies implemented?

The six pronged defense strategy consisted of development of atomic weapons, strengthening traditional military power, military alliances with other nations, military and economic aid to friendly nations, an espionage network and secret means to subvert communist expansion, and a propaganda offensive to win friends around the world. Truman approved the development of a hydrogen bomb, which was ready by 1954, but the soviets had their own by 1955. From the 1950s through the 1980s, deterrence formed the basis of American nuclear strategy. Implementing the second component of containment, the US strengthened its military to deter soviet threats that might not warrant nuclear retaliation. The NSA was passed, creating the NSC to advise the president and defense expenditures claimed 1 third of the federal budget. In 1949, the US joined Canada and Western European nations in its first peacetime military alliance, NATO, designed to counter a soviet threat to Western Europe. In addition the the marshall plan, the US approved 1 billion of military aid to its NATO allies, and the government began economic assistance to nations in other parts of the world. The NSA of 1947 also created the Central Intelligence Agency, to gather information and to perform any activities "related to intelligence affecting the national security" that the NSc might authorize. This included propaganda, sabotage, economic warfare, and support for "anti-communist elements in threatened countries of the free world." Finally, the government sought to win hearts and minds throughout the world with propaganda.

What role did the federal government play in the regulation of trusts and monopolies?

The supreme court originally ruled that state legislatures would regulate the railroads but 11 years later it reversed itself and declared because railroads crossed state lines, they fell outside state jurisdiction. They passed the ICC in 1887 and the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, outlawing pools and trusts ruling that businesses could no longer enter into agreements to restrict competition . It did nothing to restrict huge holding company and proved to be weak against trusts. It only struck down 6 trusts but used the law 4 times against labor and by outlawing unions as a "conspiracy in restraint of trade. "

What reform movements arose during the 1840s and 1850s, and what were their goals?

The transcendentalists arose, believing that individuals should not conform to the dictates of the materialistic world nor the dogma of formal religion. Women's activists issued the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments, demanding civil liberties for women, styled after the Declaration of Independence. Women had difficulty receiving respectful hearing, much less achieving legislative action. The Declaration still served as a manifesto of dissent against male supremacy and for support of women's suffrage. Activists sought fair pay and expanded employment opportunities by appealing to the free-labor ideology. During the 1840s and 1850s, abolitionists continued to struggle to draw the public's attention to the need of emancipation. The American Colonization Society tried to send freed slaves and other black americans to Liberia, but was campaigned against segregation and discrimination. As an outgrowth of the antislavery sentiment, the underground railroad arose, although it mainly ran through black neighborhoods, churches, and homes.

How did Frederick Johnson Turner's Frontier Thesis and Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show shape American attitudes about the West?

These shaped the American attitudes about the West by highlighting why they were unlike Europe, and they colonized the West through imperialism and expansionism. They were curious about the West and thought that it was theirs versus it being the land the Native Americans lived off of, so they felt that they could use it however they like.

Ngo Dinh Diem

South Vietnamese prime minister who refused to hold the vote for a unified Vietnam.

What economic policies did Reagan adopt, and what effects did they have?

To justify tax cuts in the face of a large budget deficit, Reagan relied on a new theory called supply-side economics, which held that cutting taxes would actually increase revenue by enabling businesses to expand, encouraging individuals to work harder because they could keep more of their earnings, and increase the production of goods and services- the supply - which in turn would boost demand. This incurred a galloping deficit. In the summer of 1981, Congress passed the Economic Recovery Tax Act, the largest tax reduction in US history. Rates were cut from 14 percent to 11 percent for the lowest income individuals and from 70 percent to 50 percent for the wealthiest, who also benefitted from reduced levies on corporations, capital gains, gifts, and inheritances. A second measure, the Tax Reform Act of 1986, cut taxes further. The Reagan administration pursued across the board deregulation. He also loosened regulations protecting employee health and safety, and he weakened labor unions. When members of the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization- one of the few unions to support him in 1980- struck in 1981, Reagan fired them, destroying the union and intimidating organized labor. He blamed environmental laws for the nation's slow economic growth. The secretary of the interior released federal lands for private exploitation, and the head of the Environmental Protection Agency relaxed enforcement of air and water pollution standards. Deregulation of the banking industry, begun under Carter, created a crisis in the savings and loan industry. Some deregulated S&Ls extended enormous loans to real estate developers and invested in other high-yield but risky ventures. S&L owners reaped profits, and their depositors enjoyed high interest rates. When real estate values began to plunge, hundreds of S&Ls went bankrupt. The crisis deepened the deficit. Reagan began funds for food stamps, job training, student aid, and other social welfare programs, and hundreds of thousands of people lost benefits, yet increases in defense spending far exceeded the budget cuts. The number of federal employees increased from 2.9 million to 3.1 million during his presidency. It took the severest recession since the 1930s to squeeze inflation out of the economy. Unemployment reached 11 percent in late 1982, and record numbers of banks and businesses close. In 1983, the economy recovered and entered a period of unprecedented growth.

What were Warren Harding's strengths and weaknesses as president?

Warren Harding gave people of merit positions in his cabinet, but also to his friends, which created a disjointed administration. When Harding was elected, the unemployment rate hit 20%, the highest ever up to that point. The bankruptcy rate of farmers increased tenfold. Harding pushed measures to regain national prosperity- high tariffs to protect american businesses, price supports for agriculture, and the dismantling of wartime government control over industry in favor of unregulated private business. Harding's policies to boost American enterprise made him popular, but his small-town congeniality and trusting ways did him in. 3 of Harding's appointees would go to jail. Interior Secretary Albert Fall was convicted of accepting bribes for leasing oil reserves on public land, and "Teapot Dome" became a synonym for political corruption.

What were Roosevelt's achievements in the area of conservation of natural resources?

When Roosevelt took office, some 43 million acres of forest land remained as government reserves. He quadrupled that number to 194 million acres. To preserve natural resources, he fought western cattle barons, lumber kings, mining interests, and powerful leaders in congress. Roosevelt came to the White House convinced of the need for better management of the nation's rivers and forests as well as the preservation of the wildlife and wilderness. During his presidency, he placed the nation's conservation policy in the hands of scientifically trained experts such as Gifford Pinchot. Willing to permit grazing, lumbering, and the development of hydroelectric power, conservationists fought private interests only when they felt business acted irresponsibly or threatened to monopolize water and electric power. Preservationists believed that the wilderness needed to be protected. Roosevelt, a fervent Darwinian naturalist and an enthusiastic game hunter, a conservationist who built big dams and a preservationist who saved the redwoods, aimed to have it both ways. In 1907, Congress attempted to put the brakes on Roosevelt's conservation program by passing a law limiting his power to create forest reserves in 6 western states. In the days leading up to the law's enactment, Roosevelt created 21 new reserves and enlarged 11 more, saving 16 million acres from development. Worried that private utilities were gobbling up waterpower sites and creating a monopoly hydroelectric power, he connived with Pinchot to withdraw 2,565 power sites from private use by designating them "ranger stations." Firm in his commitment to wild America, Roosevelt proved willing to stretch the law when it served his ends. His legacy is more than 234 million acres of American wilderness saved for posterity.

What progressive reforms did Woodrow Wilson achieve in tariffs, banking and trust regulation in 1913 and 1914?

With the Democrats in control of Congress, Wilson immediately began tariff reform. They hastily passed the Underwood Tariff, lowering it by 15% and compensated by approving a moderate income tax. After looking into JP Morgan and uncovering a concentration of banking power. JP Morgan and Company and its affiliates held 341 directorships in 112 corporations, controlling assets of more than $22 million. This led to the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, which established a national banking system composed of 12 regional banks, privately controlled and regulated by the Federal Reserve Board which was appointed by the President. It gave the US its first efficient banking and currency and provided for a greater degree of government control over banking. The new system made currency more elastic and credit adequate for the needs of business and agriculture. Wilson tackled the trust issue next. When Congress reconvened in January 1914, he supported the introduction and passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act to outlaw unfair competition- practices such as price discrimination and interlocking directorates (directors from one corporation sitting on the board of another). He then changed course and threw his support behind the creation of the Federal Trade Commission. This was the kind of regulatory agency that Roosevelt had advocated for in his New Nationalism. The FTC, created in 1914, had not only wide investigatory powers but also the authority to prosecute corporations for "unfair trade practices" and to enforce its judgements by issuing "cease and desist orders"

What reforms were made in the Second New Deal by

Works Progress Administration: Federal New Deal program that established in 1935 that provided government-funded public works jobs to millions of unemployed Americans during the Great Depression, in areas ranging from construction to the arts. By 1936, WPA funds provided jobs for 7% of the nation's labor force. In effect, the WPA made the federal government the employer of last resort, creating useful jobs when the capitalist economy failed to do so. National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act): 1935 law that guaranteed industrial workers the right to organize into unions. Following passage of the act, union membership skyrocketed to 30% of the workforce, the highest in American history. With the support of the wagner act, union membership expanded to 14 million by 1945. Social Security Act: A New Deal Program created in August 1935 that was designed to provide a modest income for elderly people. The act also created unemployment insurance with modest benefits. Social Security provoked sharp opposition from conservatives and the wealthy. It excluded domestic and agricultural workers, thereby making ineligible about half of all African Americans and more than half of all employed women. Although the first Social Security check (for $41.30) was not issued until 1940, it gave millions of working people the assurance that they would receive a modest income even when they were too old to work.

Planter

a substantial landowner who tilled his estate with twenty or more slaves. Planters dominated the social and political world of the South. Their values and ideology influences the values of all southern whites.

Farm Security Administration

created in 1937 to provide housing and loans to help tenant farmers become independent.

Jefferson Davis

leader of the confederate states of america.

Oliver Cromwell

leader of the puritan revolution

Halfbreeds

less openly corrupt yet still tainted with the patronage system (James Blaine of Maine)

Foreign Miners Tax Law

levied high taxes on non-americans to drive them from the gold fields, except as hired laborers working on claims owned by americans.

Equal Pay Act of 1963

made it illegal to pay women less than men for the same work.

Yalta Conference

meeting of Allied leaders in February 1945, named for the Russian resort town where it was held, to discuss their plans for the postwar world. Roosevelt managed to secure Stalin's promise to permit votes of self-determination in the eastern European countries occupied by the Red Army. The Allies pledged to support Jiang Jieshi as the leader of China.

Brooklyn Bridge

mile long bridge over the East River opened May 1883. Seen as a symbol to represent the New Urban New York, the industrial might of the US, the labor of immigrants, the ingenuity and genius of its engineers and inventors, the rise of iron and steel, and the ascendancy of Urban America. It took 14 years, and the lives of 27 men.

Mississippi Freedom Summer 1964

mobilized more than a thousand black and white college students to conduct voter registration.

Federalists

originally the term for the supporters of the ratification of the US constitution in 1787-1788. In the 1790s it became the name for one of two dominant political groups that emerged during the decade. Supported Britain in foreign policy, and commercial interests at home.

Robert E. Lee

replaced Joseph Johnston as the general of the Army of Northern Virginia. He became one of the most celebrated generals in the South.

Miranda v Arizona- 1966

required police officers to inform suspects of their rights upon arrest. The Court also overturned convictions based on evidence obtained by unlawful arrest, by electronic surveillance, or without a search warrant.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)

required the US government to buy twice as much silver to ease the tight money policy and appease advocated of silver (by passing legislation requiring the government to buy silver and issue silver certificates.

Clean Air Act of 1970

restricting factory and automobile emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.

Samoan Islands

risked war with Germany in 1889 to guarantee the US navy access to Pago Pago, a port for refueling on the way to Asia.

Abraham Lincoln

rose from a poor family to President in 1860 by work, ambition, and talent thanks to the free-labor economy of the North and West. First President born west of the Appalachian.

Benedict Arnold

secretly conveyed American troop movements to the British. In 1779, he opened secret negotiations with General Clinton in New York, trading information for money. When General Washington made him commander of West Point, his plan crystallized. West Point controlled the Hudson, it's capture may have meant victory in the war. His plot was foiled in 1780 when American's captured the man carrying plans of the fort's defense from Arnold to Clinton.

David Riesman- "The Lonely Crowd"

sociologist who lamented a shift from the "inner-directed" to the "other-directed" individual, as Americans replaced independent thinking with an eagerness to adapt to external standards of behavior and belief.

James Rapier

son of John Rapier who fled to Canada to live with his uncle in a largely black community. He vowed he would do his part to help the African Americans of his native land and returned in 1865 to Alabama. He and other Alabama black vigorously supported the Republican ticket in 1868, but the KKK scoured the neighborhoods and hung three of the black politicians. In 1872 Rapier won election to the House.

Treaty of Alliance with France

the Battle of Saratoga convinced the French to enter the war, and a formal treaty was signed in February 1778. France recognized the US as an independent nation and promised full military and commercial support. Most crucial was the French Navy.

Election of 1932

the Democrats hoped to regain the white house due to Hoover's unpopularity. Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election, he received 57% of the nation's votes, the first time a democrat had won the majority of the popular vote since 1852.

Mason-Dixon Line

the surveyors' mark that in colonial times had established the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland but half a century later divided the North and the South.

Establishment of Israel

when Jews declared the state of Israel in 1948, Truman quickly recognized the new country and made its defense the cornerstone of US policy in the Middle East.

Susan B. Anthony

women's rights activist who championed for women's suffrage with Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Betty Friedan-"The Feminine Mystique"

writer and feminist who gave a name to the idealization of women's domestic roles in her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique. She criticized scholars, advertisers, and public officials for assuming that biological differences dictated different roles for men and women.

Allen Ginsberg & Jack Kerouac

writers apart of the beat generation that celebrated spontaneity and absolute personal freedom, including drug consumption and freewheeling sex.

yeoman

a farmer who owned a small plot of land sufficient to support a family, and is worked on by servants and some family members.

Exodusters

black settlers

Election of 1920

democrats (James Cox and Franklin Roosevelt) campaigned on the platform of Wilson's international ideals. Republicans chose Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge.

Hegemony

domination

US Supreme Court's Perversion of 14th Amendment to Protect Corporations

during the 1880s and 1890s the Court increasingly reinterpreted the constitution, judging corporations to be "persons" in order to protect them from taxation, regulation, labor organization, and antitrust legislation.

Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960

first civil rights legislation since reconstruction, but were little more than symbolic.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

a white northerner who'd never been on a plantation but published Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852 and made the South's slaves into flesh-and-blood human beings. She wrote to expose the sin of slavery, and it sold more than 300,000 copies in its first year and more than 2 million within 10 years.

Executive Order Desegregating Armed Forces

issued by Truman when running for reelection but was not implemented until the Korean War.

What programs did the New Deal create to deal with:

Banking and finance: Roosevelt quickly drafted emergency banking act, which propped up the private banking system with federal funds and subjected banks to federal regulation and oversight. To secure the confidence of depositors, Congress passed the Glass-Steagall Banking Act, setting up the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which guaranteed bank customers that the federal government would reimburse them for deposits if their banks failed. In addition, the act required the separation of commercial banks (which accepts deposits and make loans to individuals and small businesses) and investment banks (which make speculative investments with their funds), in an effort to insulate the finances of Main Street America from the risky speculations of Wall Street wheeler-dealers. FDR's fireside chats, in which he explained the new banking legislation that he said it made it "safer to keep your money in a reopened bank than under a mattress.Within a few days, most of the nation's major banks reopened, and they remained solvent as reassured depositors switched funds from their mattresses to their bank accounts. Relief and conservation: FDR created the Federal Relief Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps, established in March 1933. It offered unemployed young men a chance to earn wages while working to conserve natural resources, a long-standing interest of roosevelt. Women were excluded from working in the CCC until Eleanor Roosevelt demanded that a token number of young women be hired. By the end of the program in 1942, three million CCC workers had left a legacy of vast new recreation areas, along with roads that made those areas accessible to millions of Americans. These programs replaced the stigma of welfare with the dignity of jobs. The New Deal's most ambitious development project was the Tennessee Valley Authority. Created in May 1933 to build dams along the Tennessee river to supply impoverished rural communities with cheap electricity. The TVA set out to demonstrate that a partnership between the Federal government and local residents could overcome the barriers of state governments and private enterprises to make efficient use of abundant natural resources and break the ancient cycle of poverty. Agriculture: New Dealers diagnosed the farmers' plight as a classic case of overproduction and underconsumption. To compensate for low prices, farmers produced more, which pushed prices lower. New Dealers sought to cut agricultural production, thereby raising prices and farmers income. To reduce production, the agricultural adjustment act passed in may 1933 authorized the "domestic allotment plan" which paid farmers not to grow crops. Individual farmers who agreed not to plant crops on a portion of their fields would receive government payment compensating them. With the formation of the Commodity Credit Corporation, the federal government allowed farmers to hold their harvested crops off the market and wait for a higher price. They also sponsored the Farm Credit act to provide long-term credit on mortgaged farm property, allowing debt-ridden farmers to avoid foreclosures that were driving thousands off their land. Crop prices rose impressively, farm income jumped 50 percent by 1936, and FCA loans financed 40 percent of farm mortgage debt by the end of the decade. In the south, sharecroppers and tenants were often denied these benefits. Industrial recovery: The New Deal's National Industrial Recovery Act opted for a government-sponsored form of industrial self-government through the National Recovery Administration, established in June 1933. The NRA encouraged industrial industrialists to agree on rules to define fair working conditions, set prices, and to minimize competition. Industry after industry wrote elaborate codes addressing detailed features of production, pricing, and competition. In exchange for the relaxation of federal antitrust regulations that prohibited such business agreements, the participating businesses promised to recognize the right of working people to organize and engage in collective bargaining. To encourage consumers to patronize business with NRA codes, posters with the NRA's blue eagle appeared in shop windows throughout the nation. They hoped the NRA codes would yield businesses with a social conscience, ensuring fair treatment of workers and consumers as well as the promotion of the general economic welfare. Instead, the codes strengthened conventional business practices. Large corporations wrote codes that primarily served their own interests rather than the needs of the workers or the welfare of the national economy.

Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo

Cabrillo looked to find wealth on the Californian coast, but died on Santa Catalina island, before his men sailed to Oregon, and then back to Mexico.

Strengthening of Voting Rights Act and Civil Rights Act

Enlarged the powers of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

Strategic Defense Initiative "Star Wars"

Project launched by President Reagan to deploy lasers in space that would destroy enemy missiles before they could reach their targets. The Soviets protested that it violated the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty. The project cost billions of dollars without producing a working system.

John Adams

Federalist President in 1796

Ambrose Burnside

General who replaced McClellan after Antietam

Joseph Brant

Mohawk leader (Thayendanegea) who traveled to England in 1775 to complain about the New York settles. He pledged support for the British in exchange for protection from encroaching settlers.

US Steel

Morgan's corporation made by pulling together carnegie's chief competitors and company.

Florence Owens

a farm laborer in California's central valley in order to support herself and her seven children. She picked cotton, earning about 2 dollars a day. To survive, she worked nights as a waitress. Like other migrant laborers, she followed the crops.

Maysville road bill

a road bill in kentucky that he vetoed due to his belief that citizen's tax should be spent on projects of generality, not locality.

Lancaster Turnpike

a toll road established by a private company.

Benjamin Franklin

wrote Poor Richard's Almanack, self made man in Pennsylvania.

George Browne

one of 2 million soldier to cross the Atlantic during WWI to serve in the AEF. From Waterbury, CT. Civil engineer who was taught to build and maintain trenches, barbed wire entanglements, and artillery & machine-gun positions.

Earl Warren

supreme court chief justice from 1953 to 1969.

Quebec Act

the 5th act of the coercive acts, which confirmed the continuation of French civil law as well as Catholicism for Quebec, and awarded Quebec land in the Ohio Valley.

Battle of Leyte Gulf

the American fleet crushed the Japanese armada, clearing the way for Allied victory in the philippines.

William Jennings Bryan

prosecutor in the Scopes case

Ho Chi Minh

leader of the communist North Vietnam.

Steamboats

by the 1830s more than 700 steamboats were in operation on the ohio and mississippi rivers.

Levittown

used mass production to create cheap homes that families could live in for under 8,000.

Albany Plan of Union

B. Franklin and T. Hutchinson drafted the Albany Plan, a proposal for a unified colonial government to exercise sole authority over question on war, peace, and trade with the Indians. The plan is rejected.

Paxton Boys

About 50 Pennsylvania vigilantes who attacked and murdered some 20 innocent conestoga indians, and then marched on to Philadelphia in an attempt to attack some Christian Indians captive there.

Sandra Day O'Connor

Reagan appointed the first woman, a moderate conservative, for the supreme court, despite the Christian Right's objection to her support of abortion.

George H W Bush

Ronald Reagan's moderate running mate

Duke of York (later James II)

The brother of King Charles II who was given a grant of land that included New York, which he sent an armada to claim from the Dutch.

Stamp Act Congress

A congress of 27 delegates for 9 colonies met for two weeks to write a petition about taxation addressed to the king and parliament, stating that taxes were free gifts of the people which only the people's representatives could give.

Hubert H Humphrey

Johnson's Vice President, democratic candidate for the presidency, beat McCarthy at the DNC.

Lincoln Steffens

Journalist who began "The Shame of the Cities," a series of articles exposing city corruption in 1902.

Eleanor Roosevelt

President's wife, she became the New Deal's unofficial ambassador. She served as "the eyes and ears of the New Deal" traveling throughout the nation meeting Americans of all colors and creeds.

Election of 1952

Truman had lost popularity which boosted Republicans in the election.The Democrats decided not to renominate Truman. Dwight D Eisenhower ran against Adlai Stevenson, and Eisenhower won 55 percent of the popular vote.

Ida B. Wells

a black editor who launched an anti-lynching campaign in 1892. She concluded that lynching served "as an excuse to get rid of Negroes who were acquiring wealth and property and thus keep the race terrorized."

Virginia City

a city in Nevada which could be described by "urban industrialism" as much as that could describe Pittsburgh or Cleveland. People from all over the world came to look for gold themselves which made Virginia City more cosmopolitan than New York in the 1870s.

Crop lien system

an arrangement that meant a merchant would advance goods to a sharecropper in exchange for a legal claim, or the farmer's future crop. Some merchants charged rates of interest such as 60 percent on the goods they sold.

Declaratory Act

asserted parliament's right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever"

Gen. Thomas Gage

commander in boston, prepared to attack aided by the arrival of new troops and three talented generals.

Supreme Court Overturning NRA

declared that the NRA unconstitutionally conferred powers reserved to Congress on an administrative agency in 1935.

Equal Rights Amendment

passed by the house of reps in 1970, New York Times criticized it in an article called "the henpecked house." would outlaw differential treatment of men and women.

Bear Flag Revolt

the Californian independence movement

"Doves"

wanted de-escalation or withdrawal.

General Charles Cornwallis

was left in charge of pacifying South Carolina

War Powers Act

1973 act that required the president to secure congressional approval for any substantial, long term deployment of troops abroad.

Millard Fillmore

became president in 1850 when Zachary Taylor died who signed each bill of the compromise into law.

Gag rule

prohibited entering the documents into the public record on the grounds that what the abolitionists prayed for was unconstitutional, and further, an assault on the rights of white southerners.

Occupational Safety and Health Act

protects workers against job-related accidents and disease.

Sixteenth Amendment (income tax)-1913

provided for a modest graduated income tax

"Poor Richard's Almanack"

published in 1733, preached the likelihood of long-term rewards for tireless labor.

Jonathan Edwards

puritan minister who reaped a harvest of souls by reemphasizing traditional puritan doctrines of humanity's utter depravity and God's vengeful omnipotence.

Powhatan

The supreme chief of the Algonquian indians

James E. B. (Jeb) Stuart

a cavalry commander in the confederacy who rode circles around yankee troops.

Rebates

a partial refund

John L. O'Sullivan

an editor of a new york political journal who coined the term "manifest destiny" in 1845.

Pinkertons

private guards

Literacy Tests

used to alienate black voters in the south

William III of Orange

A dutch ruler who was invited to come claim the english throne.

American Colonization Society

An organization dedicated to sending freed slaves and other black americans to Liberia in West Africa. Although some African Americans cooperated with the movement, others campaigned against segregation and discrimination.

JP Morgan's Intervention in the Panic of 1907

JP Morgan switches funds from one bank to another to prop up weak institutions.

Ngo Dinh Diem

South Vietnam's premier from 1954 to 1963. Many Vietnamese saw him as a corrupt and brutal tool of the west. (He was a catholic in a primarily buddhist country).

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

a coalition of blacks and whites that sought legal and political rights for African Americans through the courts.

St. Augustine, Florida

The first permanent Spanish settlement in North America.

