APUSH Textbook Study Guide

Be sure you can identify the location of the following colonies on a modern map of the US (see, eg, Appendix ppA-2 and A-3.) a. Jamestown b. Maryland c. Plymouth Plantation d. Massachusetts Bay e. Connecticut f. Rhode Island g. New Hampshire h. Maine

(see map) (research for Jamestown, Plymouth Plantation)

Be able to locate the restoration colonies on a modern map of the US.

(see modern map of US)

Carefully describe the three periods of the Spanish Empire in America. A CHART would be useful for this. Be specific in your response.

1. discovery and exploration Columbus through 16th century first Spanish focused on becoming wealthy, successful then came to establish powerful agricultural economies 2. age of conquest military forces establish dominion over lands of natives with help of disease also hoping to convert natives to Catholicism 3. colonization 1570s, Ordinances of Discovery ban brutality, expand presence instead through colonization St. Augustine in 1565 marks beginning of substantial effort at colonization, encomiendas distributed, exact labor and tribute from surrounding natives eventually relationships stabilize, conversion of Pueblos, trading eventually have to suppress revolt, loosen up a bit

What factors contributed to Jamestown's expansion?

1609, company with new charter, increases power and territory, offers stock to people willing to migrate at own expense, free passage for people who would serve company for seven years, 600 more people in 1609 including women and children arrive despite disaster of second expedition, governor Lord de la Warr arrives with supplies, new relief expeditions and colony begins to thrive, permits private cultivation and ownership of land, expansion a result of order and discipline, military assaults on natives, and tobacco

Describe the origins of the African slave trade.

16th century, market grows in response to European demand for sugarcane, sugar is labor-intensive crop, demand for slaves increases, leads to wars between African kingdoms, by 1700, slavery had spread well beyond original locations

Be able to describe the Beni landscape. a. What is its significance to Mann? (What conclusion does he and Erickson and Balee and others draw from the discovery?) b. Why is this controversial? (What are the implications for today's ecological and political-historical battles?)

Beni landscape, a peculiar, remote, watery plain, grasslands with forest islands above the floodplain, linked by raised berms that are straight and up to three miles Indians trapped fish in flooded grassland, networks of earthen fish weirs between causeways, set areas on fire to clear trees and undergrowth a. belief that entire landscape constructed by complex, populous society more than 2000 years ago, challenging notions of what Western Hemisphere was like before Columbus, Indians in great numbers with huge impact on environment b. controversial, are the theories fantasies with willful misinterpretation of data and perverse kind of political correctness, or actually true? also, if we are trying to restore wilderness, but wilderness was actually work of humankind and is therefore pervasive, what do we do with efforts?

Make a chart in which you compare the four restoration colonies on bases that you deem important. Consider including, for example: a. Founders b. Founders' goals c. Population/social organization d. Religion e. Economy f. Indian relations

CAROLINAS: carved from Virginia grant, Charles II awarded territory to eight court favorites, become eight proprietors, territory stretching south to Florida and west to Pacific, almost kingly powers over the grant, expected to profit as landlords and land speculators, sell or give away land, collect annual payments welcomed settlers, guaranteed religious freedom to all Christians, also promised political freedom, laws by representative assembly, hoped to attract settlers from existing colonies