The Gospel of Wealth

The idea that the financially successful should use their wisdom, experience, and wealth as stewards for the poor. Andrew Carnegie promoted this view in an 1889 essay in which he maintained that the wealthy should serve as stewards for society as a whole.

Jacob Leisler

a leader in rebellion who helped seize the royal governor in New York, and ruled for more than a year.

Doctrine of Nullification

Theory asserting that states could nullify acts of Congress that exceeded congressional powers. South Carolina advanced the theory of nullification in 1828 in response to an unfavorable federal tariff.

Alf Landon

a moderate who stressed mainstream republican proposals to achieve a balanced federal budget and less government bureaucracy.

Grove City v Bell

1984, persuaded the supreme court to severely weaken Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, a key law promoting equal opportunity in education.

King William's War

French traders from the fur-trading areas north attacked villages in New England and New York, which was a growth from the conflict between France and England in Europe.

Why and how did LBJ Americanize the Vietnam conflict between 1965 and 1968?

From 1965 to early 1968, the US military presence grew to more than 500,000 troops as it gradually escalated attacks on North Vietnam and its ally, the National Liberation Front, in South Vietnam. US pilots dropped 643,000 tons of bombs on North Vietnam and more than twice that on the South.

Overproduction

production of more of a product, commodity, or substance than is wanted or needed.

William Pitt

the Prime Minister of Britain in 1757, responsible for the shifting of the war. He was a man "ready to commit massive resources to fight France and Spain worldwide"

New South

the South modeled after the Industrial North

Central Intelligence Agency

Agency created by the National Security Act of 1947 to expand the government's espionage capacities and ability to thwart communism through covert activities, including propaganda, sabotage, economic warfare, and support for anti-communist forces around the world.

Battle of Shiloh - 1862

Battle of Shiloh Church, Tennessee, on April 6-7, 1862, between Albert Sidney Johnston's Confederate forces and Ulysses S Grant's Union army. The Union ultimately prevailed, though at great cost to both sides. Shiloh ruined the Confederacy's bid to control the war in the west

John Tyler

Became president in April 1841 after William Henry Harrison died, decided to annex Texas in 1844, senate rejected the annexation treaty.

How and why did Britain change its policies toward the colonies after the French and Indian War?

Britain changed its policies toward the colonies after the French and Indian War in 1763 because Britain needed money, and the colonists should help pay it off. The first provocative revenue acts were put into place 1764-1765 by Prime Minister George Grenville.

General Henry Clinton

Howe's replacement as commander in chief. He announced that slaves owned by rebel masters were welcome to seek refuge with his army

What happened during the French and Indian War and what were its consequences?

In the French and Indian War, Pennsylvania traders and enterprising Virginians began to advance on land claimed by French fur traders and over a dozen Indian tribes. Because of the infringement, the French sent soldiers to build forts to secure their trade routes and create forts. The royal governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie sent 21 year old George Washington to warn the French that they were encroaching on Virginian land, and he came back confirming French military intentions. He was appointed to lead a small expedition to scare the french off w/o attacking, and set out in spring 1754 with 160 virginians and a small party of Mingo Indians. The Mingo chief, Tanaghrisson, led a small group to a french encampment. It is unknown who fired first, but 14 Frenchmen were wounded. Washington, lacking a translator, was unable to communicate with the injured french commander. Tanaghrisson and his men intervened to scalp and kill the injured soldiers, possibly to inflame hostility between the colonists and the French. This went against Dinwiddie's orders, and fearing retaliation, Washington ordered his men to throw together "fort necessity." Reinforcements arrived soon afterwards and the Mingos fled. The French retaliated with 600 French troops with 100 delaware and shawnee warriors to attack fort necessity, wounding at least a third of Washington's troops. The British wanted to avoid further conflict, and tried to strengthen relations with the Mohawks of New York's Iroquois confederacy, but they were suspicious of the British. London directed New York to hold a conference in albany with all six tribes from the confederacy, and delegates from 7 colonies. B. Franklin and T. Hutchinson drafted the Albany Plan, a proposal for a unified colonial government to exercise sole authority over question on war, peace, and trade with the Indians. The plan is rejected. By 1755 the skirmish turns into a full blown war. The british expected quick victories on all three fronts, but the french were prepared to fight, and had enlisted different Indian tribes. While Braddock and his troops marched West, they were ambushed by around 900 French and Indian soldiers, and nearly a thousand british troops were wounded or killed, including the general. For the next two years, british leaders sent undersupplied troops to the front. In 1757, the rise of Prime Minister William Pitt. They were finally able to capture forts Duquesne, Niagara, and Ticonderoga, along with Quebec and Montreal from 1758 to 1760. In 1761, the fighting in America subsided, but expanded to the Caribbean, Austria, Prussia, and India. The British captured the French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe and invaded Spanish Cuba. The treaty of Paris was signed in 1763. Britain gained control of Canada, eliminating the threat of the French from the north; British American title to the eastern half of north america was confirmed. French territories west of the Mississippi River were transferred to Spain to compensate for their help in the war. Cuba, Martinique, and Guadalupe were all transferred back to the original owners. Britain credited the win to its army, but the colonists said they had turned out in force and had to do the grunt work of the British army.

Manifest Destiny

The belief that the United States had a "God-given" right to spread values of white civilization and expand the nation from ocean to ocean.

Patrons of Husbandry (Grange)

angry farmers in the midwest founded in 1867 as a social and educational organization for farmers, which soon became an independent political movement.

Socialist Party

attacked the system of sharecropping that left many African Americans in servitude.

National Housing Act of 1968

authorized an enormous increase in low-income housing- 1.7 million units in three years- and put construction and ownership in private hands.

The Second Reconstruction

depended heavily on the courage and determination of black people themselves to stand up to racist violence.

Plessy v Ferguson 1896

supreme court ruling for segregation establishing the precedent of "separate but equal."

Great White Fleet

to demonstrate America's naval power and to counter Japan's growing bellicosity, Roosevelt dispatched 16 of the navy's most up to date battleships on a "goodwill mission" around the world.

Florence Kelley

took over the NCL in 1899. Urged middle-class women to boycott stores and exert pressure for decent wages and working conditions for women employees.

Thomas Gage

governor of Boston who called for election for a new provincial assembly under his control which sparked the formation of a competing assembly that met in defiance of his orders. He was frightened by military preparations of citizen-militias so he wrote london begging for reinforcements

Benjamin Harrison (President 1889- 1893)

grandson of William Henry Harrison, and republican president after Cleveland. Supported High Tariffs

Frances Willard

head of the Women's Christian Temperance Union. Traveled to St. Louis in 1892 to fashion a new reform party.

George Creel

head of the committee on public information.

Meat Inspection Act

made it a crime to adulterate or misbrand meat and meat products sold as food and ensures that meat is slaughtered and processed under sanitary conditions.

Eugene Debs

presidential standard-bearer of the Socialist Party. He preached cooperation over competition and urged people to liberate themselves from "the barbarism of private ownership and wage slavery." referred to the old parties as "Tweedledee and Tweedledum"

John Jay

pro-British and chief justice of supreme court chosen to negotiate commercial relations in the British West Indies.

US vs Cruikshank- 1876

said that the reconstruction amendments gave Congress the power to legislate against discrimination only by states, not by individuals.

Irish Potato Famine

Potato blight causes a catastrophic famine in Ireland in 1845 and returned repeatedly. Many Irish people crowded into ships and set out for America.

Carpetbaggers

Southerners' pejorative term for northern migrants who sought opportunity in the South after the Civil War. Northern migrants formed an important part of the southern Republican Party.

King Philip's War

a war in which the Wampanoags attacked colonial settlements in Western Massachusetts. The colonists retaliated by attacking the Wampanoags, and other tribes they believed to be conspiring.

Phyllis Schlafly

added new issues to the conservative agenda. She insisted that caring for the home was a woman's most important career, but she spent most of her time writing,speaking, leading Republican women's organizations, and testifying before legislative committees. Her book, A Choice Not an Echo, pushed Barry Goldwater for president. In 1967, she began publishing The Phyllis Schlafly Report, a monthly newsletter about current political issues. She advocated stronger efforts to combat communism, a more powerful military, and government less active in domestic affairs.

Maria Stewart

a black woman who delivered public lectures on slavery and racial prejudice to black audiences in boston, and were published in "the Liberator"

David Walker

a boston printer who published An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, which condemned racism , invoked the egalitarian language of the Declaration of Independence, and hinted at racial violence if whites did not change their ways.

George Washington

Sent by Robert Dinwiddie to warn the French that they were trespassing on Virginian land, and came back confirming French military intentions, and was then appointed to lead a small military expedition to chase the French away without attacking.

Crazy Horse

Sioux Chief who refused to sign the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie. Stopped General George Crook at the Battle of the Rosebud. He was captured and killed in 1877.

William Gould

Slave from North Carolina who, along with 7 other slaves, rowed from Cape Fear River to the Atlantic Ocean and boarded a Union ship (USS Cambridge) and became sailors in the US Navy

Vasco de Gama

Vasco de Gama commanded the first portuguese fleet to sail to India, establishing a new sea route.

Spiro Agnew

Vice President, resigned when it was revealed he had accepted bribes while governor of Maryland.

Sheppard-Towner Act

extended federal assistance to states seeking to reduce high infant mortality rates.

Thomas Alva Edison

hardworking man who vowed to turn out a minor invention and a major invention every six months. He averaged a patent every 11 days and created things such as the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the filament for the incandescent light bulb. He pioneered the use of electricity as an energy source.

Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti

anarchist immigrants from Italy. Arrested in 1920 for robbery and murder in South Braintree, MA, the men were sentenced to death by a judge who openly referred to them as "anarchist bastards" In response to doubts about the fairness of the verdict, a blue-ribbon review committee found the trial judge guilty of a "grave breach of official decorum" but refused to recommend a motion for retrial. When MA executed the men, 50,000 American mourners followed the caskets, convinced that the men had died because they were immigrants and radicals, not because they were murders.

quadrant

another device for determining latitude

Assassination of Robert F Kennedy

anti-war candidate assassinated by a Palestinian Arab refugee because of his support for Israel.

Students for Democratic Society

anti-war group of students who organized the first major anti-war protest.

Southern Farm Tenants Union

argued that the AAA enriched large farmers while it impoverished small farmers who rented rather than owned their land.

Rosa Parks

arrested for not giving up her seat for a white man, and started the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Woodstock Music Festival

attended by 400,000 young people, epitomized the centrality of music to the youth rebellion.

Richard Olney

attorney general determined to put down the strike.

A Mitchell Palmer

attorney general who led a campaign that targeted men and women who harbored ideas that palmer believed would lead to violence, even if they had not necessarily done anything illegal. In January 1920, Palmer ordered a series of raids that netted 6,000 alleged subversives. Finding no revolutionaries, he still ordered the deportation of 500 individuals.

Stephen Austin

an american who was given a land grant by the Mexican government

Sandinistas

left-wing group who had toppled the dictatorship in Nicaragua

Sam Adams

an elected member of the provincial assembly and argued that any form of parliamentary taxation was unjust because the colonies were not represented in parliament.

Agribusiness

farming as a big business

American Colonization Society

founded in 1817 by Maryland and Virginia planters to abolish the sin of slavery by promoting the gradual individual emancipation of slaves followed by colonization in Africa

Mormons

followers of Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.

Dust Bowl

period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged agriculture. Chronic drought and harmful agricultural practices blasted crops and hopes.

John "Blackjack" Bonfield

police captain, demanded the crowd at Haymarket square disperse

indentured servants

poor englishmen who could not pay for a trip across the atlantic, therefore becoming white slaves for a certain number of years, or until they could pay back their debt.

Sodbusters

poor farmers who lived in houses made from sod or dugouts carved into hillsides and using muscle instead of machinery.

Tom Watson

populist who openly courted African Americans by appearing on platforms with black speakers and promising to "wipe out the color line"

"Goo Goos" and "Morning Glories"

urban reformers and proponents of good government. When successful in electing reform mayors, the mayors rarely stayed in office for long.

Higher Education Act of 1965

vastly expanded federal assistance to colleges and universities for buildings, programs, scholarships, and loans.

James Madison

leader of Virginians who convinced the confederation congress to allow a meeting of delegates to try to revise the trade of regulation powers of the article.

Buying Stocks on Margin

putting up only part of the money at the time of the purchase.

Navigation Acts

specified that colonial goods had to be transported in English ships with mostly English crews to English ports.

Chester A Arthur (President 1881-1885)

originally the vice president, but became president after Garfield's assassination.

Elkins Act-1903

outlawed railroad rebates and created new cabinet-level Department of Commerce and Labor with the subsidiary Bureau of Corporations to act as a corporate watchdog.

Andrew Carnegie

owner of the steel mill in the Homestead strike. Left for Scotland and leaves Henry Clay Frick in charge.

Dwight D Eisenhower

American general who led an American army against Germans in North Africa.

Augusto Pinochet

General, brutal dictator established in the military coup against Salvador Allende.

Andrew Jackson

An American general who led 2,500 troops in the battle of horseshoe bend, and extracted thousands of square miles from the defeated tribe.

Skyscrapers

a tall building created in Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871

Nativists

individuals who were anti-immigrant

Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871

made interference with voting rights a felony

KDKA

nation's first licensed radio station which started broadcasting in 1920.

Cotton Gin

separated the seeds from the cotton

John C. Calhoun

won a seat on the foreign relations committee in 1811 and was another leader of the War Hawks

How did Americans try to distract themselves from the Depression?

Americans sought refuge from reality at the movies. Throughout the depression, between 60 million and 75 million people scraped together enough change to fill the movie palaces every week. Box office hits such as Forty-Second Street and Gold Diggers of 1933 capitalized on the hope that prosperity lay just around the corner.

Edward Braddock

An English general who moved his army towards Fort Duquesne, but is attacked by French and Indian soldiers.

John Calvin & Calvinism

Christian doctrine of Swiss Protestant theologian John Calvin. Its chief tenant was predestination, the idea that God had determined which human souls would receive eternal salvation. Despite this, Calvinism promoted strict discipline in daily and religious life.

Carlisle Indian School

Institution established in Pennsylvania in 1879 to educate and assimilate American Indians. It pioneered the "outing system," in which Indian students were sent to live with white families in order to accelerate acculturation.

Whiskey Rebellion

July 1794 uprising by farmers in western Pennsylvania in response to enforcement of an unpopular excise tax on Whiskey. The federal government responded with a military presence that cause dissidents to disperse before blood was shed.

La Raza Unida

'the united race' a political party founded in 1970 based on cultural pride and brotherhood.

Bulking

Farmers selling their crop, often cotton, together to negotiate a better price.

Task System

A system of labor in which a slave was assigned a daily task to complete and allowed to do as he wished upon its completion. This system offered more freedom than the carefully supervised gang-labor system.

Haitian Revolution

1791-1804 conflict involving diverse Haitian Participants and armies from three European countries. At its end, Haiti became a free, independent, black-run country.The Haitian Revolution fueled fears of slave insurrections in the US

Treaty of Greenville

1795 treaty between the US and various Indian tribes in Ohio. The US gave the tribes treaty goods valued at 25000 , and promised additional shipments every year, in exchange for the cession of most of the Ohio to the Americans. Only brought temporary peace.

Chinese Exclusion Act

1882 Law that effectively barred Chinese immigration and set a precedent for further immigration restrictions. The Chinese population in America dropped sharply as a result of the passage of the act, which was fueled by racial and cultural animosities.

Wounded Knee Massacre

1890 Massacre of Sioux Indians by American Cavalry at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota. Sent to suppress the Ghost Dance, the soldiers opened fire on the Sioux as they attempted to surrender. More than two hundred Sioux men, women, and children were killed.

Halfway Covenant

A Puritan compromise established in Massachusetts in 1692 that allowed the unconverted children of the "visible saints" to become "halfway" members of the church and baptize their own children even though they were not full members of the church themselves.

Gaspeé

A Royal Navy ship pursuing suspected smugglers near Rhode Island that was burned. A British Investigating commision failed to arrest anyone but announced that it would send suspects to Britain for trial on charges of high treason.

caravel

A fast sturdy ship developed by the portuguese.

Eighteenth Amendment (Prohibition)-1920

Amendment banning the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcohol. Congress passed the amendment in December 1917, and it was ratified in January 1920. World War I provided a huge boost to the crusade to ban alcohol.

President's Commission on the Status of Women

Assistant Secretary of Labor Esther Peterson convinced JFK to create this. In its 1963 report it documented widespread discrimination against women and recommended remedies.

Barry Goldwater

Conservative who ran against Lyndon Johnson.

Stephen Douglas

Democrat Senator from Illinois who broke Clay's bill into parts and ushered each through congress.

Dutch East India Company

Established by the Dutch republic to protect the state's trade in the Indian ocean. Traded in the Indian ocean, and sent Henry Hudson to look for a new passage to China (in which he found the Hudson river in NY instead)

March on Washington

For jobs and freedom, inspired by the strategy of A Philip Randolph.

Creek War

Part of the War of 1812 involving the Creek nation in Mississippi Territory and Tennessee militiamen. General Andrew Jackson's forces gained victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, forcing the Creeks to sign away much of their land.

James Weldon Johnson

Writer who in 1903 had written the negro national anthem.

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1902

anti-asian bigotry led to the renewal

Barbed wire

invented in 1874 and revolutionized the cattle business

Wendell Phillips

Boston abolitionist who challenged the President's plan of reconstruction

John Smith

A captain who arrived with the first English colonists in 1507 at Jamestown.

Rutherford B Hayes

Governor of Ohio and President elected in the 1866 election.

Comte de Rochambeau

commander of the French Army

Vasco Nunez Balboa

crossed the isthmus of panama and reached the pacific ocean.

Samuel F. B. Morse

invented the telegraph in 1844 which transmitted an electronic message.

Hoovervilles

makeshift shantytowns that sprang up on the edges of America's cities.

War Hawks

young men newly elected to the congress of 1811 who were eager for war against Britain in order to end impressments, fight Indians, and expand into neighboring British Territory. Leaders included Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.

Gerald Ford

Agnew's replacement. Replaced Nixon when he resigned.

Catherine Beecher

Founded the Hartford Seminary in Connecticut in 1822

visible saints

Puritans who had passed the tests of conversion and church membership and were therefore thought to be among God's elect.

Stephen Douglas

democrat seeking reelection to the US Senate in 1858. Had to debate with Lincoln

Poll Taxes

fee required for voting used to alienate black voters

Alice Paul

leader of the radical suffragists

Laissez-Faire

"let-it alone" or to do nothing

Jemima Wilkinson

"the Publick Universal Friend," after a near death experience she proclaimed her body was no longer female or male but the "incarnation the spirit of light" She dressed in men's clothing, wore her hair in a masculine style, and shunned gender specific pronouns. She preached openly in Rhode Island and Philadelphia.

Martin van Buren

"the little magician," first a senator, then governor, Jackson's secretary of state, and then Jackson's running mate. President in 1836.

Battle of Fredericksburg - 1862

122,000 Union troops faced 78,500 Confederate troops dug in behind a stone wall on the heights above Rappahannock River. When the shooting ceased the Union counted 13,000 dead and the Confederates less than 5,000.

Roe v. Wade

1973 Supreme Court ruling that the constitution protects the right to abortion, which states cannot prohibit in the early stages of pregnancy. The decision galvanized social conservatives and made abortion a controversial policy issue for decades to come.

Maryland

A catholic colony in the Chesapeake Bay region, started by Lord Baltimore.

Redemptioners

A variant of indentured servants. In this system, a captain agreed to provide passage to Philadelphia, where redemptioners would obtain money to pay for their transportation, usually by selling themselves as servants.

Why and how were the colonies of Barbados and Carolina founded and settled?

Barbados was colonized in the 1630s by the English. It was settled due to the ideal land to grow sugar, in which planters rushed to harvest sugar in the caribbean. King Charles II granted John Colleton a charter to settle the land north of the Spanish territories. The early settlers of South Carolina were immigrants from Barbados, who brought their slaves with them.

Sinking of the Lusitania-1915

British passenger liner torpedoed by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915. The attack killed 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans. The incident challenged American neutrality during World War I and moved the US on a path toward entering the war.

James II

Charles II brother, who took over after he died, but was shortly removed because he was catholic.

Equal Rights Amendment

Constitutional amendment passed by congress in 1972 that would require equal treatment of men and women under federal and state law. Facing fierce opposition from the New Right and Republican party, the ERA was defeated as time ran out for state ratification in 1982.

(1790) Treaty of New York

Creek tribal lands were guaranteed, with a promise of boundary protection by federal troops against land-seeking settlers. Creeks were assured of annual payments in money and trade-goods. The Creeks agreed to accept the US as their trading partner, and shut out Spain. Was never implemented.

Adams-Onis Treaty

Delivered Florida to the United States in 1819 in exchange the Americans agreed to drop any claims on Texas or Cuba (because of the issue of Andrew Jackson declaring himself commander of Northern Florida and then executing two british men.)

Samuel J Tilden

Democrat nominee for the election of 1866 and Governor of New York

Robert M LaFollette

Governor of wisconsin that lowered railroad rates, raised railroad taxes, improved education, preached conservation, established factory regulation and workers compensation, instituted the first direct primary, and inaugurated the first state income tax.

What was the nature of politics during the Grant administration and what happened to the US economy?

Grant wanted to see blacks' political and civil rights protected but he also understood that northerners no longer wanted to support reconstruction and were willing to let southerners manage their own rights. The US economy went into a panic due to a depression and millions were left homeless.

James G Blaine

Irish American presidential candidate. Thought the Irish would abandon the Democrats for him b/c of his irish descent but overlooked a comment calling democrats the party of "rum, romanism, and rebellion" which by linking drinking and catholicism offended the Irish Catholics. He lost New York by 1,200, and lost by 23,005 votes.

Thomas Jefferson

Republican vice President of 1796.

New Netherland

The dutch colony on Manhattan.

Sputnik

The first man-made satellite to circle the earth.

Baby Boom

The surge in the AMerican birth rate between 1945 and 1965, which peaked in 1957 with 4.3 million births. The baby boom both reflected and promoted Americans' postwar prosperity.

What role did women play as factory workers? How were their lives organized and structured by factory life?

Young unmarried women were assumed to be cheap for hire due to their limited employment options and short term prospects. These young women embraced factories as a way to earn spending money or to save money before getting married.

Canals

boats on canals moved slowly but the low-friction water enabled one mule to pull

"Normalcy"

a regular steady order of things

Platt Amendment- 1898

a series of provisions that granted the US the right to intervene to protect Cuba's "independence" as well as the power to oversee Cuban debt so that European creditors would not find an excuse for intervention.

Operation Rolling Thunder

a strategy of gradually intensified bombing of North Vietnam.

Henry Clay

enemy of Jackson who decided to force the issue of the United States Bank by convincing the bank to apply for a charter renewal 4 years before needed, expecting that Jackson would either pass the bill or say no which would hurt him in the upcoming election.

Terence Powderly

grand master workman of the Knights of Labor, advocated worker's democracy that embraced reforms including public ownership of railroads, an income tax, equal pay for women workers, and the abolition of child labor.

Jim Crow Laws

laws used to segregate public facilities

Ms. Magazine

mass-circulation periodical controlled by women and featuring articles on a broad range of feminist issues, founded by Gloria Steinem in 1972. Reported on a multifaceted movement that included numerous organizations, reflecting the diverse experiences, backgrounds, and goals of American Women.

Growth of White Collar Jobs and Service Jobs

mechanization became most of the factory workforce, sending workers into white collar and service jobs.

Rancheros

men who oversaw the estates/ ranchos and the people who worked on them as well.

Great Migration

migration of african americans northward and mexicans northward to the US

Battle of Belleau Wood

moved against streams of retreating allied soldiers who cried defeat. A French officer commanded the Americans to retreat with them but he American commander replied "Retreat, hell. We just got here." After charging through a wheat field, the Marines plunged into hand-to-hand combat .

Sun Belt- Gun Belt

name applied to the southwest and south, which grew rapidly after WWII as a center of defense industries and non-unionized labor.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

organized freedom rides (to integrate interstate transportation in the south).

Civil RIghts Act of 1875

outlawed racial discrimination in transportation, public accommodations, and juries, but federal authorities never really enforced the law

Kennedy's Proposed Tax Cuts

promised it would increase demand and create jobs. Passed in February 1964, the law contributed to an economic boom, as unemployment fell and the gross national product shot up.

Wilmot Proviso

proposal put forward by representative david Wilmot of pennsylvania in August 1846 to ban slavery in territory acquired from the Mexican-American War. The proviso enjoyed widespread support in the North, but Southerners saw it as an attack on their interests.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

protection from discrimination in employment.

Rent Subsidies

provided alternatives to public housing.

Red Power

reflected the influence of black radicalism in Native Americans whose advocacy and activism took on militancy and goals.

Mugwumps

reformers who deplored the spoils system and advocated civil service reform

Abstract Expressionism

rejected the idea that painting should represent recognizable forms.

Oregon Trail

route from Independence, Missouri, to Oregon traveled by American settlers starting in the late 1830s. Diseases and accidents caused many more deaths along the trail than did Indian attacks, which migrants feared.

Cotton Kingdom

term for the South that reflected the dominance of cotton in the southern economy. Cotton was particularly important in the tier of states from South Carolina west to Texas. Cotton cultivation was the key factor in the growth of slavery.

Lost Generation

the post WWI generation, but specifically a group of US writers who came of age during the war and established their literary reputations in the 1920s. Term stems from a remark made by Gertrude Stein.

J.P. Morgan

the preeminent finance capitalist of the late nineteenth century who loathed competition and sought to eliminate it by substituting consolidation and central control.

Battle of the Alamo

American rebels (William B Travis, Davy Crockett, and James Bowie) hid in a Franciscan mission known as the Alamo. Santa Anna sent waves of his 2,000-man army crashing against the walls until the attackers finally crashed through and killed all 187 rebels. "remember the Alamo"

Elizabeth Freeman

A woman who won her freedom in a Massachusetts court by suing the lawmakers by basing her case in the constitution that declared "all men are born free and equal"

What were the goals and tactics of civil rights activists in the South during the early 1960s?

African Americans directly confronted the people and institutions that segregated and and discriminated against them: retail establishments, public parks and libraries, buses and depots, voting registrars, and police forces. They joined sit-ins to protest segregation, and embraced civil disobedience and nonviolence. Although some cities met students demands, many hostile whites poured food on activists, burned them with cigarettes, called them names, and pelted them with rocks. Police attacked with dogs, clubs, fire hoses, and tear gas, and arrested many protesters. CORE organized freedom rides, to integrate transportation in the south. In the summer of 1962, SNCC and other groups geban the Voter Education Program. In August 1963, 250,000 people joined in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, inspired by the the strategy of A Philip Randolph in 1941. In 1964, The Mississippi Freedom Summer Project mobilized more than a thousand northern black and white colleges to conduct voter registration drives.

What issues shaped the 1944 elections between FDR and Dewey?

After 12 years in the white house, FDR was exhausted and gravely ill with heart disease, but he refused to leave the presidency until the war was over. His poor health made the selection of vice president vital, and he chose Harry Truman. He thought many Americans had soured on liberal reform so he chose a reliable party man to please urban Democrats and didn't worry southerners about challenging racial segregation. The Republicans, confident of a strong conservative upsurge in the nation, chose Thomas E Dewey, the governor of New York. Roosevelt's failing health alarmed many, but his frailty was outweighed by Americans' unwillingness to change presidents in the middle of a war, and Dewey's failure to persuade most voters that the New Deal was a creeping socialist menace. Voters gave Roosevelt a 53.3% majority.

What change did the war bring for women and how did the war affect their quest for suffrage?

After 1910, suffrage leaders added a federal campaign to amend the constitution to the traditional state-by-state strategy for suffrage. Membership to the mainstream suffrage movement NAWSA soared to some 2 million and Republican & Progressive parties endorsed woman suffrage in 1916. In 1918, Wilson gave his support to suffrage, calling the amendment "vital to the winning of the war." By linking their cause to the wartime emphasis on national unity, the advocates of woman suffrage finally triumphed.

What problems were starting to develop in the American economy in the 1920s?

Although America had become the leading economy, it had done little to help rebuild Europe's economy after the war. Instead. It demanded that Allied nations repay their war loans, creating a tangled web of debts and reparations that harmed Europe's economic vitality. Moreover, to boost American business, the US enacted tariffs that prevented other nations from selling their goods to Americans. Fewer sales meant that foreign nations had less money to buy American goods. American banks propped up the nation's export trade by extending credit to foreign customers, deepening their debt. Wealth was badly distributed- farmers continued to suffer from low prices and chronic indebtedness; the average income of farm families was only 240 dollars per year. The wages of industrial workers, though rising through the decades, failed to keep up with productivity and corporate profits. Overall, nearly ⅔ of all American families lived on less than 2,000 per year that economists estimated would only supply basic necessities. In contrast, the wealthiest 1 percent received 15 percent of the nation's income, the amount received by the poorest 42 percent. The Coolidge administration worsened the deepening inequality by lessening taxes on the wealthy. By 1929, the inequality of wealth produced a serious problem in consumption. The wealthy spent lavishly but they could only absorb a tiny fraction of the nation's output. For a tim installment buying kept consumer demand up. By the end of the decade ⅘ cars and ⅔ radios were bought on credit. Signs of economic trouble began to appear mid-decade. New construction slowed down, automobile sales faltered, companies began cutting back production and laying off workers. Between 1921 and 1928, as investment and loan opportunities faded, five thousand banks failed, wiping out the life savings of thousands of workers.

Brinksmanship

America's willingness to "go to the brink" of war with its intimidating nuclear weapons (Dulles believed it would block Soviet efforts to expand).

How did ethnic rivalry and racism affect the lives of the new working class?

Americans judged the "new immigrants" and treated them as inferior. Each wave of newcomers was somehow deemed inferior by the established residents. Ethnicity was mostly the cause of racism. New immigrants such as Italians, Jew, and Poles were not considered white and were often excluded from jobs. Africans Americans migrated out of the south to get away from jim crow laws and lynching- but still faced poor jobs and substandard living conditions. In the west, Asians were discriminated against. Hard times in the 1870s made them a target for disgruntled workers. Chinese were not allowed to own land due to the Chinese Exclusion act.

Describe Ike's interventions and policies toward Iran, Guatemala, Cuba, and Egypt?

Guatemala was under reformist president Jacobo Arbenz, who nationalized uncultivated land from the United Fruit Company (a US corporation) in order to help the peasants. United Fruit refused his offer to compensate the company at the value of the land it had declared for tax purposes. In response to the nationalization program, the CIA supported an opposition army that overthrew the elected government and installed a military dictatorship in 1954. United Fruit kept its land and Guatemala succumbed to destructive civil wars that lasted through the 1990s. In 1959, when Cubans' desire for political and economic autonomy became a revolution led by Fidel Castro, a CIA agent promised to "take care of Castro just like we took care of Arbenz." American companies controlled major Cuban resources. The 1959 Cuban Revolution drove out the US supported dictator Fulgencio Batista and led the CIA to warn Eisenhower that "communists and other extreme radicals appear to have penetrated the Castro movement." When the US denied Castro's requests for loans, he turned to the USSR. When US companies refused Castro's offer to purchase their Cuban holdings at their assessed value, he began to nationalize their property. Before leaving office, Eisenhower broke off relations with Cuba and authorized the CIA to train Cuban exiles for an invasion. In the middle east, the CIA intervened in Iran to oust an elected government, support an unpopular dictatorship, and maintain western access to Iranian oil. In 1951, the Iranian parliament, led by Mohammed Mossadegh, nationalized the country's oil fields and refineries. Britain was DEEPLY offended, and sought help from the US. Advisors convinced Eisenhower that Mossadegh left Iran vulnerable to communism, and the president wanted to keep oil-rich areas "under the control of people who are friendly." With his authorization, CIA agents instigated a coup. In August 1953, Iranian army officers captured Mossadegh and reestablished authority of the shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, known for favoring western interests and the Iranian wealthy classes. US companies received a 40 percent share of Iran's oil concessions. In 1955, Secretary of State Dulles began talks with Egypt about American support to build the Aswan Dam on the Nile river. The following year, the Egyptian leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, sought arms from communist Czechoslovakia, formed a military alliance with other Arab nations, and recognized the People's Republic of China, and Dulles called off the deal. In July 1956, Nasser responded by seizing the Suez CAnal, then owned by Britain and France but scheduled to revert to Egypt within seven years. Israel attacked Egypt with help from Britain and France. Eisenhower opposed Intervention and called on the Un to arrange a truce, pressuring Britain and France to pull back and forcing Israel to retreat.

Andrew Mellon

secretary of the treasury, reduced the government's control over the economy and cut taxes for corporations and wealthy individuals.

Compromise on location of national capital

Hamilton promised to back the efforts of moving the capital to the south if they would pass the debt plan.

Franklin Pierce

democrat candidate in 1852 due to his sympathy with southern-views on public issues. Won the electoral college vote 254 to 42 and became president.

James K Polk

democrat nominee for president in 1844 who was for the annexation of Texas, and won the election.

Father Junipero Serra

Catholic priest, helped found the first Mexican mission, San Diego de Alcala. In 1770 he founded Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo to convert indians and recruit them to work to support the soldiers and Spaniards in the presidio

Californios

Mexican residents of California

Iran Hostage Crisis

Crisis that began in 1979 after the deposed Shah of Iran was allowed into the US following the Iranian revolution. Iranians broke into the US embassy in Teheran and took 66 American hostage. The hostage crisis contributed to Carter's reelection defeat.

What was the objective of Spanish explorations of North and South America during the early 1500s? How was Mexico conquered?

During the early 1500's, the objective of Spanish explorations of the Americas was to investigate a rumor of a wealthy kingdom somewhere on the mainland. Mexico was conquered by Hernan Cortes, who made his way through Mexico by establishing relations with natives, and killing them when he felt necessary until he reached Tenochtitlan, where he kidnapped the leader hoping this would allow him to rule over the empire, until his men killed some nobles and the citizens revolted. The Tlaxcalans allowed Cortes and his men to regroup and plan to conquer the mexican empire. In 1521 Cortes and the natives had held siege on the capital, and finally defeated the defenders in august of 1521. The spanish used their superior technology (iron,steel, gunpowder, cannons, and muskets vs. wood and stone), and spread illness that weakened the natives.

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

February 1848 treaty that ended the Mexican-American War. Mexico gave up all claims to Texas north of the Rio Grande and ceded New Mexico and California to the US. The US agreed to pay 15 million and to assume American claims against Mexico.

Greensboro Sit-in

February 1960, 4 African American college students in Greensboro, North Carolina, requested service at the whites-only Woolsworth's lunch counter. Within days, hundreds of people joined them, and others launched sit-ins in 31 southern cities.

Environmental Protection Agency

Federal agency created by President Nixon in 1970 to enforce environmental laws, conduct environmental research, and reduce human health and environmental risks from pollutants.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

Federal agency established by Herbert Hoover in 1932 to Help American industry by lending Government funds to endangered banks and corporations, which Hoover hoped would benefit people at the bottom through trickle-down economics. In practice, this provided little help to the poor.

National Recovery Administration

Federal agency established in June 1933 to promise industrial recovery. It encouraged industrialists to voluntarily adopt codes that defined fair working conditions, set prices, and minimized competition. In practice, large corporations developed codes that served primarily their own interests rather than those of workers or the economy.

Talleyrand

French minister of foreign affairs

What were Hamilton's plans for funding the public debt, establishing a national bank and encouraging manufacturing?

Hamilton's plans for funding the public debt were to roll old certificates of debt to bonds that would earn interest until they were retired. The bonds would circulate and inject millions of dollars of new money into the economy. His plan included assuming state debt, consolidating federal power over the states. He planned to create a central bank, capitalized at 10 million. The federal government would hold 20% of the bank's stock, holding its revenue derived from import duties, land sales, and other taxes. The other 80% would be held by private investors , and the central bank would help stabilize the economy by exerting prudent control over credit, interest rates, and the value of currency. The third part of the plan was a proposal to encourage the production of American-made goods.

What policies did the federal government, including the Supreme Court, pursue with regard to big business?

Harding put high tariffs in place to protect American businesses and dismantled wartime government control over industry in favor of unregulated private business. Coolidge continued and extended Harding's policies of promoting business and limiting government. Andrew Mellon reduced the government's control over the economy and cut taxes for the wealthy and corporations. New rules for the Federal Trade Commission severely restricted its power to regulate business. The Court ruled against closed shops- businesses where only union members could be employed- while confirming the right of owners to form exclusive trade associations. In 1923, the court declared DC's minimum wage law for women unconstitutional, asserting that the law interfered with the freedom of employer and employee to make labor contracts. The Court and the president attacked government intrusion in the free market, even when the prohibition of government regulation threatened the welfare of workers.

Why did Martin van Buren fail to be reelected in the presidential election of 1840?

He failed to be reelected probably due to the panics of 1837 and 1839? He had strong whig/democratic opposition.

Fireside Chats

Series of informal radio addresses Franklin Roosevelt made to the nation in which he explained New Deal initiatives. The chats helped bolster Roosevelt's popularity and secured popular support for his reforms.

Commercial banking

banks made money from the sale of stock and were then able to give out loans with paper currency backed by the hard money made in the sale of stock.

Agent Orange

Herbicide used extensively during the Vietnam War to destroy the Vietcong's jungle hideouts and food supply. Its use was later linked to a wide range of illnesses that veterans and the Vietnamese suffered after the war, including birth defects, cancer, and skin disorders.

Proclamation of 1763

In an attempt to minimize violence, the British government forbid colonists from settling west of the Appalachian mountains ti maintain Indian land.

How did consumerism, domesticity, and religion contribute to a culture of conformity?

In place of the traditional emphasis on work and savings, the consumer culture encouraged satisfaction and happiness through the acquisition of new products. The standards for family happiness imposed by consumer culture required a second income. Despite married women's growing employment, dominant ideology celebrated traditional family and gender roles. People bought into the gender roles, and despite rising female employment, many families did look like the ideal american family. Interest in Religion soared and Congress linked religion more closely to the state by adding "under god" to the pledge of allegiance and requiring that "in god we trust" be printed on all currency. Some critics questioned the depth of the religious revival, attributing growth in church membership to a desire for conformity and a need for social outlets.

What economic, technological, and political forces led to the surge of immigration in the late 1800s?

In the 1870's railroad expansion and low steamship fares gave people a newfound mobility , enabling industrialists to draw on the global population for cheap labor. Steamships courted immigrants as highly profitable, self-loading cargo. By the 1880s a ticket from Liverpool had dropped to under $25. Immigrants relied on information from friends, relatives, ads, and word of mouth- sources that weren't always reliable. Photos weren't reliable either they often depicted workers in their sunday best, but weren't all that wealthy. Immigrants expected to come and make a lot of money. In the 1880s, violent persecutions in Poland and Russia sent eastern Jews to America.

What were some of the key forces that led to increased oceanic exploration by Europeans during the 1400s?

In the mid to late 14th century, the bubonic plague and the fear that resulted from it encouraged more risks to be taken. Monarchs were looking to expand their land/ empires and thus they sponsored explorations. (More land= more taxpayers, more soldiers, more commerce). The invention of the printing press also made news more accessible, so people were able to learn about the conquest of new land; as well as inventions of navigational devices.

Compromise of 1877

Informal agreement in which Democrats agreed not to block Haye's inauguration and to deal fairly with freedmen, and Hayes vowed not to use the army to uphold the remaining Republican regimes in the South and to provide the South with substantial federal subsidies for railroads. The compromise brought the reconstruction era to an end.

How and why did railroads become America's first big business?

It became America's first big business through overbuilding and support from the government. Privately owned but publicly financed by enormous land grants from state and federal governments, the railroads epitomized the nexus of business and politics. Jay Gould succeeded in the railroad business by not only providing transportation but cleverly buying and selling railroad stock on wall street. He adopted the strategy of expansion and consolidation, which encouraged overbuilding of railroads and simulated a national market.

Mary II

James' daughter who co-ruled England.

Racial Equality Clause

Japan wanted a statement of racial equality in the treaty, but it did not happen.

Raid on Harper's Ferry, Virginia

John Brown led 21, including 5 African American men, to Harpers Ferry, Virginia, on October 16th, 1859. They seized the town's armory and rifle works, but were immediately surrounded. When Brown refused to surrender, federal troops under Colonel Robert E Lee charged with Bayonets. A few men escaped, but 10 of his men (including 2 of his sons) were killed and captured 7, including Brown.

What reforms were implemented by Thomas Lofton,as mayor of Cleveland, and Robert LaFollette, as governor of Wisconsin?

Johnson pledged to reduce the fare of the streetcars. He had Cleveland buy the streetcar system, a tactic of municipal ownership progressives referred to as "gas and water socialism." Reelected 4 times, Johnson fought for fair taxation and championed greater democracy through the use of the initiative and referendum to let voters introduce legislation, and then recall to get rid of elected officials and judges. In Wisconsin, Republican Robert LaFollette capitalized on the grassroots movement for reform to launch his political career. As governor, he lowered railroad rates, raised railroad taxes, improved education, preached conservation, established factory regulation and workers' compensation, instituted the first direct primary in the country, and inaugurated the first state income tax.

Universal Negro Improvement Association

Launched by Garvey in 1917 to help African Americans gain economic and political independence entirely outside white society.

Voting Rights Acts of 1965

Law passed during Lyndon Johnson's administration that empowered the federal government to intervene to ensure minorities access to the voting booth. As a result, black voting and officeholding in the south shot up, initiating major transformation in southern politics.

Doctrine of Femme Covert

Legal doctrine grounded in British common law that held that a wife's civic life was subsumed by her husband's. Married women lacked independence to own property, make contracts, or keep wages earned. The doctrine shaped women's status in the early republic.

Civil Rights Bill-1866

Legislation passed by Congress in 1866 that nullified the black codes and affirmed that black Americans should have equal benefit of the law. This expansion of black rights and federal authority drew a veto from President Johnson, which congress later overrode.

Daniel Ortega

Nicaragua's president who agreed to a political settlement when he was defeated by a coalition of all the opposition groups.

Teheran Conference

November 1943, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met in Tehran to discuss wartime strategy and the second front. Roosevelt conceded to Stalin that the Soviet Union would exercise de facto control of the Eastern countries that the Red Army occupied as it rolled back that the Red Army occupied as it rolled back the still-potent German Wehrmacht.

Immediate Range Forces Agreement

Nuclear disarmament agreement reached between the US and Soviet Union in 1987, signifying a major thaw in the Cold War. The treaty eliminated all short and medium-range missiles from Europe and provided for on-site inspection for the first time.

Massive Retaliation

Nuclear weapons could not stop a Soviet nuclear attack, but in response they could inflict enormous devastation.

Once World War I broke out in Europe, what policy did the US take toward the war?

Once WWI broke out in Europe, Woodrow Wilson promptly announced that because the war engaged no vital American interest and involved no significant principle, the US would remain neutral. Neutrality entitled the US to trade safely with all nations at war. Although Wilson proclaimed neutrality, his sympathies lay with Great Britain and France.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Organized an expedition to settle on Roanoke Island in 1585, but didn't settle until 1587 under the leadership of John White. When White returned in 1590, after leaving to get supplies in England, all of the colonists had disappeared leaving only "croatoan" carved into a tree.

What role did mining play in the development of the West, and what kind of society, government, and economy was established in mining towns?

People came from all over the world to search for gold in mining towns. This led to a polyglot society. In 1873 they struck a new vein of ore which speeded the transition from a small-scale industry. The Comstock became a laboratory for new mining technology. Due to difficulty finding skilled workers, the richness of ore, and the need for stable workforce, unions grew early and held considerable bargaining power.

What was life like in the West for people who didn't own land: cowboys, tenants, sharecroppers and migrant workers?

People who didn't own land were often pushed around those that did-they ended up as wage laborers on huge spreads owned by anglos.

Venezuelan crisis of 1895

President Cleveland risked war with Great Britain to enforce the Monroe Doctrine when a conflict developed between Venezuela and British Guiana.

How did the assassination of President Garfield prompt nation civil service reform?

President Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker, motivated by political partisanship. Attacks on the spoils system increased, producing the Pendleton Act and the Civil Service reform.

War on Poverty

President Lyndon Johnson's efforts, organized through the Office of Economic Opportunity, to ameliorate poverty primarily through education and training as well as by including the poor in decision making.

George Grenville

Prime Minister of Britain in 1763-1765. He put the sugar act and stamp acts into place to get revenue from the colonists

Presidential Election of 1980

Reagan's campaign capitalized on the economic recession and the international challenges symbolized by American hostages in Iran. He promised to "take government off the backs of the people" and to restore Americans' morale and other nations' respect. He easily won the election and Republicans took control of the Senate for the first time since the 1950s.

Why did some Whigs and Democrats bolt from their respective parties, and how did this affect the elections of 1848 and 1852?

Some Whigs and Democrats bolted from their respective parties because they were repulsed by the pro-slavery and ambiguous candidates, and wanted to found one free party. The party did not carry a single state in 1848, and lost half of their original voters by 1852.

Mutually Assured Destruction

Term for the standoff between the united states and soviet union based on the assumption that a nuclear first strike by either nation would result in massive retaliation and mutual destruction for each. Despite this, both countries pursued an ever-escalating arms race.

Black Death

The Black Death was a disease that tore through Europe and killed many people. The survivors were given more food and land due to the deaths, therefore it led to opportunity, but also fear.

Second Treaty of Fort Laramie

The US agreed to abandon the Bozeman Trail and guaranteed the Indians control of the Black Hills, land sacred to the Lakota Sioux.

How did the Continental Congress come to declare independence? Why did it blame the king for all the problems between the colonies and England?

The Continental Congress came to declare independence through the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Jefferson and was adopted July 4,1776. It blamed the king for all the problems between the colonies and England....

What policies did Teddy Roosevelt pursue with regard to the regulation of railroads and of the food and drug industry?

The Elkins act of 1903 outlawing railroad rebates had failed so Roosevelt turned to giving the ICC real power to set rates and prevent discriminatory practices. The right to determine the price of goods or services was an age-old prerogative of private enterprise, and one that business had no intention of yielding to government. The passing of the Hepburn act left too much power to the courts and failed to provide adequate means for the ICC to determine rates, but its passage was the first time a government commission had the power to investigate private business records and to set rates.

Incas

The Incas were a wealthy civilization in Peru who were conquered by the greedy spanish and Francisco Pizzaro.

St. Clair's defeat by Indians

The Indians ambushed St. Clair's military and women at Wabash River, leaving 55% of the men dead or wounded, and left only 3 women alive (out of about 200). The Indians captured valuable weapons and scalped and dismembered the dying on the battlefield. This was the most stunning American loss in the history of US Indian wars

What were the terms of the Jay treaty? How was it received in the US?

The Jay treaty secured limited trading rights in the West Indies and agreement that some issues would be decided later with arbitration commissions; BUT it failed to address the capture of stolen cargo, granted the British 18 months to withdraw from the frontier forts, continued trade rights, and called for a repayment with interest of debts American planters owed British firms from the Revolutionary War. Powerful opposition appeared, but the treaty was approved in 1795 with a vote of 20-10.

Describe the American migration to Texas and California and explain how these migrations led to the creation of the independent republics of Texas and California.

The Mexican government wanted to populate and develop its northern territory, so it gave American Stephen Austin a land grant along the Brazos river. Austin offered the land at only 10 cents an acre in the 1820s, and American settlers poured across the southern border. The Americans numbered around 35,000, while the spanish-speaking (Tejano) population was about 8,000. The Mexican government banned further immigration to texas from the US and outlawed the addition of slaves in the 1830s. The Americans made it clear that they would get rid of the "despotism of the sword and the priesthood." This led to a rebellion, which the Americans eventually one and created the "Lone Star Republic". In 1824, in an effort to increase settlement in California, the Mexican government granted ranchos. Despite the government's efforts, California only had a Mexican population of around 7,000, and only 380 non-mexicans; but, most of these settlers were Americans who championed manifest destiny. They convinced American emigrants traveling on the Oregon trail to head southwest on the California trail. In 1846, American settlers in the Sacramento Valley took matters into their own hands, and raised an independence movement known as the bear flag revolt.

What were the goals, strategies and achievements of the women's suffrage movement, the Socialist party, the International Workers of the World and the birth control movement?

The Socialist Party preached cooperation over competition and urged people to liberate themselves from "the barbarism of private ownerships and wage slavery." Debs styled the party as the "revolutionary party of the working class." The IWW were farther to the left and more radical than the socialist party. IWW advocated direct action, sabotage, and the general strike- tactics designed to trigger a workers' uprising and overthrow the capitalist state. In contrast to political radicals, Margaret Sanger promoted the birth control movement as a means of social change. She saw birth control not only as sexual and medical reform but also as a means to alter social and political power relationships and to alleviate human misery. By having fewer babies, the working class could constrict the size of the workforce and make possible higher wages and at the same time refuse to provide "cannon fodder" for the world's armies. She advocated for birth control in her militant feminist paper, Woman Rebel. She faced arrest and fled to Europe, returning in 1916 as a national celebrity. Birth control had become linked with free speech and had been taken up as a liberal cause. Once they dropped the charges, Sanger took direct action and opened the nation's first birth control clinic in the Brownsville section of Brooklyn in October 1916. The clinic attracted 464 clients, but it was shut down on the tenth day.

Alexander Berkman

a russian immigrant and anarchist, attempted to assassinate Frick. He bungled his attempt.

Jackson Pollock

abstract expressionist who poured, dripped, and threw paint on canvases or substituted sticks and other implements for brushes.

Stamp Act (1765)

The stamp act imposed a tax on all paper used for official documents- newspapers, pamphlets, court documents, licenses, wills, ship's cargo lists- and required an affixed stamp to prove that the tax had been paid

What three important developments shattered the relative frontier equality of the Chesapeake culture after 1650?

The three important developments that shattered the frontier equality of the Chesapeake culture after 1650 are: the mass production of tobacco made the tobacco prices decrease in the European market which made the farmer less profit and didn't allow for the freed servant to make enough to become a landowner on their own; The mortality rate decreased which led to more discontented and landless freemen; and Declining mortality also led to the formation of the planter elite, or allowed successful landowners to accumulate wealth, and who started to buy slaves and become merchants. This led to a polarized land with each group at different ends, and mutual distrust.

Federal trade Commission-1914

This was the kind of regulatory agency that Roosevelt had advocated for in his New Nationalism. The FTC, created in 1914, had not only wide investigatory powers but also the authority to prosecute corporations for "unfair trade practices" and to enforce its judgements by issuing "cease and desist orders"

"Common Sense"

Thomas Paine's pamphlet that elaborated on the absurdities of the British Monarchy. Advocated for a republican government based on the consent of the people. Put arguments of Independence in plain language.

Treaty of Tordesillas

To protect claims on new lands, the Portuguese and Spanish monarchs negotiated the treaty in 1494. The treaty drew a line 1100 miles from the canary and claimed the land to the west would go to spain (Columbus's discovery/ soon to be discovered) and Portugal would get the east, aka their African and Asian trading empire.

Five-Power Naval Treaty

Treaty that committed Britain, France, Japan, Italy, and the US to a proportional reduction of naval forces, producing the world's greatest success in disarmament up to the that time. Republicans orchestrated its development at the 1921 Washington Disarmament Conference.

Espionage Act of 1917

US federal law passed shortly after the US entry to WWI, gave postal officials the authority to ban newspapers and magazines from the mail and threatened individuals convicted with obstructing the draft with hefty fines and 20 years jail.

General William Westmoreland

US general with the strategy of attrition (designed to seek out and kill the Vietcong and North Vietnamese normal army.

International Workers of the World (IWW "wobblies")

Umbrella union and radical political group founded in in 1905 that was dedicated to organizing unskilled workers to oppose capitalism. Nicknamed the Wobblies, it advocated direct action by workers, including sabotage and general strikes, in hopes of triggering a widespread workers' uprising.

What actions did President Nixon take to counter economic crises, energy shortages, and environmental pollution?

Under Nixon, government assistance programs such as Social Security, housing, and food stamps grew, and Congress enacted a new billion dollar program that provided Pell grants for low income students to go to college. By 1970, both inflation and unemployment had surpassed 6 percent, an unprecedented combination dubbed "stagflation." Domestic troubles were compounded by the decline of American dominance in the international economy. In 1971, Nixon abandoned the convertibility of dollars into gold and devalued the dollar to increase exports. To protect domestic manufacturers, he imposed a 10 percent surcharge on most imports, and he froze wages and prices, thus enabling the government to stimulate the economy without fueling inflation. By 1974, unemployment had crept back up and inflation soared. In the fall of 1973, the US faced its first energy crisis. Nixon authorized temporary emergency measures allocating petroleum and establishing a national 55 mph to save gasoline. In response to environmentalists, Nixon called "clean air, clean water, open spaces... the birthright of every american," and urged congress to end the plunder of America's national heritage. He created the EPA to enforce environmental laws, conduct research, and reduce human health and environmental risks from pollutants. He also passed the clean air act of 1970, which restricted factory and automobile emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants, but vetoed the clean water act of 1972, which congress overrode.

Readjusters

a coalition of blacks and whites to lower ("readjust") the state debt and spend more money on public education, and captured state offices from 1879 to 1883.

royal colony

a colony governed by the monarchy instead of the private investors.

proprietary colonies

a colony that was granted to individual by the British Crown.

Stagflation

a combination of inflation and unemployment.

How and why did planters continue to dominate southern politics despite democratic reforms?

Upper-class dominance of politics reflected the elite's success in convincing the yeomen that what was good for slaveholders was also good for plain-folk.

Spheres of Influence

a country or area in which another country has power to affect developments although it has no formal authority.

Zachary Taylor

Whig candidate who owned more than 100 slaves on Mississippi plantations.

Henry Clay

Whig nominee for president in 1844, who was against the annexation of texas. Realized how popular expansion was and switched to for annexation, but alienated the anti-slavery Northerners in doing so.

Female "Typewriters"

Women who were hired by businesses in the decades after the Civil War to keep records and conduct correspondence, often using equipment such as typewriters. Secretarial work constituted one of the very few areas where middle-class women could use their literacy for wages.

National Organization for Women (NOW)

Women's civil rights organization formed in 1966. Initially, NOW focused on eliminating gender discrimination in public institutions and the workplace, but by the 1970s it also embraced many of the issues raised by more radical feminists.

Excise tax on whiskey

a 25 percent excise tax on whiskey to be paid by farmers bringing grain to the distillery and then passed onto the consumers , which was a hope to promote sobriety and prevent disease and untimely death.

Martin Luther

a Catholic Priest from central Germany who published his criticisms of the Catholic church, starting the protestant reformation. Luther preached "justification by faith," or the idea that christians would obtain salvation through faith that god would save them.

Robert Morris

a Philadelphia merchant and the congress's superintendent of finance. Led efforts to amend the articles to allow the collection of a 5 percent import tax, which failed by one vote each time. He encouraged the Newburgh Conspiracy.

War Industries Board

charged with stimulating and directing industrial production.

Stalwarts

those who fiercely supported the patronage system (including Roscoe Conkling of New York)

John C. Calhoun

vice president of John Adams in 1828, who had previously been the vice to Adams, but had broken with Adams' policies. Later, he led a group advancing a doctrine of nullification, and resigned as vice president to become a senator to better serve his state.

South Boston Busing Riots

violence erupted in Boston in 1974 when a district judge found that school officials had amounted to a dual system based on race and ordered busing 'if necessary to achieve a unitary school system."

Prince Henry the Navigator

the prince of portugal who encouraged exploration and collected information on sailing and geography.

Pueblo Revolt

A revolt of the natives against the Spaniards in which their leader, Popé, ordered them to split up and burn everything relating to Christianity. The natives desecrated churches, killed ⅔ of the missionaries, and drove the spaniards out of spain into El Paso, Texas.

How did England become a Protestant nation and who were the Puritans?

England became a Protestant nation due to to King Henry VIII, who left the church and created the Anglican church because he wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon, and the Catholic church would not annul the marriage or allow a church. The Puritans were a group of people who wanted an actual reformation of the church in england, and wanted to purify the Catholic doctrines that also remained as part of the Church of England.

What did France and England learn from Spain's ventures in the New World?

France and England learned that they could expand European influence and hoped to gain riches/ find a passage to the indies or another Mexico or Peru.

Giovanni da Verrazano

France sent Verrazano to scout the Atlantic coast north of North Carolina in 1524, to find the Northwest passage.

What caused dissent and splintering among the Puritans?

In England, persecution as a dissenting minority had unified Puritan voices in opposition to the Church of England. In New England, the promise of godly society and emphasis on individual bible study led to different visions of godliness. Puritan leaders interpreted dissent as an error caused by a misguided believer or by the malevolent power of Satan. Anne Hutchinson began to give weekly sermons to her neighbors. She lectured on the covenant of grace,the idea that individuals could only be saved by God's grace in choosing them to be members of the elect. This contrasted only with the covenant of works, the erroneous belief that a person's behavior could win God's favor and earn a person's salvation.

House of Burgesses

an assembly of representatives set up by the colony of Virginia. Representatives were chosen by the male colonists until the king claimed the colony, in which they were to be chosen by England.

Charles V

Originally King Charles I of spain, Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor, who governed more land than any other European monarch. He used the wealth in New Spain to promote his interests, and also sought to defend orthodox Christianity from the protestant reformation.

How and why did Portugal come to dominate trade with Africa and the Far East?

Portugal was the first to use the navigational technology to sail farther than the boundaries known by the Europeans. Portugal helped spain with the reconquest, and Prince Henry supported the crusades against the muslims. Henry sought new ways to strengthen and richen his country, and pushed explorers to go farther. The portuguese reached Cape Verde by 1444. To withstand the long and hard trips, the portuguese developed a stronger and faster ship. The portuguese were limited to the coastal regions, but successfully bartered for gold, slaves, and ivory. The merchants learned that relations were to be established through peace was more successful than attempting to conquer.

Queen Isabella

Queen Isabella was a strong woman who was born into a spanish monarchy. She argued with her half-brother and married Ferdinand, the king of Aragon and took the throne after he died. She and Ferdinand fought to unite the monarchies in spain under their rule, and to promote christianity through weakening the Islamic and Jewish communities in spain.

Charles I

Son of James I, and also non-receptive to puritans. Moved the church away from puritanism and punished the dissenters. In 1629 he dissolved parliament because puritans were well represented. The dissenters led a revolution against him, led by Oliver Cromwell.

Describe Spain's efforts to establish permanent colonies in North America.

Spain attempted to establish a colony in Modern-day Georgia, but was soon destroyed by illness and rightfully hostile natives. The Spanish Monarchy insisted that some colonies be set up in Florida and New Mexico. St. Augustine, Florida, was the first permanent Spanish settlement, founded by Pedro Menedez de Aviles in 1565. In 1598 another settlement was tried to be set up, but only led to the slaughtering of over 800 natives.

Why did the Jamestown settlers have such a hard time surviving during their first few years?

The Jamestown settlers had such a hard time surviving in their first few years due to disease and starvation; the colonists were unable to grow crops and their food supplies dwindled, until the natives had pity and started bringing corn as trade. The colonists also had tense relations with the nearby natives. Mostly, due to the colonists weakness and sickness, they were unable to sustain themselves and relied on the natives. Weren't workers and had no skills.

Isabella and Ferdinand

The monarchs of Spain who commissioned Columbus to sail across the Atlantic to Asia

What was the overall significance of Columbus's voyages to the New World?

The overall significance of Columbus's voyages to the new world was that his discovery of the caribbean islands allowed for Spain to become a rival with portugal, and forced the europeans to think in a Explain the Columbian Exchange, listing some imports from Europe to America and some imports from America to Europe The Columbian exchange was a transatlantic trade of goods, people, and ideas. Europe brought Christianity, iron, sailing ships, firearms, wheeled vehicles, horses, and diseases to America. American goods, people, and ideas were sent back to Europe. (Including corn,potatoes, tobacco, and syphilis)

Elizabeth I

Tried to position the Church of England between the extremes of Catholicism and Puritanism. Strong queen who defeated the Spanish Armada.

John Colleton

a barbadian planter who obtained a charter from the king of England to establish a colony north of the Spanish colony in florida, (South Carolina).

Virginia Company

a joint-stock company to which James gave a land grant or license, but never made money for its investors.

William Bradford

leader of the pilgrims, who was elected as governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony.

What groups supported Ronald Reagan, and what were his political strengths?

69 year old Ronald Reagan was the oldest candidate nominated for the presidency. His political career took off when he was elected Governor of California in 1966. He ran as a conservative, but in office he displayed flexibility, approving a major tax increase, a strong water pollution bill, and a liberal abortion law. Reagan's support from religious conservatives, predominantly Protestants, constituted a relatively new phenomenon in politics know as the New Christian Right. During the 1970s, evangelical and fundamentalist Christianity claimed thousands of new adherents. Evangelical ministers, such as Pat Robertson, preached to TV audiences, attacking feminism, abortion, and homosexuality. Reagan spoke for the New Right on such issues as abortion and school prayer, but he did not push for so-called moral or social policies. His major achievements fulfilled policies of the older right- strengthening the nation's anti-communist posture as well as reducing taxes and government restraints on free enterprise.

"The Other America" by Michael Harrington

described the poverty that left more than 1 in 5 Americans "maimed in body and spirit, existing at levels beneath those necessary for human decency."

John Rapier

a free black barber in Alabama who urged his sons out of the repressive south in 1856.

John Neville

a tax collector who refused to quit even after a group of farmers burned an effigy of him.

Preston Brooks

young South Carolina member of the house who sought to defend the honor of Andrew P Butler, and entered the Senate on May 22 and beat Sumner over the head with his cane until he lay bleeding and unconscious on the floor.

Jack Dempsey

young boxer from the grim mining districts of colorado. As a teenager, he earned a living by hanging around saloons betting he could beat anyone in the house. When he won the heavyweight crown just after WWI, he was revered as the people's chap, a stand-in for the average American who felt increasingly confined by bureaucracy and machine-made culture.

"Arsenal of Democracy"

phrase used by Roosevelt in a fireside chat in 1940, where proclaimed it was incumbent on the US to become the greatest arsenal of democracy and send every ounce and ton of munitions and supplies that we can possibly spare to help the defenders who are in the front lines.

Frederick Taylor

pioneered "systemized shop management" in 1911. Obsessed with making humans and machines produce more and faster, he timed workers with a stopwatch and tried to break down their work into the simplest components, one repetitious action after another.

Langston Hughes

poet who said "we younger negro artists... intend to express our individual dark-skinned selves without fear or shame."

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

1784 treaty with the Iroquois Confederacy that established the primacy that the American Confederacy (not states) to negotiate with Indians and resulted in large land cessions in the Ohio Country

Ratification process

9 states had to approve the document. Most were easy wins, except for Massachusetts which they eventually won, and

Battle of Palo Duro Canyon

A battle in 1874, only three Comanche soldiers died in battle but the US soldiers took the camp and burned more than 200 tepees, hundreds of robes and blankets, and thousands of pounds of winter supplies, and shot more than a thousand horses. This led to the final collapse of the comanche. The surviving, numbering fewer than 1,500, reluctantly retreated to the reservation at Fort Sill.

Annapolis Convention

A september 1786 meeting of five states (allowed by congress) to revise the trade of regulation powers of the article. Planned to meet again in Philadelphia in May 1787.

Trust

A system in which corporations give shares of their stock to trustees who hold the stocks "in trust" for their stockholders, thereby coordinating the industry to ensure profits to the participating corporations and curb competition.

Ladies Association

A women's organization in Philadelphia that collected substantial money donations in 1780 to reward Continental soldiers for their service. A woman leader authored a declaration, "The Sentiments of an American Woman," to justify women's unexpected entry into political life.

What were the major social, economic, religious and governmental characteristics of Pennsylvania?

About 8,000 quakers immigrated to Pennsylvania, making Pennsylvania almost as diverse as New York. Penn demanded that the quakers treat the Indians well, and explicitly stated that they had to get their consent by buying the land, and respecting the natives. Pennsylvania allowed most religions, although voters and officeholders had to be Christian. Penn did demand that their would be strict on upholding religious morality, and that the form of government was not important, as long as the governors were good men.

Mark Twain

American writer who coined the term "Gilded Age" in 1873 after a book who wrote about the era, satirizing political hacks, Washington lobbyists, Wall street financiers, small-town boosters, and the "great putty-hearted public"

The Enlightenment

An eighteenth century philosophical movement that emphasized the use of reason to reevaluate previously accepted doctrines and traditions. Enlightenment ideas encouraged examination of the world and independence of mind.

Liberal Republicans

Anti-Grant republicans who started the liberal party who proposed ending the spoils system and replacing it with nonpartisan civil service commission that would oversee competitive examinations for appointment to office and demanded that Federal troops be pulled from the South and return it to "home rule"

Free Soil Party

Anti-slavery people from both parties left to found this party, nominating Martin van Buren (democrat) and Charles Frances Adam (whig), and boldly claimed "free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men."

Lord North

British Prime Minister who recommended the repeal of the Townshend duties, and persuaded parliament to remove all duties except for the tax on tea, as a symbol on Parliament's power.

What forces led to a surge in the civil rights movement in the 1950s?

Between 1940 and 1960, more than 3 million African Americans moved from the South into areas where they had a political voice. Black leaders made sure that foreign policy officials realized how racist practices at home tarnished the US image abroad and handicapped the US in competition with the Soviet Union. Segregation meant that African Americans controlled certain resources such as churches, colleges, and newspapers where leadership skills can be honed and networks developed.

Appeasement

British strategy aimed at avoiding a war with Germany in the late 1930s by not objecting to Hitler's policy of territorial expansion.

General Horatio Gates

Burgoyne's adversary, moved his troops to Saratoga

Committee for Industrial Organization

Coalition (later called Congress of Industrial Organizations) of mostly unskilled workers formed in 1935 that mobilized massive union organizing drives in major industries. By 1941, through the CIO-affiliated United Auto Workers, organizers had overcome violent resistance to unionize the entire automobile industry.

Stephen Kearny

Colonel who led a 1700-man army from missouri to new mexico. Without firing a shot, the US forces took Santa Fe in August 1846.

Continental Army

Commanded by George Washington.

King Cotton diplomacy

Confederate diplomatic strategy built on the hope that European nations starving for cotton would break the Union Blockade and recognize the Confederacy. This strategy failed as Europeans held stores of surplus cotton and developed new sources outside the South.

Military Reconstruction Act- 1867

Congressional act of March 1867 that initiated military rule of the South. Congressional reconstruction divided the ten unreconstructed Confederate states into five military districts, each under the direction of a union general. It also established the procedure by which unreconstructed states could reenter the union.

Newburgh conspiracy

Conspiracy: army officers wanted to intimidate congress for compensation for fighting in the war, but congress couldn't enforce taxation and had no source of reliable income. George Washington found about the fake Coup and put it down.

Fourteenth Amendment-1868

Constitutional amendment passed in 1866 that made all native-born or naturalized persons US citizens from abridging the rights of national citizens. The amendment hoped to provide guarantee of equality before the law for black citizens.

Seneca Falls "Declaration of Sentiments"

Declaration issued in 1848 at the first national woman's rights convention in the US, which was held in seneca falls, new york. The document adopted the style of the declaration of independence and demanded equal rights for women, including the franchise.

William Jennings Bryan

Democrat, youngest nominee for the presidency (36). Had a passionate call for free silver that whipped the DNC into a frenzy in 1896.

How did the status of white women change during the early republic period?

Dolley Madison's role showed other elite women could take role in civic affairs. Dolley Madison and her friends practiced politics to further their husbands careers. There was little to no talk of women's rights but the increased commitment to women's education continued. In some baptist congregations in New England, some women served along with men on church governance committees. Quakers also recognized women's spiritual talents. Between 1790 and 1820 a set of women engaged in open preaching. Private female institutions opened, and trained the women to teach, on the grounds that women make better teachers than men.

Freeport Doctrine

Douglas admitted that settlers could not now pass legislation barring slavery, but argued that they could ban slavery just as effectively by not passing protective laws. Southerners condemned this doctrine and charged him with trying to steal the victory they had gained with the Dred Scott decision.

Richard Nixon

Eisenhower's running mate

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Ella Baker, from SCLC, helped student activists form a new organization. They embraced civil disobedience and the nonviolence principles of MLK, they would confront their oppressors and stand up for their rights, but would not respond if attacked.

Farmers' Cooperatives

Farmers' working together to sell their crops to change the ways farmers lived.

Civilian Conservation Corps

Federal relief program established in March 1933 that provided assistance in the form of jobs to millions of unemployed young men and a handful of women. CCC workers worked on conservation projects throughout the nation.

Good Neighbor Policy

Foreign policy announced by Franklin Roosevelt in 1933 that promised the US would not interfere in the internal or external affairs of another country, thereby ending US military interventions in Latin America.

Declaration of Independence

Formally adopted on July 4, 1776. Had a preamble and a specific list of grievances against the king. Drafted by Jefferson.

Gen. Henry Knox

George Washington chose him to preside over the department of war (he was the secretary of war in the confederation government)

Jacobo Arbenz

Guatemala reformist president. Moved to help landless, poverty-stricken peasants by nationalizing uncultivated land owned by the United Fruit Company, a US corporation in 1953.

Report on Public Credit

Hamilton's january 1790 report recommending that the national debt be funded- but not repaid immediately at full value. His goal was to make the country creditworthy, not debt free.

What economic and social ills plagued American farmers in the 1890s?

Hard times in the 1880s and 1890s created agrarian revolt. Farm prices fell decade after decade, even as American farmers' share of the world market grew. At the same time, consumer prices soared. In Kansas alone, almost half of the farms had fallen into the hands of the banks by 1894 through foreclosure. In the west, farmers rankled under a system that allowed railroads to charge them exorbitant freight rates while granting rebates to large shippers. In the South, lack of currency and credit drove farmers to the stop-gap credit system of the crop lien

John Peter Atgeld

Illinois governor who pardoned the probably innocent survivors of the Haymarket Massacre in 1892.

Finance Capitalism

Investment sponsored by banks and bankers that typified the American business scene at the end of the nineteenth century. After the panic of 1893, bankers stepped in and reorganized major industries to stabilize them, leaving power concentrated in the hands of a few influential capitalists.

Martin van Buren

Jackson's secretary of state

Marcus Garvey

Jamaican-born visionary who urged African Americans to rediscover the heritage of Africa, take pride in their own achievements, and maintain racial purity by avoiding miscegenation.

Taft-Hartley Act

Law passed by the Republican-controlled Congress in 1947 that amended the Wagner Act and placed restrictions on organized labor that made it more difficult for unions to organize workers.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Legislation passed during Lyndon Johnson's administration abolishing discriminatory immigration quotas based on national origins. Although it did limit the number of immigrants, including those from Latin America for the first time, it facilitated a surge in immigration later in the century.

Horace Greeley

Liberal presidential candidate and longtime editor of the New York Times

Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction-1863

Lincoln's plan of reconstruction which included a full pardon, the restoration of property, and political rights to most rebels who were willing to renounce secession and accept emancipation. Then, when 10% of the voting population had taken an oath of allegiance, the state could take steps to return to the union.

How did Martin Luther King Jr. rise to prominence, and what were his beliefs?

MLK, a young Baptist pastor was elected to head the MIA. King addressed mass meetings at churches throughout the bus boycott, inspiring blacks' courage and commitment by linking racial justice to Christianity. King's face on the cover of Time magazine in 1957 marked his rapid rise to national and international fame.

Iron Curtain

Metaphor coined by Winston Churchill in 1946 to demark the line dividing Soviet-controlled countries in Eastern Europe from democratic nations in Western Europe following World War II.

Farmers Alliance Movement

Movement to form local organizations to advance farmer' collective interests that gained a wide popularity in the 1880s. Over time, farmers' groups consolidated into the Northwestern Farmers' Alliance and the Southern Farmers' Alliance. In 1892, the Farmers' Alliance gave birth to the People's Party.

What improvements in transportation occurred between 1815 and 1840? What was the federal government's role in these "internal improvements" and how did they contribute to the development of a market economy?

Networks of roads, canals, steamboats, and railroads between 1815 and 1840 dramatically lowered the cost and time it took to travel. The federal government did not want to invest money, but private investors pooled money and received significant subsidies from state governments. The federal government did give them the land though. The increased roads, turnpikes, and canals lowered the cost and time of transporting goods.

John Jay

New york lawyer who collaborated on the federalist papers

Jane Cunningham Croly aka "Jennie June"

Newspaper reporter who founded the Sorosis Club in NYC in 1868 after the New York Press Club denied entry to women journalists wishing to attend a banquet honoring the British author Charles Dickens.

Attempted Acquisition of Cuba

Pierce wanted cuba but Anti-slavery Northerners blocked Cuba's acquisition to keep more slave territory from entering the union

What challenges did Spain and Britain face in governing and defending their respective colonies in North America?

Relations between Indians and colonists differed between colonies and years. The colonists wanted the British to keep the Indians at bay and maintain the flow of trade. In 1754, the colonists competition with the french spurred the French and Indian war. The Spanish kept an eye on the Pacific coast, where Russian hunters in search of seals and sea otters threatened to become a permanent presence. To block the Russians, New Spain mounted a campaign to build forts.

Treaty of Paris

September 3, 1783, treaty that ended the Revolutionary War. The treaty acknowledged America's independence, set its boundaries, and promised the quick withdrawal of British troops from American soil. It failed to recognize Indians as players in the conflict.

Comstock Lode

Silver Ore deposit discovered in 1859 in Nevada. Discovery of the Comstock Lode touched off a mining rush that brought a diverse population into the region and led to the establishment of a number of boomtowns, including Virginia City, Nevada.

How did slaves in the American colonies react to the news of open warfare between the colonists and Britain?

Slaves in the American colonies recognized the evolving political struggle with Britain as an ideal moment to bid for freedom, and noticed the hypocrisy of White americans and local slave owners who called for freedom, but wouldn't free their slaves. Boston slaves offered to fight for Britain in exchange for their freedom, which General cage denied, but continued to persist throughout the war.

"Negro Rule"

Southerners were afraid of this due to political equality and new constitutions that allowed them to be in congress.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

Soviets invaded when the recently installed communist government was threatened by Muslim opposition.

What provisions did the Treaty of Versailles contain?

The Allies wanted to fasten blame for a the war on Germany, totally disarm it, and make it pay. They forced Wilson to make drastic compromises. The French demanded retribution in the form of territory containing Germany's richest mineral resources. The British made it clear that they were not about to give up the powerful weapon of naval blockade for the vague principle of freedom of the seas. In return for France's moderating its territorial claims, Wilson agreed to support Article 231, which blamed Germany for the war. Though saved from permanently losing Rhineland territory to the French, Germany was outraged about being singled out as the instigator of the war and being saddled with more than $33 billion in damages. Wilson was successful in implementing his self-determination points. Partly on self-determination, the conference redrew the map of Europe and parts of the rest of the world. Portions of Austria-Hungary were ceded to Italy, Poland, and Romania, and the remainder was reassembled to Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Ottoman empire was carved into small mandates run by local leaders, but under the control of France and Great Britain. They took Germany's colonies, but added to their own empires. The peace conference rejected Japan's call for a statement on racial equality in the treaty. They also agreed to the League of Nations, and the Treaty of Versailles was born.

How did American concerns for financial gain and religious conversion influence American Foreign Affairs at the turn of the century?

The depression of the 1890s provided a powerful impetus to American commercial expansion. As markets weakened at home, American businesses looked abroad for profit. Exports constituted a small but significant percentage of the profits of American business in the 1890s and where interests led, businessmen expected the government's power and influence to follow and protect their investments. American missionaries wished to spread Christianity to the "heathen." Christians only managed to convert 100,000 chinese in a population of 4 million.

Andrew Oliver

The designated stamp distributor who resigned after a public mock execution in 1765.

Tainos

The native people of San Salvador, and the first people Columbus encountered after reaching land.

White Backlash

The press gave large attention to the black power movement and was et with severe backlash from whites. Although the riots of the mid-1960s were triggered by specific incidents of police brutality, whites blamed black power "militants."

Pontiac's Rebellion

The renewal of commitment to Indian ways and the formation of tribal alliances which led to open warfare in 1763. Potawatomi and Huron warriors attacked fort detroit. Within weeks, frontier settlements from Western New York, the Ohio valley, and the Great Lakes regions were raided. some colonists wanted revenge and went after some peaceful indian troops.

Nearly ¾ of the immigrants that arrived in the US between 1840 and 1860 were from either Germany or Ireland. Germans fit the vision of free labor because most were skilled tradesmen or farmers and usually occupied the middle stratum of independent producers. The Irish entered at the bottom of the ladder, most of them were desperately poor and weakened by hunger and disease. Roughly 3 out of 4 Irish immigrants worked as laborers or domestic servants. Many Americans regarded the Irish as alcoholic, unruly, and half-civilized but hired them because the Irish accepted low pay and worked hard.

What was manifest destiny and how was it used to justify territorial expansion?

Bonus Marchers

World War I veterans who marched on Washington DC in 1932 to lobby for immediate payment of the pension promised them in 1924. President Herbert Hoover believed the bonuses would bankrupt the government and sent the US army to evict the veterans from the city.

Columbian Exposition

World's fair held in Chicago in 1893 that attracted millions of visitors. The elaborately designed pavilions of the "White City" included exhibits of technological innovation and of cultural exoticism. They embodied an urban ideal that contrasted with the realities of Chicago life.

Charles Coughlin

a Catholic priest in Detroit who spoke to and for many worried Americans in his weekly radio broadcasts, which reached a nationwide audience of 40 million. Father Coughlin expressed outrage at the suffering and inequities that he blamed on Communists, bankers, and "predatory capitalists" who he said were mostly jews.

Constitutional Convention of 1787

a congress that met in Philadelphia to discuss the creation of the constitution and a new government

Warren Burger

a federal appeals court judge who was a strict constructionist, inclined to interpret the Constitution narrowly and to limit government intervention on behalf of individual rights.

Consumer Culture

a form of capitalism in which the economy is focused on the selling of consumer goods and the spending of consumer money; the study of consumption choices and behaviors from a social and cultural point of view, as opposed to an economic or psychological one.

Lord Baltimore

a friend of King Charles I, who was granted ~6.5 million acres of land. He intended to create a refuge for Catholics, but ended up being slow growing and mostly protestant.

Sam Adams

a leader of the Sons of Liberty

Rose Schneiderman

a leading WTUL organizer who made a bitter speech at the memorial service for the dead. She and other leaders determined that organizing and striking were no longer enough, particularly when the AFL paid so little attention to women workers.

Articles of Confederation

a loose confederation of states existing mainly to foster a common defense.

IWW murders, Centralia, Washington in 1919

a menacing crowd gathered in front of the IWW hall. Nervous Wobblies inside opened fire, killing three people. Three IWW members were arrested and later convicted of murder, but another member, ex-soldier Wesley Everett, was carried off by the mob, which castrated him, hung him from a bridge, and then riddled his body with bullets. His death was ruled a suicide.

Depression of 1893-97

a panic on wall street touched off a bitter economic depression.

Japanese Invasion of China

a strictly militaristic government in Japan planned to follow the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 with conquests extending throughout southeast Asia. The Manchurian war bogged down in a long and vicious war when Chinese Nationalists rallied around their leader, Jiang Jieshi, to fight against the Japanese. In 1936, Japan openly violated naval limitation treaties and began to build a battle-ready fleet to seek naval superiority.

Nixon's Visit to China

after two years of secret negotiations, in February 2972 Nixon became the first US president to step foot on Chinese soil. Although the visit was largely symbolic, cultural and scientific changes followed soon afterward, and US manufacturers began to find markets in China.

Great Compromise

agreed on bicameral legislature

Pools

agreements to divide up territory and set rates to reduce competition.

Speakeasy

an illegal nightclub. The dancefloors led to the sexual integration of the formerly all-male drinking culture.

Emancipation bills (states)

bills meant to abolish slavery. Massachusetts abolished slavery by 1789, but many other states put gradual emancipation bills into effect. States south of Pennsylvania outright denied emancipation bills b/c their economy depended on slavery.

Woodrow Wilson

born in Virginia and raised in Georgia, first southerner elected president since 1844 and only the second democrat to occupy the white house since reconstruction. Believer in states' rights and promised legislation to break the hold of the trusts. He exerted leadership to achieve banking reform and worked through his party in Congress to accomplish the Democratic agenda.

Women's Trade Union League (WTUL)

brought together women workers and middle-class "allies." Its goal was to organize working-women into unions under the auspices of the AFL.

Hull House

built by Charles Hull. Two floors were leased by Jane Addams for the poor and immigrants. In the next decade, it expanded from 2 rented floors in the old brick mansion to some 13 buildings. Addams provided public baths, opened a restaurant for working women too tired to cook, and sponsored a nursery and kindergarten. It offered classes, lectures, art exhibits, musical instruction, and college extension courses.

Human Rights

carter fought for human rights but also ignored it to strategic and security considerations.

Baker v Carr- 1963

case grew out of a complaint that inequitably drawn Tennessee electoral districts gave sparsely populated rural districts far more representatives than densely populated urban areas. Using the 14th amendment guarantee of "equal protection of laws," Baker established the principle of "one person, one vote" for state legislatures and the House of Representatives.

Columbian exposition

celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus' voyage to the New World.

John Humphrey Noyes

charismatic leader of the oneida who believed that American society's commitment to private property made people greedy and selfish. Claimed the root of private property lay in marriage, in men's conviction that their wives were their exclusive property.

Three-fifths clause

clause in the constitution that stipulated that all free persons plus ⅗ of all other persons would constitute the numerical base for apportioning both representation and taxation.

"The New Era"

coined by Herbert Hoover, one of many labels used to describe the 1920s.

The Affluent Society

coined by economist John Kenneth Galbraith to describe the new higher standard of living of most Americans.

New Left

college students political alignment around the goals of civil rights, peace, and universal economic security.

Douglas MacArthur

commander of the US armed forces in the pacific theatre who led forces from Australia and eventually attacked the Japanese in the Philippines.

Pancho Villa

commander of the rebel army who seized a train carrying gold from Texas to an American owned mine in Mexico and killed the 17 American engineers aboard. In March, his army crossed the border for a predawn raid on Columbus, New Mexico, where they killed 18 Americans. Wilson promptly dispatched 12,000 troops, led by Major General John J Pershing. Villa avoided capture and in January 1917 Wilson recalled Pershing so that he could prepare the army for the possibility of fighting in the Great War.

Warren Commission

commission by Johnson to investigate JFK's and Oswald's assassinations, to see if any of the conspiracy theories (oswald was murdered to cover up conspiracy from ultraconservatives, or by Communists who supported Castro's Cuba). Led by Earl Warren, the commission determined that both Oswald and his assassin acted alone.

Phyllis Schlafly

conservative activist in the republican party who mobilized thousands of anti-feminism women.

Moral Majority

conservative political organization founded by Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979, to fight the "left-wing, social welfare bills... pornography, homosexuality, and the advocacy of immorality in school textbooks."

Second Battle of the Marne

counteroffensive of the allies in summer of 1918.

Niagara Movement

created by DuBois in 1905. Called for universal male suffrage, civil rights, and leadership composed of black intellectual elite.

Department of Health, Education and Welfare

created by Eisenhower

Tennessee Valley Authority

created in May 1933 to build dams along the Tennessee river to supply impoverished rural communities with cheap electricity. The TVA set out to demonstrate that a partnership between the Federal government and local residents could overcome the barriers of state governments and private enterprises to make efficient use of abundant natural resources and break the ancient cycle of poverty.

Big Bill Haywood

created the IWW with Debs, to organize the most destitute segment of the workforce. He was a craggy-charismatic leader with one eye and a proletarian intellectual. Seeing workers on the lowest run of the social ladder as victims of violent repression, the IWW advocated direct action.

Tax Reform Act of 1986

cut taxes further but narrowed loopholes used primarily by the wealthy, affluent Americans saved far more on their tax bills than did average taxpayers, and the distribution of wealth tipped further in favor of the rich.

Grover Cleveland (President 1885-1889, 1893, 1897)

democrat president who ended 24 years of republican control of the presidency. Reelected in 1892.

Battle of the Bulge

december 16, 1944 to January 31, 1945, German forces drove 55 miles into allied lines before being stopped at Bastogne. More than 70,000 Allied soldiers were killed, including more americans than in any other battle of the war.

Separation of Power

deliberately separated the branches of the government not only by function and reciprocal of checks but based on different universes of voters

Tenure of Office Act-1867

demanded approval of the senate for the removal of any government official who had been appointed with senate approval

military occupation of Boston

due to the anti-british Sons of Liberty in Boston, Hutchinson and Governor Bernard agreed that British troops were necessary to restore the order, so in the fall of 11768, 3000 troops arrived to occupy boston.

Panic of 1857

economic panic due to a downturn thanks to democratic policies. Also, due to Kansas wanting to become slave state although it had more free-soil

McCarran-Walter Act of 1952

ended the outright ban on immigration and citizenship for Japanese and other asians, but authorized the government to bar suspected Communists and homosexuals and maintained the discriminatory quota system established in the 1920s.

National Liberation Front

established in 1960 by the Hanoi Government, it was composed of south Vietnamese rebels but directed by the northern army.

Dwight D Eisenhower

first supreme commander of NATO in 1950. Ran for the presidency in 1952. Believed that professional soldiers should stay out of politics but found compelling reasons to run. He agreed with Truman's foreign policy but he questioned the Democrats' ability to solve domestic problems with new federal programs. Also disliked Republican contender Robert A Taft, who he defeated for the nomination.

Quasi Naval war with France

first undeclared war where France sent 20 naval ships because Americans were offended by the XYZ affair and repealed all prior treaties with France. More than 100 French ships were captured in the Caribbean

Cherokee removal-"Trail of Tears"

forced westward journey of Cherokees from their lands in Georgia to present-day Oklahoma in 1838. Despire favorable legal action, the Cherokees endured a grueling 1200 mile march overseen by federal troops. Nearly a quarter of the Cherokees died en route.

League of United Latin American Citizens

formed in 1929 to combat discrimination and segregation in the southwest.

Emma Willard

founded the Troy Female Seminary in New York in 1821

Glasnost

greater freedom of expression

Herbert Hoover

headed the food administration.

Salem witch trials

held in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692, signaled the erosion of religious confidence and assurance. Witnesses accused more than 100 people of witchcraft, a capital crime. Bewitched young girls shrieked in pain, their limbs twisted in strange contortions, and they pointed out the witches that tortured them. Most accused witches were older women, and virtually all of them were well known to their accusers. The court hanged 19 witches and pressed one to death, signaling enduring belief in the supernatural origins of evil and doubt about the Puritan's faith.

Nez Perce War

in 1863 the government dictated a treaty reducing Nez Perce land. Most chiefs refused to sign the treaty and did not move to the reservation. The Army cracked down in 1877 and some 800 Nez Perce fled across the mountains of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana heading towards Canada. At the end of the 1300 mile trek they stopped to rest and the army caught up and attacked- 50 miles from freedom.

Occupation of Alcatraz Island

in 1969, several dozen native americans seized Alcatraz island, an abandoned federal prison in San Francisco bay, claiming their right of "first discovery" of the land. For 19 months they used the occupation to publicize injustices against Indians, promote pan-indian cooperation, and celebrate traditional cultures.

United Nations

international peacekeeping organization. All nations would have a place in the General Assembly, but the Security Council would wield decisive power, and it's permanent representatives from the allied powers- China, France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the US- would possess a veto over actions. The Senate ratified the Charter in July 1945 by a vote of 89 to 2.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965

involved the federal government in K-12 education. The measure sent federal dollars to local school districts with high poverty populations and provided equipment and supplies to private and parochial schools serving the poor.

U-2 Crisis

just when the two superpowers were going to sign a ban on nuclear testing, a Soviet missile shot down an American U-2 spy plane over soviet territory.

Segregation

keeping black and white persons separated.

Plantation

large farm worked by twenty or more slaves. Although small farms were more numerous, plantations produced more than 75 percent of the South's export crops

Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

largely reversed the policy of the Dawes Act of 1887. It provided little economic aid but it did restore their right to own land communally and to have greater control over their own affairs.

Eugene Debs

leader of the ARU. Fired off telegrams to all parts of the country advising his followers to avoid violence and respect law and order. Arrested for contempt of court. From his jail cell, he reviewed the events of the Pullman strike and decided with the courts and the government ready to side with the industrialists in defense of private property, strikes seemed futile, and unions remained helpless. Workers would have to take control of the state itself. Debs came out of Jail as a socialist and formed the Socialist party in 1900 and ran for president five times.

Mohammed Mossadegh

leader of the Iranian parliament who nationalized the country's oil fields and refineries, which had primarily been owned by a British company.

Carrie Chapman Catt

leader of the National American Woman Suffrage Association

Gaspar de Portola

military man who led an expedition in 1769. Established a presidio in 1770 in Monterey.

John Dickinson

more moderate, rewrote the declaration fearing that Jefferson's would offend Britain.

Sexual Revolution

more tolerant approaches to sexual behaviors, with help from the birth control pill, available in the 1960s.

Third World

nations that had won their independence from imperial powers by 1960.

Abraham Lincoln

on January 12,1848, a gangly freshman Whig representative from Illinois rose in the house of representatives. Before he sat he questioned Polk's intelligence, honesty, and sanity. The president ignored him but the Whigs kept up the attack.

Liberia

on the west African coast, where several thousand ex-slaves were transported.

Progressive "Bull Moose" Party

party split from the Republicans to nominate Roosevelt. Planks called for woman suffrage, presidential primaries, conservation of natural resources, and end to child labor, workers' compensation, a minimum wage that would include women workers, social security, and a federal income tax. Roosevelt arrived in Chicago and accepted the nomination, saying he felt "as fit as a bull moose."

Pure Food and Drug Act- 1906

preventing the manufacture, sale, or transport of adulterated, misbranded, poisonous, or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, liquors, and for regulating traffic therein for other purposes.

"A Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms"

rehearsed familiar arguments about the tyrannical nature of parliament and the need to defend English liberties, and was first drafted by Thomas Jefferson, but was seen as too radical on independence.

Barry Goldwater

republican Arizona Senator running against Johnson in 64.

Hiram M Johnson

republican of california that who served as governor for 1911 and 1917 and later as a US senator. Ran for governor on the promise to "kick the Southern Pacific Railroad out of politics" and the promise "to return government to the people." as governor he introduced the first direct primary, supported the initiative, referendum, and recall, strengthened the state's railroad commission, supported conservation, and sig

Richard Nixon

republican vice president

"Cash and Carry" Policy

required warring nations to pay cash for nonmilitary goods and to transport them in their own ships. This policy benefited the nation's economy, but it also helped foreign aggressors by supplying them with goods and thereby undermining peace.

Muller V Oregon- 1908

reversed its previous rulings and upheld an Oregon law that limited the number of hours women could work in a day to ten.

Anti-black riots in New Orleans, Memphis

riots that happened as whites in southern states went on rampages and killed 34 blacks in New orleans and 46 in Memphis. The slaughter renewed skepticism about Johnson's claim that southern whites could be trusted

Abington School District v Schempp- 1963

ruled that requiring bible reading and prayer in the schools violated the 1st amendment principle of separation of church and state. Later judgments banned official prayer in public schools even if the students were not required to participate.

Democratic National Convention in Chicago

several thousand protesters came, either in support for Eugene McCarthy, or to cause disruption.

Powder Alarm

showed how ready americans were to take up arms against Britain. Gage sent troops to a town just outside Boston reported to have a hidden powder warehouse, and in the surprise of the attack it was rumored that the troops had fired on men defending the powder and killed 6. Within 24 hours, men from New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts had streamed on foot to avenge the blood spilled.

Bracero Program

started in 1942 by the government, under which Mexicans were permitted to enter the US to work for a limited period. Before the program ended in 1964, more than 100,000 Mexicans entered the US each year to labor in the fields.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B Anthony

started the National Woman Suffrage Association, the first independent women's rights organization in the US, to fight for the vote of women.

George Pullman

the builder of Pullman railroad cars. He built a model town for his workers, The housing was superior, but also costly.

"The White City"

the fairground for the Columbian Exposition. It was designed by Frederick Law Olmstead and Daniel Burnham who turned it from a swampy wasteland into a pristine paradise of lagoons, fountains, wooded islands, gardens, and imposing white buildings. It represented the emergent industrial might of the US, with inventions, manufactured goods, and growing consumer culture.

Requisition of 1785

the government requisitioned 3 million dollars in 1785, four times larger than the previous years. Many states refused to pay because they could not.

John Adams

the lawyer representing the soldiers. Was tied to the Sons of Liberty, but was determined to give the soldiers a fair trial.

Brigham Young

the leader of the Mormons after Joseph Smith, who oversaw the Mormons exodus to Salt Lake City, Utah. Within ten years the mormons developed an irrigation system that made the desert bloom.

Alexander Hamilton

the man who brilliantly unified the pro-constitution federalists and headed the Treasury Department in the new government

Temperance movement

the movement to end drunkenness

American System of Manufacturing

the practice of manufacturing and then assembling interchangeable parts. A system that spread quickly across American industries, the use of standardized parts allowed American manufacturers to employ cheap unskilled workers.

Vietnam Veterans Memorial

unveiled in Washington in November 1982. Designed by Yale architecture student Maya Lin, the black, V shaped wall inscribed with the names of 58,200 men and women lost in the war had become of of the most popular spots in DC.

virtual representation vs. real representation

virtual representation was that the colonists were already represented in Parliament, the House of Commons represented British subjects wherever they are; real representation was actually having members from the colonies to discuss what the colonists wanted

Tuskegee Institute

washington opened this in 1881 to teach vocational skills to African Americans.

Mark Hanna

wealthy industrialist and party boss who supported William McKinley. He played on the business community's fear of the Populist Party to raise a Republican war chest more than double the amount of any previous campaign.

Uprising of Twenty Thousand- 1909

when hundreds of women employees of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York City went on strike to protest low wages, dangerous working conditions, and management's refusal to recognize their union. In support it estimated twenty thousand garment workers, who stayed out on strike through the winter, picketing in the cold. By the time the strike ended in February 1910, the workers had won important demands in many shops. The solidarity shown by women workers proved to be the strike's biggest success.

Leading to the Civil War:

1789: NW Ordinance, 1804: LA Purchase, 1820: MO Compromise, 1848: Mexican War, Texas + Oregon, 1850: Compromise of 1850/ Popular Sovereignty, 1854: Kansas/Nebraska (undos missouri compromise), 1858: Dred Scott, 1859: Brown, 1860: Lincoln gets elected

How did southern society alter its defense of slavery after 1820 and why? How did white supremacy help to unite the southern society?

After attacks on slavery in the 1820s, white Southerners sought to strengthen slavery. State legislations created slave codes, and underlined the authority of all whites, not just masters. The South's academics, writers, and clergy argued that slaves were legal property, and wasn't the protection of property the bedrock of American liberty? They claimed history also endorsed slavery. Proslavery spokesmen also claimed that freeing slaves would lead to miscegenation. George Fitzhugh defended slavery by attacking the North's free-labor ideals. At the heart lay the claim of black inferiority. "Black enslavement is both necessary and proper." This encouraged southern whites to unify around race rather than divide by class.

Camp David Accords

Agreements between Egypt and Israel reached at the 1979 talks hosted by President Carter at Camp David. In the accords, Egypt became the first Arab state to recognize Israel, and Israel agreed to gradual withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula.

Selma, Alabama, March 1965

Alabama state troopers used such violent force to turn back a voting rights march that it earned the name "bloody sunday" and compelled President Johnson to call up the Alabama National Guard to protect the marchers.

Rachel Carson- "Silent Spring"

Biologist who wrote about the harmful effects of toxic chemicals such as the pesticide DDT in her 1962 book Silent Spring.

William "Boss" Tweed

Boss of NYC, his Democratic Party "machine" held sway. He kept the democratic party together and ran the city through the use of of bribery and graft.

General John Burgoyne

British General commanding an army on the Hudson River Valley.

Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

Contained friendly assurances to France and Britain, in an effort to stay out of European Wars.

Who were the leaders of the women's suffrage movement at the close of the 19th century and what were their goals and strategies?

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B Anthony's National Woman Suffrage Association was a leading group demanding the vote for women, along with the conservative American Woman Suffrage Association, which was composed of both women and men. This group believed that women should vote but not in national elections. By 1890 the split had healed and the newly united NAWSA launched campaigns on the state level to gain the vote for women. Suffragists won victories in Colorado in 1893 and Idaho in 1896. One more state joined the suffrage column in 1896 when Utah entered the union.

Bay of Pigs

Failed US-sponsored invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro forces in 1961 who planned to overthrow Fidel Castro's government. The disaster humiliated Kennedy and the US. It alienated Latin Americans who saw the invasion as another example of Yankee imperialism.

Battle of Camden

General gates led 3,000 troops from the North to South Carolina. Most were newly recruited, and panicked at the sight of the British. When regiment leaders tried to regroup the next day, only 700 soldiers showed up.

What steps did college students, young people, gay men and lesbians, take to achieve their goals?

In 1962, the organizers of SDS wrote in their statement of purpose, "we are people of this generation, bred in at least modest comfort, housed now in universities, looking uncomfortably at the world we inherit." They criticized the complacency of their elders, the remoteness of decision makers, and the powerlessness and alienation generated by a bureaucratic society. SDS aimed to mobilize a "new left" around the goals of civil rights, peace, and universal economic security. The first student protest arose at Berkeley, in 1964, when university officials banned students from setting up tables to recruit support for various causes. They also protested against universities' ties with the military. They changed the collegiate environment, women at the University of Chicago, charged in 1969 that all universities "discriminate against women, impede their full intellectual development, deny them places on the faculty, exploit talented women and mistreat women students." Students wom curricular reforms, such as black studies' and women's studies programs, more financial aid for minority and poor students, independence from paternalistic rules, and a larger voice in campus decision making. Student protest sometimes blended into a cultural revolution against nearly every conventional standard of behavior. LGBT only escaped discrimination and ridicule by concealing their identities. Those who couldn't or wouldn't were fired, arrested, deprived of their children, or accused of being "perverted." The first gay activism challenged the government's aggressive efforts to keep gays from civil service. In October 1965, picketers outside the White House held signs calling discrimination against homosexuals "as immoral as discrimination against negroes and jews." The civil service didn't change their policy on anti-gayness for another 10 years. A turning point came in 1969 when police raided the Stonewall Inn, in New York City's Greenwich Village, and the gays fought back. Energized by the defiance shown at the stonewall riots, gay men and lesbians organized a host of new groups such as the Gay Liberation Front and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. In 1972, Ann Arbor, Michigan, passed the first anti-discrimination ordinance, and two years later Elaine Noble's election to the Massachusetts legislature marked the first time an openly gay candidate won state office. In 1973, gay activists persuaded the American Psychiatric Association to withdraw its designation of homosexuality as a mental disease.

Battle of Midway

June 3-6 1942, naval battle in the Central Pacific in which American forces surprised and defeated the Japanese who had been massing an invasion force aimed at Midway Island. The battle put the Japanese at a disadvantage for the rest of the war.

Pentagon Papers

Secret Government documents published in 1971 containing an internal study of the Vietnam War. The documents further disillusioned the public by revealing that officials harbored pessimism about the war even as they made rosy public pronouncements about its progress.

Election of 1968

Wallace won 13 percent of the popular vote. Nixon beat Humphrey by just half a million popular votes, but won 301 electoral college votes to Humphrey's 191 and Wallace's 46. This election revealed deep cracks in the coalition that had maintained Democratic dominance in Washington for the previous 30 years. Johnson's liberal policies on race shattered a century of Democratic party rule in the South, which delivered all its electoral college votes to Wallace and Nixon.

Valley Forge

Washington moved his troops her as winter quarters. Men lacked blankets, boots, stockings, and food. Some 2,000 men died of disease, and another 2,000 deserted.

Anti-Federalists

anti constitution/ ratification

Economic Opportunity Act of 1964- Office of Economic Opportunity

authorized ten new programs, allocated $800 million (about 1 percent of the federal budget) for the first year. Many provisions targeted children and youths, including Head Start for preschoolers, work-study grants for college students, and the Job Corps for unemployed young people. The Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) program paid modest wages to volunteers working with the disadvantaged, and a legal services program provided lawyers for the poor. The Community Action Program (CAP) required "Maximum feasible participation" of the poor themselves in antipoverty projects. Poor people began to organize and take control of their neighborhoods and make welfare agencies, school boards, police departments, and housing authorities more accountable to the people they served.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration

established in May 1933, supported four million to five million households with $20 or $30 a month. Also created jobs for the unemployed on thousands of public works projects, organized into the civil works administrations, which put paychecks worth more than $800 million into the hands of previously jobless workers. Earning wages between 40 and 60 cents an hour, laborers renovated school, dug sewers, and rebuilt roads and bridges.

Clean Water Act 1972

established the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into the waters of the US and gave the EPA the authority to implement pollution control programs. Nixon vetoed this, but congress overrode it.

Helen Gahagan Douglas

former Broadway star and opera singer who served as a congresswoman from 1945 to 1951 as a progressive liberal.

Frederick Douglass

former slave who lectured and wrote to reform audiences throughout the north about the cruelties of slavery. Became a leader in the abolitionist movement

Toussaint L'Ourverture

former slave who led the slaves and free blacks in alliance with spain in the Haitian Revolution.

Separate spheres for men and women

the idea that men found their status and authority in the new world of work, and women would stay home and tend to hearth and home. This enforced the idea that women had separate spheres; women's duties lay in elevating the intellectual character of the household, and men's duties were to absorb passion for gain, press demands for business, and engross their whole attention.

Daughters of Liberty

the idea that women might play a role in public affairs, women could express affiliation with the colonial protest through conspicuous boycotts of British made goods; more than 300 women in boston signed a petition to abstain from tea.

"The Slave Power"

the slaveholders of the south

Frederick Douglass

wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, as Told by Himself, which sold more than 30,000 copies.

Mormon War

After Young's statement that all mormons practiced polygamy, the US was forced the establish its authority in Utah. In 1857, 2500 US troops invaded Salt Lake City. The bloodless occupation illustrated that most Americans viewed the Mormons as a threat to American morality and institutions.

George B. McClellan

Appointed commander of the Army of the Potomac who believed he was a great soldier and Lincoln was a dunce, "the original Gorilla." He was able to discipline his soldier, but he lacked decisiveness.

Arab Oil Embargo of 1973-74

Arab nations, furious at the administration's support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War, cut off oil shipments to the US. Long lines formed at gas stations, where prices had nearly doubled, and many homes were cold. In response, Nixon authorized temporary emergency measures allocating petroleum and establishing a national 55 mph speed limit to save gasoline.

Explain the role of banks, lawyers and laws related to contracts and corporations in the growing economy.

Banks stimulated the economy by making loans to merchants and manufacturers and enlarging the money supply, and neither government issued paper money, so banknotes became the currency. Bankers decided who would get loans and what the discount rates would be. Lawyers also exercised economic power, by refashioning commercial law to enhance the prospects of private investment. In 1811 state's started to rewrite the laws of incorporation (the allowance of charting of businesses by state) and the number of corporations increased greatly. Incorporation protected individual investors from being held liable for corporate debts. State lawmakers also wrote laws of eminent domain, encouraging states to buy land for roads and canals. In this way, entrepreneurial lawyers created the legal foundation for capitalism, where the economy favored ambitious individuals interested in maximizing their own wealth.

What policies did Ike pursue on Vietnam during the 1960s?

Because Minh was a communist, the Truman administration had begun to provide aid to the French. Eisenhower viewed communism in Vietnam much as Truman had regarded it in Greece and Turkey. He thought that a communist victory in Southeast Asia could trigger the fall of Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines. By 1954, America was paying for 75% of France's war, but Eisenhower resisted a larger role. Between 1954 and 1961, the US provided 800 million to the South Vietnamese army (ARVN). Eisenhower was unwilling to abandon containment, and left his successor with a situation and a firm commitment to protect South Vietnam from communism.

What shared political, religious, and economic experiences served to unify the diverse cultures in different regions of North America

Colonial products spurred the development of mass markets throughout the Atlantic world. Ordinary people, not just the wealthy elite could buy things they desired, not just the things they needed. Eighteenth century colonists could choose from a variety of religions. Most religions were some form of Christianity. Most colonies won the right to worship publicly, even if another church retained official support. The dominant faith overall was religious indifference.

Normandy Invasion

D Day, June 6, 1944, the date of the Allied invasion of northern France. D Day was the largest amphibious assault in world history. The Invasion opened a second front against the Germans and moved the Allies closer to victory in Europe.

Thomas Jefferson

Drafted the declaration. He started with a preamble that articulated the theory of natural rights, equality, the right of revolution, and the consent of the governed as the true basis of government.

During 1861 and 1862, which side had the most success in the East? In the West? At sea?

During 1861 and 1862, the South had the most success in the East. The Union had the most success in the West.

How did family and religion contribute to an autonomous slave culture?

Families often set up housekeeping in their own cabin. Slaves often met secretly in the woods to create an African American Christianity that served their own needs. Their faith emphasized justice.

Black Power Movement

Movement of the 1960s and 1970s that emphasized black racial pride and autonomy. Black power advocates encouraged African Americans to assert community control, and some within the movement also rejected the ethos of nonviolence.

New Negroes

Term given to newly arrived African slaves in the colonies. Planters usually maintained only a small number of recent arrivals among their slaves at any given time in order to accelerate to their new circumstances.

How and why did the monarchy move to consolidate its authority over the American colonies after 1675 and how did the colonists respond?

The monarchy disbanded the Massachusetts charter after an investigation uncovered that the colonies were not quite following the English laws. The monarchy grouped the colonies north of maryland into the dominion of new england, and sent Sir Edmund Andros to govern. The colonists were offended, and they eventually overthrew him.

Installment Buying

a little money down, and a payment each month- which allowed people to purchase expensive items before saving the necessary money

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire-1911

a little over a year after the shirtwaist makers' strike ended, fire alarms sounded at the factory. The ramshackle building, full of lint and combustible cloth burned to rubble in half an hour. The terrified workers had little choice but jump. Flames blocked the exit, and the other door had been locked to prevent workers from pilfering. The flimsy, rusted fire escape collapsed under the weight of fleeing workers, killing dozens. Trapped, 54 workers on the top floors jumped to their deaths. Of 500 workers, 164 died and scores of others were injured.

Battle of Kings Mountain

a massacre of loyalist units by 1,400 frontiersmen in western south carolina forced Cornwallis back south from North Carolina in 1780.

Pork Barrel Programs

a metaphor for the appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured primarily to bring money to a representative's district.

Andrew Carnegie- Carnegie Steel Corporation

a scottish immigrant who landed in america at the age of 12 in 1848. He rose from a job cleaning bobbins in a textile factory. His skill as a telegraph operator caught the attention of Tom Scott, the superintendent of Pennsylvania Railroad. Scott hired Carnegie, soon promoted him, and lent him the money for his first foray into Wall Street investment. Carnegie became a millionaire before his thirtieth birthday, and turned away from speculation. By applying the lessons of cost accounting and efficiency he learned with the railroad, he turned steel into the nation's first manufacturing big business. In 1872 he built the largest, most up-to-date steel mill in Braddock, Pennsylvania. He method was to cut prices, scoop the market, run the mills full, and watch the costs and profits take care of themselves."

Republicanism

a social philosophy that embraced representative institutions, a citizenry attuned to civic values above private interests, and a virtuous community in which individuals work to promote the public good.

Electoral college

a temporary assemblage of distinguished citizens who chose the president.

Patrick Henry

a young political newcomer in the House of Burgesses who presented a series of resolutions to the Stamp act that were passed 1 by 1.

Olive Branch Petition

an appeal to the king affirming royalty to the monarchy and blaming all the troubles on the King's ministers and on Parliament. It proposed that american colonial assemblies be recognized as individual parliaments under the umbrella of the monarchy. It was rejected and condemned the Americans as traitors. Ask for reconciliation & for blockade to be removed and they can tax/ govern themselves. Not independence, just civil liberties.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972

banned sex discrimination in all aspects of education, such as admissions, athletics, and hiring. Congress also outlawed sex discrimination in credit in 1974, opened US military academies to women in 1976, and prohibited discrimination against pregnant workers in 1978.

Herbert Hoover

became president in 1929. He was the secretary of commerce during Harding and Coolidge administration.

Charles Grandison Finney

central leader of the Second Great Awakening. He lived in western New York where the emergence of the erie canal changed the social and economic landscape, in which he saw great potential for evangelical awakening. His message was primarily directed at the business classes, and he argued for a public-spirited outreach to the less-than-perfect to foster their salvation.

Malcolm X

challenged nonviolence. He called for black pride and autonomy, separation from white society, and self-defense against white violence.

"Hawks"

charged that the US was fighting with one hand behind its back and called for intensification of the war.

Savings and Loan Scandal

deregulated S&Ls extended enormous loans to real estate developers and invested in other high-yield but risky ventures. S&L owners reaped profits, and their depositors enjoyed high interest rates. When real estate values began to plunge, hundreds of S&Ls went bankrupt. In 1989, American taxpayers bore the burden of the largest financial scandal in US history, estimated at more than 100 billion.

Herbert Spencer & William Graham Sumner

developed the theory of social darwinism. Insisted that societal progress came about as a result of relentless competition in which the strong survived and the weak died out. Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" and Sumner made clear in his book "What Social Classes Owe Each Other"

Counterculture- Hippies

drawing on the ideas of the Beats of the 1950s, these people rejected mainstream values such as materialism, order, and sexual control. They sought personal rather than political change, and advocated "do your own thing" and drew attention with their long hair, colorful clothing, and use of drugs.

Hiroshima & Nagasaki

dropped atomic bombs on these Japanese bombs, ending the war but killing hundreds of thousands of people.

William Randolph Hearst

editor of the Journal

John Maynard Keynes

english economist, argued that only government intervention could pump enough money into the economy to restore prosperity, a concept that became known as Keynesian economics.

Harriet Tubman

escaped from slavery in Maryland in 1849 and repeatedly risked her freedom and her life to return to the South to escort slaves to freedom.

Federal Reserve Act of 1913

established a national banking system composed of 12 regional banks, privately controlled and regulated by the Federal Reserve Board which was appointed by the President. It gave the US its first efficient banking and currency and provided for a greater degree of government control over banking.

Pendleton Act (1883)

established a permanent Civil Service Commission consisting of three members appointed by the president. Some 14,000 jobs came under a merit system that required examinations for office and made it impossible to remove jobholders for political reasons.

National Women's Party (NWP)

founded by Alice Paul in 1916 and became the radical voice of the suffrage movement

Samuel Gompers

founded the Organized Trades and Labor Unions in 1881 and reorganized it in 1886 to the American Federation of Labor. He planned to organize skilled workers and use strikes to gain immediate objectives such as higher pay and better working conditions.

Hepburn Railroad Act of 1906

gave the ICC power to set rates subject to court review .

George Washington

general of US army

"Bridgets"

generic term for female domestics (because there were so many Irish maids in the East).

James Madison:

leader of Virginians who convinced the confederation congress to allow a meeting of delegates to try to revise the trade of regulation powers of the article.

Emilio Aguinaldo

leader of filipino revolutionaries who had greeted US troops as liberators, bitterly fighting the troops. It took 7 years and 4,000 US lives and about 20,000 Filipino casualties to defeat Aguinaldo and secure American control. (Filipino insurrection- 1899)

Mechanization of Labor

lots of factories and mills sought to get machines to do the work so even an unskilled worker could do what a skilled worker was doing before because of the machine.

Underwood Tariff-1913

lowered rates by 15% and compensated by approving a moderate income tax made possible by the 16th amendment.

"Speak softly and carry a big stick"

phrase used by Roosevelt to describe his relations with European powers, he relied on military strength and diplomacy.

Rutherford B Hayes (President 1877-1881)

republican president whose disputed election in 1876 signaled the end of Reconstruction in the South, tried to steer a middle course between spoilsmen and reformers. He proved to be a hard working, well informed executive who wanted peace, prosperity, and an end to party strife.

"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion"

saying about the democrat party, linking alcoholism and catholicism, and offending Irish catholics.

Deism

shared the ideas of 18th century European Enlightenment thinkers, tended to agree that science and reason could disclose God's laws in the natural order.

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963

signed by the US, the USSR, and the UK, reducing the threat of radioactive fallout from nuclear testing and raising hopes for further superpower accord.

Upton Sinclair

socialist author who ran for governor in California in 1934 on a plan that the state take ownership of idle factories and unused land and then give them to cooperative working people, a first step toward putting the needs of people above profits.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

solemn pledge to renounce war and settle international disputes peacefully.

John Breckinridge

southern democrat nominee for the 1860 election,\.

Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam

the South Vietnamese ground army

Worcester v Georgia

the case protesting the removal of Cherokee indians by georgia in which the supreme court decided that the land was rightfully the Cherokees and they should not be removed.

Alien and Sedition Acts

1798 laws passed to suppress political dissent. The sedition act criminalized conspiracy and criticism of government leaders. The two alien acts extended the waiting period for citizenship and empowered the president to deport or imprison without trial any foreigner deemed a danger.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

1798 resolutions condemning the Alien and sedition acts submitted to the federal government by the virginia and kentucky state legislatures. The resolutions tested the idea that state legislatures could judge the constitutionality of federal laws and nullify them.

Panic of 1873

18,000+ businesses collapsed, leaving more than a million workers on the streets.

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 Supreme Court ruling that upheld the legality of racial segregation. According to the ruling, blacks could be segregated in separate schools, restrooms, and other facilities as long as the facilities were "equal" to those provided for whites. ("equal but fair")

Briefly describe the disputes between smaller states and larger states over the allocation of western lands.

8 states held claims to land to the west, and were ready to sign the Articles of Confederation because it protected their interests and land, but the 5 states without land insisted that the colonial boundaries should be redrawn to create a national domain to sell to settlers. Three of the five states eventually gave in and signed because of the equality of it, but Delaware and Maryland continued to insist on a national domain. They came to a compromise, in which any land that volunteered to relinquish would become the national domain. James Madison and Thomas Jefferson gave up Virginia's huge land claim to allow the articles to become unanimously approved.

non-importation agreements

A more direct blow to trade, as in an agreement not to import goods from England, but getting Merchants to agree was difficult, and there was the fear that merchants in other colonies wouldn't agree and continue to import goods.

Henry Miller and Charles Lux

Alsatian immigrants who pioneered the west's mix of agriculture and industrialism. The began as meat wholesalers, and quickly expanded their business to encompass cattle, land, and land reclamation projects such as dams and irrigation systems. With a labor force of migrant workers, a highly coordinated corporate system, and large sums of investment capital, their firm became an industrial behemoth.

During the 1790s, what changes occurred in commercial agriculture, transportation, and commercial banking?

An agricultural spur led to the invention of the cotton gin to help separate the seeds from the green-seed cotton which had rough seeds. A surge of road building began before the 190s, but when the post office opened in 1792, the road mileage increased sixfold. Private companies opened toll roads, and stage companies opened. Commercial banking with multiple banks opening nationwide. Banks drew in money from the sale of stock and made loans in the form of banknotes/ paper currency backed by the hard money made in stock sales.

James Madison

An intellectual graduate from Princeton who joined the revolution- although he was a poor shot, he put his education in political theory to use and was elected to the Virginia Convention in 1776. In 1780, he represented Virginia in the Continental Congress. He broke the deadlock on the articles of confederation by arranging for the cession of Virginia's Western land. He was reappointed to the Virginia convention in 1784 and he wanted to strengthen the national government/ give it more power.

Republican Party

Antislavery party formed in 1854 following passage of the Kansas-Nebraska act. The Republicans attempted to unite all those who opposed the extension of slavery into any territory of the United States.

How did John D Rockefeller achieve horizontal integration in the oil industry?

Because Rockefeller was the largest oil refiner in Cleveland, he was able to demand illegal rebates from the railroad in exchange for his steady business. The railroads needed his business so badly that they gave him a share of the rates his competitors paid, and they sometimes ended up paying him to transport his oil. This enabled him to drive out competitors using predatory pricing, allowing him to undercut his competitors and pressure competing refiners to sell out or face ruin. Rockefeller used horizontal integration (controlling only an aspect of production. He also used trusts to sell out other refineries.

Why did guerilla warfare between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces break out in kansas and how did it lead to violence on the floor of the US senate?

Because of popular sovereignty, proslavery and antislavery settlers rushed to Kansas to try to swing the vote their way. With the first territorial vote, the laws were drafted as proslavery. The free-soils elected their own legislature, which banned slavery and free-blacks. Kansas was organized into 2 rival governments, both armed and ready to fight. Fighting started May 21, 1856 when several hundred proslavery men raided Lawrence, the center of free-soil settlement. Charles Sumner gave a speech entitled "The Crime Against Kansas" in which he delivered a personal attack against Andrew P Butler. Preston Brook then entered the senate and beat sumner over the head with his cane until he lay bleeding and unconscious on the floor.

What trade regulations did England impose on the colonies beginning in 1650?

Beginning in 1650, England imposed the navigation acts on the colonists, which allowed them to only trade with england or english colonies, and had to be transported in english ships with mostly english crewmen.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

Black clergy from across the south had elected King to head the organization, established to coordinate local protests against segregation and disfranchisement.

How did the events of 1968- the Tet Offensive, Johnson's withdrawal of his candidacy, campus demonstrations, and the Democratic National Convention- affect the outcome of the 1968 presidential election?

By 1967, most people in the US were torn between weariness with the war and a desire to fulfill the US commitment. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, a principal architect of US involvement, now believed that the North Vietnamese "won't quit no matter how much bombing we do." He feared for the image of the US. He left the administration in early 1968, but never publicly opposed the war. On January 30, 1968, the North Vietnamese and Vietcong launched a campaign of attacks on key cities, every american base, and the US embassy in Saigon during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year Holiday. Although the enemy lost ten times as many soldiers, Tet was psychologically damaging to the US because it exposed the credibility gap between official's statements and the war's reality. The attacks created more South Vietnamese refugees as well as widespread destruction. Public approval of Johnson's handling of the war dropped 26 percent. Johnson conferred with advisers in the Defense department and an unofficial group of foreign policy experts who had been key architects of the Cold War since the 1940s. "We can no longer do the job we've set out to do in the time we have left and we must begin steps to disengage." On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced that the US would sharply curtail its bombing of North Vietnam and that he was prepared to begin peace talks. He added that he would not run for reelection. Negotiation began in Paris in May 1968. The US would not agree to recognize the National Liberation Front, to a coalition government, or to American withdrawal. The North Vietnamese would agree to nothing less. At home, protests struck 200 college campuses in the spring of 1968. Students occupied buildings at Columbia UNiversity in New York City, condemning the University's war-related research and its treatment of African Americans. When negotiations failed, university officials called in the city police, who cleared buildings, injuring scores of demonstrators and arresting hundreds. In August, protesters battled the police in Chicago, site of the DNC. Several thousand demonstrators came to the city, some to support the peace candidate, Eugene McCarthy, others to cause disruption. On august 25, when demonstrators jeered at orders to disperse, police attacked them with tear gas and clubs. On August 28, the police sprayed Mace and clubbed not only those who had come to provoke violence but also reporters, peaceful demonstrators, and convention delegates. In contrast, the RNC met peacefully and nominated Richard Nixon. Nixon promised "an honorable end" to the Vietnam, but did not indicate how to achieve it. Humphrey had reservations about the US policy in Vietnam, yet as Vice President he was tied to Johnson's policies. Wallace garnered 13 percent total of the popular vote, the strongest third party finish since 1924. Nixon edged out Humphrey by just half a million popular votes, but won 301 electoral votes to Humphrey's 191 and Wallace's 46. The Democrats remained in control of Congress.

What jobs did slaves perform and what were their work lives like?

Children carried water to thirsty laborers and protected ripening crops from hungry birds; others helped in the slave nursery, caring for children younger than themselves, or in the big house sweeping floors or shooing flies in the dining room. When the children reached 11, they were sent out into the field. After a lifetime of labor, old women left the fields to care for small children, spin yarn. Old men moved on to mind the livestock and clean stables. Field hands were responsible for planting, maintaining, and harvesting the crops. About one in ten slaves became house servants. House servants were responsible for cooking, cleaning babysitting, washed clothes, and did anything else the master or mistress required. Even rarer than house servants were skilled tradesmen, such as artisans. The rarest job was slave driver, whose job was to whip the slaves if they stopped doing their job. They worked from the time it was light to the time it was dark, and were often beaten for only the tiniest mistake.

How did the goals, tactics, and rhetoric of black activists change as the civil rights movement became the Black Power movement during the mid-1960s?

Civil Rights activists demanded not just legal equality but also economic justice and abandoning passive resistance. This resulted from heightened activism and unrealized promise. In the north, Malcolm challenged nonviolence. He called for black pride and autonomy, separation from white society, and self-defense against white violence. At a June 1966 rally in Greenwood, Mississippi, SNCC leader Stokely Carmichael gave Malcolm X's ideas the name "black power." Carmichael rejected integration and assimilation because that implied white superiority. African Americans were encouraged to develop businesses, control their own schools, communities, and political organizations. Black power quickly became the rallying cry in SNCC and CORE as well as other organizations, such as the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, organized to combat police brutality. MLK agreed with the need for a radical reconstruction of society, but he stuck with nonviolence and integration. He was assassinated on April 4, 1968.

Loyalists (Tories)

Colonists who remained loyal to Britain during the Revolutionary War, probably numbering around one-fifth of the population in 1776. Colonists remained loyal to Britain for many reasons, and loyalists could be found in every region of the country.

How successful was Johnson's War on Poverty?

Congress doubled the program's funding in 1965, enacted new economic development measures for depressed regions, and authorized more than $1 billion to improve the nation's slums. Direct aid included food stamps and rent supplements. The number of poor Americans fell from more than 20 percent of the population in 1959 to around 13 percent in 1968.

House Un-American Activities Committee

Congressional committee especially prominent during the early years of the Cold War that investigated Americans who might be disloyal to the government or might have associated with Communists or other radicals. It was one of the key institutions that promoted the second red scare.

Fifteenth Amendment-1870

Constitutional amendment passed in February 1869 prohibiting states from depriving any citizen of the right to vote because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." It extended black suffrage nationwide. Woman suffrage advocates were disappointed the amendment failed to extend voting rights to women.

What effect did Prohibition have on American culture?

Drying up the rivers of liquor that Americans consumed, supporters of prohibition claimed, would eliminate crime, boost production, and lift the nation's morality. Instead, prohibition initiated a fourteen-year orgy of lawbreaking unparalleled in the nation's history. Treasury department agents smashed more than 172,000 illegal stills in 1925 alone, but loopholes in the law almost guaranteed failure. Sacramental wine was permitted, allowing fake clergy to party with bogus congregations. Farmers were allowed to ferment their own "fruit juices." Doctors and dentists could prescribe liquor for medicinal purposes. Speakeasys became a common feature of the urban landscape and their dancefloors led to the sexual integration of the formerly all-male drinking culture. Eventually, criminals took over the liquor trade. During the first four years of prohibition, Chicago witnessed more than two hundred gang-related killings as rival mobs struggled for control of the liquor trade. The most notorious was Al Capone, who was sent to prison for income tax evasion. Prohibition fueled criminal activity, corrupted the police, demoralized the judiciary, and caused ordinary citizens to disrespect the law. In 1933, the nation ended prohibition, making the Eighteenth Amendment the only constitutional amendment to be repealed.

What effect did mass production and advertising have on consumer culture?

During the 1920s, per capita income increased by a third, the cost of living stayed the same, and unemployment remained low. Americans who labored with their hands inched ahead, while white-collar workers enjoyed significantly more spending money and more leisure time to spend it. In this new era of abundance, more people than ever conceived of the American dream in terms of the things they could acquire.

American Temperance Society

Organization founded in 1826 by Lyman Beecher that linked drinking with poverty, idleness, illness, and violence. Temperance lecturers traveled the country gaining converts to the cause. The temperance movement had considerable success, contributing to a sharp drop in American alcohol consumption.

Triple Alliance

Early-twentieth-century alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, formed as part of a complex network of military and diplomatic agreements intended to prevent war in Europe by balancing power. In actuality, such alliances made large-scale conflict more likely.

Triple Entente

Early-twentieth-century alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia, which was formed as a part of a complex network of military and diplomatic agreements intended to prevent war in Europe by balancing power.

What was the family economic and what role did children and women play in it?

Economic contributions of multiple members of a household that were necessary to the survival of the family. From the late nineteenth century into the twentieth, many working class families depended on the wages of all family members, regardless of sex or age. This meant that even children and women worked. Children under 15 often were working for as little as 50 cents a day. Women working for wages in nonagricultural occupations doubled in number between 1870 and 1900. White married women rarely worked for wages outside of the home. Black women worked out of the home for wages in much greater numbers.

What was Ike's "New Look" in the military, and what prompted it?

Eisenhower was determined to control military expenditures. He feared massive defense spending would threaten the nation's economic strength.is "new look" concentrated US military strength in nuclear weapons and missiles to deliver them. Instead of maintaining their own ground forces, they would arm friendly nations and back them up with an ominous nuclear arsenal.

How did the second great awakening change american religion and promote social reform?

First appearing in Kentucky in 1801, the Second Great Awakening attracted men and women hungry for more immediate access to spiritual peace. From 1800 to 1820 church membership doubled in the US, and the new movements attracted more women; wives and mother typically recruited their family to join them. Evangelicals promoted sunday schools to bring piety to children, battled to honor the Sabbath by stopping mail delivery, public transport, and closing shops on sundays. Evangelical religion offered women expanded spheres of influence. The great awakening animated campaigns to eliminate alcohol, sexual sin, and slavery. It created activists against "sin." Alcohol consumption greatly declined to ¼ per capita consumption of 1830.

Battles of Lexington and Concord

Gage planned a surprise attack on a suspected ammunition storage site in concord, a village 18 miles west of Boston. Near midnight on April 18th, British soldiers moved west across the Charles river. Paul Revere and William Dawes raced ahead to alert the minutemen. When the soldiers got to Lexington, 5 miles east of Concord, they were met with about 70 armed men. A British Commander demanded that they put down their weapons and disperse, and they began to comply before someone fired. Within 2 minutes 8 americans were dead and 10 were wounded. The soldiers continued and searched in vain for the ammunition, until at Old North Bridge in Concord British troops and minutemen exchanged shots, killing 2 americans and 3 british. As the british returned to boston they were ambushed by militia units, killing or wounding 2730 british and about 95 Americans.

Pardon of Nixon

Gerald Ford granted a Nixon a pardon "for all offenses against the US which he... has committed or may have committed or taken part in." Prompted by Ford's concern for Nixon's health and by his hope to get the country beyond Watergate, which saved Nixon from certain indictment and trial.

U-boats

German submarines, Unterseebooten, relied on sinking their enemies and could not detect survivors. In February 1915, Germany announced that intended to sink on sight enemy ships en route to the British Isles.

Treaty of Fort Laramie

Government negotiators persuaded the Plains Indians to sign agreements that cleared a wide corridor for wagon trains by restricting Native Americans to specific areas that whites promised they would never violate. This policy became the seedbed for the subsequent policy of reservations.

What was the intent and result of FDR's court-packing scheme?

He wanted to remove opposition to New Deal reforms. Conservative justices appointed by republican presidents had invalidated 11 New Deal measures as unconstitutional interferences with free enterprise. To ensure that the Supreme Court did not dismantle the New Deal, Roosevelt proposed a court-packing plan, to add one new Supreme Court justice for each existing judge over 70. In effect, the law would give Roosevelt the power to pack the Court with up to 6 New Dealers who could outvote the elderly, conservative, Republican judges.

What patterns of life did homesteaders, land speculators, railroads, and ranchers bring to the West?

Homesteaders had trouble making farms even with the free land they needed 1,000 for a house, a team of farm animals, a well, fencing, and seed. Poor farmers had to do without the basics and lived in houses made from sod or dugouts carved into hillsides. Women on the frontier had to do backbreaking labor just to get water and fuel. Women often had to trudge to the nearest creek or spring, carrying a yoke to carry a bucket of water at each end. Despite this, some homesteaders were successful. In california, there was plenty of land for sale, but the land was held by speculators and the prices were too much for poor homesteaders. The railroads owned huge swaths of land from land grants provided by the state and federal governments and actively recruited buyers. Of the 2.5 million farms established between 1860 and 1900, homesteaders accounted for about 1 in 5. Cattle ranchers followed the railroads onto the plains, establishing a cattle kingdom.

Sugar Act of 1764

In 1764 Grenville put into place the Revenue Act, more commonly known as the Sugar act. It lowered the duty on French Molasses to three pence which made it more attractive for shippers to obey the law, and the penalties for smuggling raised. This appeared to be along the tradition of the navigation acts and to regulate trade, but it was actually to raise revenue. It toughened enforcement policies. It did not raise revenue as smuggling was still common, but it increased enforcement which led to several ugly confrontations in port cities.

Battle of Yorktown

October 1781 battle that sealed American victory in the Revolutionary War. American troops and a French fleet trapped the British Army under the command of General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia.

What changes occurred between 1815 and 1840 in gender roles, education, and popular culture?

In 1815 men's work went under a profound change, and men brought more cash home, especially in the manufacturing and urban Northeast. Men often worked away from home now. Women's domestic roles became increasingly complicated. Although the majority of married white women did not hold paying jobs, but their homes needed time-consuming labor. Many wives took in boarders or sewed for pay to help with the family income. The wives on the poorest classes worked to help augment an income. Besides white upper class families, the new gender roles were not entirely applicable. The market economy required expanded opportunities of training for both sexes. In the 1830s, in the north and south state-supported public schools were normalized to produce pupils who could read, write, and participate in marketplace calculations. An incentive to find a cheap teaching force foreshadowed the replacement of male teachers with young females. Advanced education also expanded, and an addition 2 dozen colleges and more seminaries opened in the 1830s.

What events and issues led to the Missouri compromise of 1820?

In 1819 Missouri applied for statehood. This posed a problem, as it was on the same latitude as free states, but the population included 10000 slaves brought by southern planters. This led to two amendments proposed by James Tallmadge Jr. This proposed that slaves born in missouri after statehood would be free at the age of 25, and no new slaves could be imported into the state. The amendments passed in the house by a close and sectional vote of North vs. South. A compromise emerged when Maine applied for statehood as a free state in 1820. This balanced free and slave states, and the southern boundary of Missouri extended west was accepted as the permanent line dividing free and slave states.

How and why did the "Tariff of Abominations" lead to the nullification crisis of the 1830s?

In 1828, congress passed a revised tariff, a bundle of conflicting duties, some as high as 50 percent, the legislation contained provisions that pleased and angered every economic and sectional interest. This particularly hurt South Carolina, as the worldwide prices for cotton had declined in the late 1820s, and the falloff in shipping caused by hig tariffs hurt the south. In 1828 a group of politicians led by John C Calhoun advanced a doctrine called nullification, arguing that when congress overstepped its powers, states had a right to nullify congress' acts. In 1833 they officially declared federal tariffs as null in their state. In response, Jackson sent armed ships to Charleston and threatened to invade. He pushed the force bill through congress, authorizing military action to collect tariffs. At the same time, congress quickly moved to pass a revised tariff that was more acceptable to the south. Both bills were passed on March 1, 1833.

John Deere

In 1837 made a strong steel plow that sliced through prairie soil so cleanly that the farmers called it the "singing plow." His company produced more than 10 thousand plows a year by the late 1850s. Human and animals provided the energy, but the plows allowed the farmers to break more ground and plant more crops.

What human costs did the Depression inflict on Americans

In 1929, the national income was $88 billion, by 1933 it had declined to $40 billion. In 1929, unemployment was 3.1% or 1.5 million workers. By 1933, unemployment rates stood at 25%, almost 13 million workers. Jobless, homeless victims wandered in search of work. Riding the rails or hitchhiking, a million vagabonds moved southward and westward looking for seasonal agricultural work. Other unemployed people, sick or less hopeful, huddled in doorways, overcome. Scavengers haunted alleys behind restaurants in search of food. Rural poverty was most acute, Tenant farmers and sharecroppers, mainly in the South, came to symbolize how poverty crushed the human spirit. Eight and a half million people, three million of them black, crowded into cabins without plumbing, electricity, or running water. They subsisted on salt pork, cornmeal, molasses, beans, peas, and whatever they could hunt or fish. There was no federal assistance and only a patchwork of strapped charities and destitute state and local agencies. The depression deeply affected the American family. Young people postponed marriage. When they did marry, they produced few children. White women, who generally worked in low-paying service areas, did not lose their jobs as often as men who worked in steel, automobile, and other heavy industries.

What Americans opposed the Vietnam War and why? What Americans supported the war and why?

In 1965, Students for a Democratic Society recruited 20,000 people for the first major anti-war protest in Washington DC. Thousands of students protested against Reserve Officer Training Corps programs, CIA and defense industry recruiters, and military research projects on their campuses. Environmentalists attacked the use of chemical weapons, such as Agent Orange. By 1968 anti-war sentiment entered the mainstream; Media critics included the New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, Life magazine, and popular TV anchorman Walter Cronkite. Clergy, businessmen, scientists, and physicians formed their own groups to pressure Johnson to stop the bombing and start negotiations. Many refused to serve, and the World Boxing Association stripped Muhammad Ali of his heavyweight title for refusing to fight "a white man's war." Those who saw the conflict in moral terms wanted total withdrawal, claiming the US had no right to interfere in a civil war and stressing the suffering of the Vietnamese people. A larger segment reflected practical considerations- the belief that the war could not be won at a bearable coast. They wanted Johnson to stop bombing and seek negotiations.

Stonewall Riots

In 1969, when police raided a gay bar in New York City's Greenwich Village, the Stonewall Inn, the gays fought back.

Describe the US involvement in the North Africa and Italy campaign?

In November, an American army under General Dwight D Eisenhower landed far to the west, in French Morocco. Propelled by American tank units commanded by General George Patton, the Allied armies defeated the Germans in North Africa in May 1943. The North African campaign pushed the Germans out of Africa, made the Mediterranean safe for Allied shipping, and opened the door for an Allied invasion of Italy. In July 1943, American and British forces landed in Sicily. Soon afterward, Mussolini was deposed in Italy, ending the reign of Italian fascism. Quickly, the Allies invaded the mainland, and the Italian government surrendered unconditionally. The Germans responded by rushing reinforcements to Italy, turning the Allies' Italian campaign into a series of battles to liberate Italy from German occupation.

What kind of labor systems evolved in the union-occupied areas of the south during the war?

In the Mississippi valley, the occupying federal troops announced a new labor code requiring landholders to give up whipping, sign contracts with ex-slaves, and to pay wages. The code required black laborers to enter into contracts, work diligently, and remain subordinate and obedient. One contemporary called it "compulsory free labor."

Describe the war in the pacific theater during the first half of 1942?

In the Pacific theater, the Japanese assaulted American airfields in the Philippines ad captured US outposts on Guam and Wake Island. After capturing Singapore and Burma, Japan sought to complete its domination of Southern Pacific with an attack in January 1942 on the American stronghold in the Philippines. American defenders surrendered to the Japanese in May. By summer of 1942, Japan had conquered the Dutch East Indies and were ready to strike Australia and New Zealand. In the Spring of 1942, US forces launched a major two-pronged counteroffensive that officials hoped would reverse Japanese advances. General Douglas MacArthur attacked the Japanese in the Philippines and Nimitz defeated an armada that was sailing around New Guinea. Nimitz then learned from an intelligence intercept that the Japanese were massing an invasion force aimed at Midway Island, an outpost guarding the Hawai'ian islands. In a furious battle that rages on June 3-6, American ships and planes delivered a devastating blow to the Japanese navy. The Battle of Midway reversed the balance of naval power in the Pacific and put the Japanese at a disadvantage for the rest of the war.

What role did the US forces play in the Allie's' final victory?

In the summer of 1918, the Allies launched a massive counter-offensive that would end that would end the war. A quarter of a million US troops joined in the rout of German forces along the Marne River. In September, more than a million Americans took part in the assault that threw Germans back from positions along the Meuse River. In November, a revolt against the German government sent Kaiser Wilhelm II fleeing to Holland. On November 11, 1918, a delegation from the newly established German republic met with the French high command to sign an armistice that brought the fighting to an end. The adventure of the AEF was brief, bloody, and victorious.

What economic problems plagued the nation during the years after World War II?

Inflation turned out to be a bigger problem than unemployment. Consumers had 30 billion in wartime savings to spend but shortages of meat, automobiles, housing, and other items still persisted. Consumer demand drove up prices because the production couldn't keep up. Americans blamed unions for shortages and rising prices and called for government restrictions on organized labor. The economy stabilized by 1947.

How was the new US policy of assimilation reflected in the creation of Indian schools and the passage of the Dawes Act?

It was reflected in the creation of Indian Schools because of the fact that they stole Children from their parents and then stole their names, clothes, hair, and culture. Then reservations fell out of favor and the practice of allotment rose. The Dawes Act divided the reservations and allotted the land to individual Indians as private property. Indians who accepted allotments earned citizenship. The fostering of individualism through the distribution of land dealt a crippling blow to traditional tribal culture. The government reserved the right to sell the "surplus" to white settlers. This effectively reduced Indian land from 138 million acres to 48 million. Both practices encourage assimilation through the ideals of capitalism- children were put "into trousers- and trousers with a pocket in them, and a pocket that aches to be filled with dollars!" And allotment encouraged assimilation through farming and ownership of private property.

What domestic policies did Carter pursue and how successful were they?

Jimmy Carter vowed to "help the poor and aged, to improve education, and to provide jobs," but at the same time to "not waste money." This please Americans unhappy about their tax dollars being used to benefit the disadvantaged while stagflation eroded their own standard of living. His fiscal stringency frustrated liberal Democrats pushing for major welfare reform. He appointed unprecedented numbers of women and minorities to cabinet, judicial, and diplomatic posts, a number of factors thwarted his policy goals. He inherited unemployment, inflation, and sluggish economic growth. Carter first targeted unemployment, signing bills that pumped 14 billion into the economy through public works and public service jobs programs and cutting taxes by 34 billion. Unemployment receded, but then inflation surged. To curb inflation, Carter curtailed federal spending, and the Federal Reserve Board tightened the money supply. Not only did these measures fail to halt inflation, which surpassed 13 percent in 1980, but they also contributed to rising unemployment, reversing the gains made in Carter's first two years. Carter proposed a comprehensive program to conserve energy, and he elevated its importance by establishing the Department of Energy. In response to the Iranian crisis , Congress reduced controls on the oil and gas industry to stimulate American production and imposed a windfall profits tax on producers to redistribute some of the profits they would reap from deregulation. Carter also signed bills to improve clean air and water programs, to expand the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge preserve in Alaska; and to control strip-mining which left destructive scars on the land.

Election of 1964

Johnson projected stability and security in a booming economy. Few voters wanted to risk dramatic change promised by Barry Goldman, who attacked the welfare state and wanted to use nuclear weapons in vietnam. Johnson achieved 61% of the popular vote.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Leader of women's rights activists. Sought fair pay and expanded employment opportunities

Neutrality Acts

Legislation passed in 1935 and 1937 that sought to avoid entanglement in foreign wars while protecting trade. It prohibited selling arms to nations at war and required nations to pay cash for nonmilitary goods and to transport them in their own ships.

GI Bill of Rights

Legislation passed in 1944 authorizing the government to provide World War II veterans with funds for education, housing, and health care, as well as loans to start businesses and buy homes.

Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts)

Lord North's response, as a way to punish Massachusetts. The acts were soon known as the intolerable acts. 1: The Boston Port act closed Boston harbor to all shipping as of June 1, 1774, until all the destroyed tea was paid for. The goal was to halt the commercial life of the city. 2: The Massachusetts Government act greatly altered the charter, underscoring Parliament's claim to supremacy over MA. The royal governor's powers became augmented, and the governor's council became appointed instead of elected, meaning the governor could now appoint all judges, sheriffs, and officers to the court. No town meeting could be held without the governor's approval, and every agenda item needed approval. 3: The Impartial Administration of Justice act stated that any royal official accused of capital crime would be tried in court in Britain. 4: The Quartering act allowed military commanders to lodge soldiers wherever was necessary, even in private households.

How did commercial agriculture and mechanization create "factories of the fields?"

Mechanized farm machinery halved the time and labor cost of production and made it possible to cultivate vast tracts of land. Urbanization provided farmers with expanding markets for their produce- railroads carried crops thousands of miles away. Mechanization replaced muscle power and allowing farmers to cover much more acreage. This created highly sufficient farms that used industrialism along with agriculture.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Military alliance formed in 1949 among the US, Canada, and Western European nations to counter any possible Soviet threat. It represented an unprecedented commitment by the US to go to war if any of its allies were attacked.

How did J.P. Morgan use finance capitalism to exert a vast influence on American business? ("a vast," as in, "Avast, Mateys! I'm a Capitalist Pirate!)

Morgan got rid of competition by substituting consolidation and central control. He acted as a power broker in the reorganization of the railroads and the creation of industrial giants. When the railroads collapsed he quickly took over and eliminated competition by what he called a "community of interest." In 1898, he moved into the steel industry, directly challenged by Carnegie. He bought Carnegie's corporation for 480 million.

Agricultural Adjustment Act

New Deal legislation passed in May 1933 aimed at cutting agricultural production and raising crop prices and, consequently, farmers' income. Through the "domestic allotment plan," the AAA paid farmers to not grow crops.

Scottsboro Boys

Nine African American youths who were arrested for the alleged rape of two white women in Scottsboro, Alabama, in 1931. After an all-white jury sentenced the young men to death, the Communist Party took action that saved them from the electric chair.

Wage and Price Freeze of 1971

Nixon abandoned the convertibility of dollars into gold and devalued the dollar to increase exports. To protect domestic manufacturers, he imposed a 10% surcharge on most imports, and he froze wages and prices, thus enabling the government to stimulate the economy without fueling inflation.

Lozen

Part of Geronimo's raiding party. She was a woman who rode with the warriors, armed with a rifle and a cartridge belt.

Jane Addams

Pioneer of American settlement activism.Her emphasis on the reciprocal relationship between the social classes. She personified the transition from personal action to political activism.

What were the two geographic groups of southern yeomanry, and how did they differ from poor whites?

Plantation-belt and upcountry yeomen. Plantation belt yeomen relied on the planters to gin and bale their cotton. In the upcountry, there was higher elevation, colder climate, rugged terrain, and poor transportation that made it hard for commercial agriculture to make headway, so the yeomen dominated here. Poor whites were whites who were supposedly poor, ignorant, diseased, and degenerate. Yeomen weren't really poor, and poor whites were really hardworking families striving to become yeomen.

People's (Populist) Party

Political party formed in 1892 by the Farmers' Alliance to advance the goals of the Populist Movement. Populists sought economic democracy, promoting land, electoral, banking, and monetary reform. Republican victory in the presidential election of 1896 effectively destroyed the people's party

National Republican party

Political party with a northeast power base, who supported federal action to promote commercial development and generally looked favorably on the reform movements with the second great awakening.

Tea Act of 1773

Proposed legislation by Lord North allowing the East India Company to sell tea directly to selected merchants in 4 colonial cities, to cut out the british middlemen in hopes of lowering the price of east india tea, including the duty, below that of smuggled Dutch tea, motivating Americans to obey the law.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

Regulatory Body established by the Glass-Steagall Banking Act that guaranteed the federal government would reimburse bank depositors' if their banks failed. This key feature of the New Deal restored depositors' confidence in the banking system during the Great Depression.

What policies did Teddy Roosevelt pursue with regard to trusts and labor disputes?

Roosevelt harnessed his energy to strengthen the power of the federal government, putting business on notice that it could no longer count on a laissez-faire government to give it free rein. In his eyes, self-interested capitalists constituted the most dangerous members of the criminal class. He pursued trusts using the sherman anti-trust to go against and dissolve 43 corporations. He passes the Elkins act to outlaw railroad rebates. The government counted itself an independent force in business and labor disputes. In the coal strike of 1904, when Roosevelt stepped in, the mine owners refused to talk with the union representative. Angered, Roosevelt threatened to seize the mines and run them with federal troops. In the end, the miners won reduction in hours and a wage increase, but the owners succeeded in preventing formal regulation of the UMV. Roosevelt's actions demonstrated that government intended to act as a countervailing force to the power of the big corporations.

What reforms were made by:

Second Agricultural Adjustment Act: placed production quotas on cotton, tobacco, wheat, corn, and rice while issuing food stamps to allow poor people to obtain surplus food. The AAA of 1938 brought stability to American agriculture and ample food to most tables. National Housing Act: By 1941, some 160,000 residences had been made available to poor people at affordable rents. The program did not come close to meeting the need for affordable housing, but for the first time the federal government took an active role in providing decent urban housing. Fair Labor Standards Act: reiterated the New Deal pledge to provide workers with a decent standard of living. The new law set wage and hours standards and at long last curbed the use of child labor. The minimum-wage was 25 cents an hour for a max of 45 hours a week. The act exempted domestic help and farm laborers.

What efforts were made to help the urban poor, eliminate prostitution, and reduce drinking?

Settlement houses were made to help the urban poor. Ministers played an active role in the social purity movement. The social purity movement brought together ministers who wished to stamp out sin, doctors concerned about the spread of venerable disease, and women reformers. Advanced progressives linked prostitution to poverty and championed higher wages for women. Attacks on alcohol went hand in hand with the push for social purity. The Anti-saloon league, founded in 1895 under the leadership of Protestant clergy, added to the efforts of the WCTU in campaigning to end the sale of liquor. Reformers pointed to links between drinking, prostitution, domestic abuse, unemployment, and industrial accidents. Progressives campaigned to enforce the Sunday closing of taverns, stores, and other commercial establishments and pushed for state legislation to outlaw the sale of liquor.

Sitting Bull

Sioux Chief who refused to sign the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie. Led troops with Crazy Horse against the US troops. He surrendered in 1881.

How did the theories of Social Darwinism and the Gospel of Wealth dovetail with each other to justify concentrations of vast wealth in the hands of few?

Social Darwinists equated wealth and power with "fitness" and believed the effort by rich to aid the poor would only tamper with the laws of nature and slow down evolution. Social Darwinism justified economic inequality. Carnegie softened the harshness of Social Darwinism with his essay "The Gospel of Wealth" in which he wrote that the millionaire acted as a trustee and agent for the poorer people, bringing his superior wisdom to their service, doing for them better than they could do for themselves. His philosophy urged the rich to live unostentatious lives and administer surplus wealth for the good of the people. Both argued that the rich people should be rich and there should be an inequality.

Why was the the question of how much silver the government coined such a controversial issue during the late 19th century?

Some people wanted silver to be used to increase the money supply with silver dollars and create inflation which would give them some debt relief. Supporters pointed out that until 1873 the country had enjoyed a system of minting both gold and silver into coins.

What virtues were southern white women expected to possess, and what duties did the plantation mistress perform?

Southern women were expected to possess piety, purity, chastity, and obedience within the context of marriage, motherhood, and domesticity. She was physically weak and thus dependent on male protection. To gain the protection she exhibited modesty, delicacy, beauty, grace, refinement, and charm. The plantation mistress was required to work long hours, to manage the big house, directly supervise many slaves, without an overseer. She assigned them tasks each morning, directed their work throughout the day, and punished them when she found fault.

"Kitchen Debate"

Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and Vice President Richard M Nixon debate the relative merits of their nations' economies at the American National Exhibition held in Moscow in 1959, "You are a lawyer for capitalism and I am a lawyer for communism," Khrushchev told Nixon as each tried to outdo each other.

Abraham Lincoln

Springfield, Illinois lawyer who had served as a Whig in the Illinois state legislature and in the House of Representatives but had not held public office since 1849. Joined the Republican party in 1856 and believed congress could contain the spread of slavery.

Why was Howard Taft's presidency a failure?

Taft had no experience in the elective office, no feel for politics, and no nerve for controversy. Once in office, Taft proved a perfect tool in the hands of Republicans who yearned for a return to the days of a less active executive. Taft believed that it was up the courts and not the president to arbitrate social issues. Taft's troubles began on the eve of his inaugural, when he called a special session of Congress to deal with the tariff. The Payne-Aldrich bill that emerged actually raised the tariff, and Taft neither fought for changes nor vetoed the measure. He undid Roosevelt's work to preserve hydroelectric power sites when he learned they had been improperly designated as "ranger stations." When Gifford Pinchot publicly denounced taft's secretary of the interior as a tool of western land- grabbers, Taft fired Pinchot, touching off a storm of controversy that damaged Taft and alienated Roosevelt. With the Republican Party divided, the Democrats swept the congressional elections of 1910. The new Democratic majority in the House, working with progressive Republicans in the senate, achieved a number of key reforms, including legislation to regulate railroad and mine safety, to create the Children's Bureau in the department of labor, and to establish an eight-hour workday for federal workers. They also sent the 16th and 17th amendments to the states where they won ratification in 1913. Taft continued Roosevelt's policy abroad, but had difficulty following Roosevelt. Taft naively assumed he could substitute "dollars for bullets." In the caribbean, he provoked anti-american feeling by dispatching US Marines to Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic in 1912 pursuant to the Roosevelt Corollary.He did not understand that an aggressive commercial policy could not exist without a willingness to military might to back it up.

New Negro

Term referring to African Americans who challenged American racial hierarchy through the arts. The New Negro emerged in New York City in the 1920s in what became known as the Harlem Renaissance, which produced dazzling literary, musical, and artistic talent.

Ideal of Free Labor

Term referring to work conducted free from constraint and according to the laborer's own inclinations and will. The ideal of free labor lay at the heart of the North's argument that slavery should not be extended into the western territories.

What militant tactics did farmers and workers resort to during the Depression?

The American people were slow to anger but in March 7, 1932, several thousand unemployed autoworkers massed at the gates of Henry Ford's River Rouge factory in Dearborn, Michigan, to demand work. Pelted with rocks, Ford's private security forces responded with gunfire, killing four demonstrators. Forty thousand outraged citizens turned out for the unemployed men's funerals. When congress refused to guarantee farm prices, several thousand farmers created the Farmers' National Holiday Association in 1932, named because its members planned to take a "holiday" from shipping crops to market. They also participated in penny sales when banks foreclosed farms ( neighbors would buy the property for a few pennies and give it back to the owner). Even those who had proved their patriotism by serving in WWI rose up in protest against the government. In 1932, tens of thousands of unemployed veterans traveled to Washington DC, to petition Congress for the immediate payment of the pension that congress had promised them in 1924. Hoover feared that the veterans would spark a riot and ordered the US army to evict the bonus marchers from their camp on the outskirts of the city. Tanks destroyed the squatters' encampment while 500 soldiers wielding bayonets and tear gas sent protesters fleeing. The spectacle of the army driving peaceful, petitioning veterans from the nation's capital further undermined public support for Hoover.

Why and how did the Dutch settle New Amsterdam (New York) and how did the British acquire it?

The Dutch settled New Amsterdam because Peter Minuit, the resident director of the Dutch west India Trading Company bought the land from the Manhate Indians, and established a small settlement at the southern tip, to become a trading center for the Netherlands colonies. In 1664, King Charles II gives his brother a grant of land including New york, so he sent a bunch of warships and demanded that Stuyvesant surrender.

Why did Jimmy Carter win the presidency over Gerald Ford in 1976?

The Ford administration struggled with a low growth rate, high unemployment, a foreign trade deficit, and soaring energy prices. Ford carried these into the election. The Democrats nominated James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr, former governor of Georgia. Carter stressed his faith as a "born-again Christian," and his distance from the government in DC, although he selected liberal senator Walter F Mondale of Minnesota as his running mate, his candidacy marked a right turn in the democratic party. His appeal as a candidate who carried his own bags, lived modestly, and taught Bible class at his church. He also benefited from Ford's inability to solve the nation's economic problems, which helped win the traditional Democratic coalition of blacks, organized labor, ethnic groups, and even some white southerners. He only received 50% of the popular vote to Ford's 48%.

What achievements in domestic affairs did John F Kennedy achieve or initiate before his assassination in 1963?

The Kennedy administration projected energy, idealism, and glamour, although Kennedy himself was a cautious and pragmatic politician. He called upon americans to serve the common good in his inaugural address. He failed to persuade congress to expand the welfare state with federal education and healthcare programs. He resisted leadership on behalf of racial justice until civil rights activists gave him no choice. Moved by conditions he witnessed while campaigning in Appalachia, he pushed poverty onto the national agenda. By 1962, JFK had won support for a $2 billion urban renewal program, providing incentives to businesses to locate in economically depressed areas and job training for the unemployed. In 1963, he proposed a large tax cut that would increase demand and create jobs. It was passed in February 1964, and contributed to an economic boom as unemployment fell and gross national product shot up.

What caused the Korean War, what was its outcome, and what effect did it have on US policies?

The Korean War grew out of the division of Korea after WWII. The US and the USSR expelled the Japanese and created 2 occupation zones separated by the 28th parallel. The UN sponsored elections in South Korea in July 1948. The American favored candidate, Syngman Rhee was elected and the US withdrew their troops. In fall 1948, the Soviets established the People's Republic of North Korea under Kim Il-sung and also withdrew. Skirmishes at the 38th parallel began in 1948, but in June 1950, 90,000 North Koreans entered South Korea. Truman's advisors assumed the Soviet Union or China had instigated the attack (incorrect) and Truman quickly decided to intervene, viewing Korea as "the Greece of the far east." With the Soviet Union absent from the Security Council, the US obtained the UN's support of a collective effort to repel the attack. Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur to lead the UN force. Truman deployed troops without asking congress for a declaration of war, violating the constitution and contribution to the expansion of executive power that would characterize the cold war. The first Americans rushed in unprepared and ill equipped, suffering severe defeats early on. It increased military spending.

What criticisms were made of the New Deal from the left and the right?

The National Association of Manufacturing and the Chamber of Commerce were openly anti-Deal. Their critiques were amplified by the creation of the American Liberty League. To them, the AAA was a "trend towards fascist control of agriculture,"relief marked the "end of democracy," and the NRA was a plunge into the "quicksand of visionary experimentation." Economists who favored rational planning in the public interest and labor leaders who sought to influence wages and working conditions by organizing unions attacked the New Deal from the left. In their view, the NRA stifled enterprise by permitting monopolistic practices. They pointed out that industrial trade associations twisted NRA codes to suit their aims, thwarted competition, and engaged in price gouging. Labor leaders especially resented the NRA's willingness to allow businesses to form company-controlled unions while blocking workers from organizing genuine unions to bargain for themselves.

What was the platform of the Populist Party, who were its leaders and how successful was it in achieving its agenda?

The Populists wanted free silver and supported more jobs and a better working standard. During the election of 1896, many western Populists urged the party to ally with the democrats and endorse Bryan. The problem was Bryan's running mate, Arthur M Sewall, who was placed on the ticket to appease conservative democrats. He was a maine railroad director and bank president who embodied everything the Populists detested. To show that they still remained true to their principles, delegates first voted to support all planks of the 1892 platform, added to it a call for public works projects for the unemployed, and only narrowly defeated a plank for women's suffrage. The People's Party captured more than a million votes in the election of 1892.

What were the Proclamation of 1763 and the Sugar Act of 1764 and how did the colonists react to these measures?

The Proclamation of 1763 was a proclamation put into place by the british government that forbade colonists from settling west of the appalachian mountains, and also referred to British and French colonists from Canada as "our loving subjects" who were entitled to English rights and privileges. This led some colonists, mostly settlers on the frontier to be uncertain and wary of British claims to be the protective mother country. In 1764 Grenville put into place the Revenue Act, more commonly known as the Sugar act. It lowered the duty on French Molasses to three pence which made it more attractive for shippers to obey the law, and the penalties for smuggling raised. This appeared to be along the tradition of the navigation acts and to regulate trade, but it was actually to raise revenue. It toughened enforcement policies. It did not raise revenue as smuggling was still common, but it increased enforcement which led to several ugly confrontations in port cities. The colonists led to questions on Britain's right to tax Americans, but in 1764 most complaints were from Americans who participated in the shipping trades.

What were the causes of the Spanish-American War and how did the outcome of the war change the role of the US in world affairs?

The Spanish-American War began as a humanitarian effort to free Cuba from Spain's colonial grasp and ended the US itself acquiring territory overseas and fighting a dirty guerrilla war with Filipino nationalists who sought independence. At the close of a decade marred by bitter depression, social unrest, and political upheaval, the war offered Americans a chance to wave the flag and march in unison. The war began with moral outrage over the treatment of Cuban revolutionaries, who had launched a fight for independence against the Spanish colonial regime in 1895. The Spanish general Valeriano Weyler herded Cubans into crowded and unsanitary concentration camps, where thousands died of hunger, disease, and exposure. By 1898, a quarter of the island's population had perished in the Cuban revolution. As the Cuban rebellion dragged on, pressure for American intervention mounted American newspapers fueled public outrage at spain. American business had more than $50 million invested in Cuban sugar and American trade with Cuba, a year before had been $100 million had dropped to nearly zero. After USS Maine was destroyed, congress declared war on Spain. War brought with it unity of purpose and national harmony that ended a decade of political dissent and strife. 5 days after McKinley signed the war resolution, a US Navy squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. McKinley dispatched US troops to secure the island. The war in Cuba started June 22 and ended July 17, lasting just long enough to elevate Theodore Roosevelt to the status of a war hero.

How did the US government deal with the Commancherra and the Sioux in the Black Hills?

The US government tried to adopt a "peace policy" regarding the Comanchería, but it led to all out war. The US Indian Agents did nothing but fill their pockets, and the US Army dispatched 3 thousand soldiers to deal with the Comanche. Raiding parties practically obliterated white settlements in West Texas. The army defeated them by burning everything, which led to the collapse of the Comanche people. The surviving reluctantly retreated to the reservation at Fort Sill. In the Black Hills, the US signed the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie, agreeing to abandon the Bozeman Trail. Chief Red Cloud led his people onto the reservation, but soon regretted his decision. Several Sioux Chiefs including Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. In 1874, discovery of gold in Black Hills led the government to break its promise. At first the government offered to buy Black Hills but the Lakota Sioux refused to sell. The Army issued an ultimatum ordering all Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne bands onto the Pine Ridge reservation and threatening to hunt down any who refused. The army issued a three prong attack, which Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse led resistance against. They beat the US in the Battle of Little Bighorn, but the army chased the bands down. The government took Black Hills and confined the Lakota in a reservation. The Sioux will not accept the theft of Black Hills and have been campaigning for the land back since 1823.

What was the Women's Christian Temperance Union and how did it differ from earlier Temperance organizations?

The WCTU was composed entirely of women, and was supported by them because they felt vulnerable to the effects of drunkenness. The women and children were entirely dependent on the men's wages and suffered when the money went towards drink. The drunken, abusive husband epitomized the evils of a nation in which women remained second-class citizens. When Frances Willard took over as president in 1879, social action replaced prayer as a woman's answer to the threat of drunkenness. Viewing alcoholism as a disease rather than a sin or poverty as a cause rather than a result of drink, the WCTU became involved in labor issues, joining with the Knights of Labor to press for better working conditions for women. Willard worked to create a coalition in the 1890s, embracing the Knights of Labor, the People's Party, and the Prohibition Party. By 1900, woman could claim a generation of experience in political action largely thanks to the WCTU.

Why did the colonists oppose the Stamp Act and what forms did their resistance take?

The colonists opposed the stamp act because it was a departure as a fee-per-document tax, levied by a distant parliament on unwilling colonies. Before it was imposed, Patrick Henry presented 7 resolutions to the House of Burgesses, which were passed 1 by 1, except for 6&7, and later 5 was recanted. Newspapers in other colonies printed all 7 resolutions, which led to many political debates. The first organized resistance began in Boston in 1765, in which the sons of liberty held a mock execution of Andrew Oliver by hanging an effigy of Oliver in a tree and parading it around town before beheading and burning it. The royal governor, Francis Bernard, did nothing, and Oliver resigned the next day. More crowds attacked and raided officials homes, along with Hutchinson's, although he had actually opposed the tax.

How was the compromise of 1850 fashioned, and how did it attempt to resolve the question of slavery in the territories?

The compromise was meant to resolve the dispute over the spread of slavery. It was Henry Clay's joined bill split up into parts and ushered through congress by Stephen Douglas. California entered as a free state, New Mexico and Utah became states where slavery was to be decided by popular sovereignty, Texas accepted its boundary with New Mexico and received 10 million from the federal government, the slave trade in DC was ended by congress (but enacted a more stringent fugitive slave law). The compromise preserved the union and peace for the moment.

Knights of Labor

The first mass organization of America's working class. Founded in 1869, the Knights of Labor attempted to bridge the boundaries of ethnicity, gender, ideology, race, and occupation to build a "universal brotherhood" of all workers.

Joseph Smith

The founder of the Mormon religion. He claimed that he was visited by an angel who led him to golden tablets buried near his home, and with the help of magic stones he was able to translate them into the Book of Mormon, which he published in 1830.

James Bowdoin

The governor of Massachusetts, a protester against British taxes, characterized the western dissidents as illegal rebels and vilified Shays and his followers.

What was the ideal of free labor? How equal was the distribution of wealth in antebellum America, and how likely was a person to achieve upward mobility?

The ideal of free labor was the celebration of hard work, self-reliance, and independence. This affirmed an egalitarian vision of human potential. This made sense to many americans, and most citizens did not gain wealth. The inequalities claimed that this was the result of some individuals being luckier and more ready to work. In search of better prospects, roughly ⅔ of the population moved every decade.

What were the three groups composed of the majority of the southern states, and what did each group seek out of this coalition?

The majority of the Republican coalition in the south was comprised of African Americans, white Northerners, and white southerners (mostly yeomen). Southern blacks did not have identical political priorities but they wanted education and equal treatment before the law. Northerners supported programs that encouraged vigorous economic development along the lines of the northern free labor model. Southern whites wanted to end the state government's favoritism of plantation owners and supported initiatives for public schools and for expanding economic opportunity in the south.

What were the various ways slaves resisted slavery, and why do so few slave rebellions occur?

The mildest form of protest was probably telling a pointed story by the fireside. In the field, they put rocks in their bags to make them feel heavier, feigned illness, and pretended to be so thick-headed they could not understand the simplest instruction. Although slaves worked hard, they also sabotaged the master's interests. Running away was a common protest. Although resistance was common, rebellion was not due to conditions that gave them almost no chance of success.

Who was in the Second Continental Congress and what steps did it take to prepare for war?

The second continental congress met to raise and supply an army and to explore reconciliation with Britain in which the needed soldiers and a commander, money, and to work out a declaration of war, but to reconcile they needed diplomacy to approach the king. The Congress included prominent figures such as: John Adams, Sam Adams, John Dickinson, and Benjamin Franklin. To prepare for war, the congress agreed they needed a military buildup, to protect Massachusetts from further threat. Around the colonies, militia units trained, and on June 14, congress voted to create the Continental Army, with George Washington as commander in chief. Next, they drew up "A Declaration on the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms," written by Thomas Jefferson (and then rewritten by John Dickinson.) To pay, the congress authorized a currency issue of 2 million, but the currency was merely paper, not backed by gold or silver, and was expected to be accepted as valuable on trust as it spread.

What factors finally led the US to become involved in the war in 1917?

The sinking of the Lusitania began the step away from neutrality. Many citizens called for war, but Wilson sought a middle course and announced that any further destruction of ships would be regarded as "deliberately unfriendly" and might lead the US to break diplomatic relations with Germany. The consequence of protesting the German blockade of Great Britain but accepting the British blockade of Germany was that by 1916, the US was supplying the Allies with 40 percent of their war materiel. When France and Britain ran short of money to pay for US goods and asked for loans, Wilson argued that "loans by American bankers to any foreign government which is at war is inconsistent with the true spirit of neutrality." But, Wilson allowed billions of dollars in loans that kept US goods flowing to Britain and France. In January 1917, Germany decided it could no longer afford to allow neutral shipping to reach Great Britain and announced that its navy would resume unrestricted submarine warfare and sink without warning. Resisting demands of war, Wilson continued to hope for a negotiated peace and only broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. on February 25, 1917, British authorities informed Wilson of a secret telegram sent by the German foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German minister in Mexico. It promised that in the event of war between the US and Germany, Germany would see that Mexico regained its "lost provinces" of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, if Mexico would declare war against the US. Wilson angrily responded by asking Congress to approve a policy of "armed neutrality" that would allow merchant ships to fight back against attackers. In March, German submarines sank 5 American vessels off Britain, killing 66. On April 2, the president asked Congress to issue a declaration of war. On April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war.

Treaty of Paris 173

The treaty at the end of The French and Indian War in which Britain gained control of Canada, getting rid of the French threat to the north, and confirmed the British control of the Eastern half of North America. Spain gained control of the French territories to the west of the Mississippi for compensation of helping in the war. The Spanish and French territories that had been previously seized in the war were returned.

What steps did Native Americans and Hispanic Americans take to achieve their political, economic, social, and cultural goals?

The termination and relocation programs of the 1950s stirred a sense of Indian identity across tribal lines and a determination to preserve traditional culture. They demonstrated and occupied land and public buildings, claiming rights to natural resources and territory they had owned collectively before European settlement. In 1969 they seized Alcatraz island for many months, and publicized injustice against the indians. In Minneapolis in 1968, two Chippewa Indians, Dennis Banks and George Mitchell, founded the American Indian movement to attack problems in cities. AIM sought to protect Indians from police harassment, secure anti-poverty funds, and establish "survival schools" to teach Indian history and value. AIM leaders helped organize the "Trail of Broken Treaties" caravan to the nation's capital in 1972, when activist occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs to express their outrage at the bureau's policy and interference in Indian lives. Indians won the end of relocation and termination policies, greater tribal sovereignty and control over community services, protection of Indian religious practices, and a measure of respect and pride. A number of laws and court decisions restored rights to ancestral lands and compensated tribes for land seized in violation of treaties. Political organization of Mexican Americans dated back to LULAC, founded in 1929, which fought segregation and discrimination through litigation. In the 1960s, young Mexican americans rejected traditional politics in favor of direct action. The UFW helped politicize Mexican Americans and improve farmworkers' lives. Other Chicanos pressed the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to act against job discrimination. President Johnson responded to picketings by appointing Vicente T Ximenes as the first Mexican American EEOC commissioner and created a special committee on Mexican American issues. Chicanos organized to end discrimination in education, gain political power, and combat police brutality.

What programs and policies did the US government pursue on the home front to mobilize the war effort at home and suppress dissent?

They created the War Industries Board, headed by Bernard Baruch, who was charged with stimulating and directing industrial production. Food Administration was overseen by Herbert Hoover. He led remarkably successful "Hooverizing" campaigns for "meatless" mondays and "wheatless' wednesdays, and other ways of conserving resources. Wartime agencies multiplied: The railroad administration directed railroad traffic, the Fuel Administration coordinated the coal industry and other fuel suppliers, the shipping board organized the merchant marine, and the National War Labor Policies Board resolved labor disputes. The NWLPB enacted an 8-hour workday, a living minimum wage, and collective bargaining rights in some industries. To suppress criticism of the war, Wilson stirred up patriotic fervor. In 1917, the President created the Committee on Public Information, under George Creel. In the name of suppressing dissent, the Espionage act, the Trading with the Enemy act, and the Sedition act gave the US government sweeping powers to punish any opinion or activity it considered "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive."

What changes did the presidential election of 1828 bring to the American political system and how did the election foster the development for a new two-party system?

This is the first presidential election where the popular vote decided the winner. Candidates inaugurated new campaign styles, where state-level candidates gave speeches at rallies, picnics, and banquets. Newspapers publicized defined issues and political personalities. The distribution of newspapers was quick, and Presidential campaigns were now coordinated in a national arena. Politicians at first identified themselves as Jackson or Adams men, but the terminology evolved to represent which party believed in. The parties were no longer despised, and they became a way to mobilize and deliver voter, sharpen the candidates' differences, and created party loyalty that surpassed loyalty to individual candidates.

George Washington

Virginian the congress chose to be commander in chief of the continental army.

What course did presidential reconstruction take under Andrew Johnson and how did white southern governments and Congressional Republicans respond to it?

Under President Johnson, the presidential reconstruction was very lenient to the ex rebels. Like Lincoln he promised to pardon most ex-rebels and he recognized the state governments put into place by Lincoln. Under his plan, all that citizens of a state had to do was renounce the right of secession, deny that the debts of the Confederacy were legal and binding, and ratify the thirteenth amendment. He also returned all confiscated and abandoned land to pardoned ex-confederates. White Southern governments that formed to write state constitutions as Johnson required refused to accept even these mild demands. Despite their resistance, Johnson did nothing and the Southerners began to believe that if they stood up for themselves they could shape the reconstruction. Congress challenged Johnson's executive power and refused to believe restoration was complete. They refused to seat the ex-confederate representatives from the south and began to produce legislature to protect the ex-slaves.

Missions

Used to convert Indians into Catholicism, attract them to persuade the Indians to life in society

What effect did the fall of Fort Sumter have on the secession debates in the Upper South?

Why did the slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and Kentucky stay in the Union? The fall of Fort Sumter led many Southerners who had rejected secession to now embrace it, and left thousands feeling betrayed. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy, but the border states (Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky) decided to stay in the union because of majority of unionists. Delaware's population consisted of less than 2% of slaves, therefore the union victory there was easy. In Maryland, Lincoln suspended Habeas Corpus (set aside constitutional guarantees that protect citizens from arbitrary arrest and detention). Unionists narrowly won in Missouri, but guerrilla bands roamed the state for the duration of the war, and in Kentucky the unionists barely avoided secession, but the prosouthern minority claimed otherwise. Some inhabitants of Virginia was so unhappy, they voted to create the state of West Virginia that was loyal to the union.

What ideals and goals did Woodrow Wilson bring to the Paris Peace Conference?

Wilson brought the 14 points to the Paris Peace Conference. The first five points affirmed basic liberal ideals: and end to secret treaties; freedom of the seas; removal of economic barriers to free trade; reduction of weapons of war; and recognition of the rights of colonized peoples. The next eight supported the right to self-determination if European peoples who had been dominated by Germany or its allies. Wilson's 14th point called for a general association of nations (league of nations) to provide "mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike."

Henry Clay's American System

a package of protective tariffs to encourage manufacturing and federal expenditures for internal improvements.

Robber Barons

a person who has become rich through ruthless and and unscrupulous business methods as a reference to prominent business men such as Rockefeller and Carnegie.

Subtreasury Plan

a plan that would allow farmers to store their nonperishable crops until prices rose and to receive commodity credit from the federal government to obtain needed supplies.

Buffalo Soldiers

black soldiers who served in the west during the Indians wars. Were called this because Native Americans thought their hair resembled that of a bison.

Calvin Coolidge

became president after Harding died from a heart attack, continued and extended Harding's policies of promoting business and limiting government.

Roger Williams

Believed that the English colonists should be condemned for their "sin of unjust usurpation" of Indian land, and their claims were invalid; he also believed that the bible shrouded the word of god and denounced the New England order as "impure, tyrannical, and ungodly," and argued against forcing people to go to church.. In 1636 the New England leaders banish him, and Williams and his followers fled to Narragansett Bay, and established Rhode Island.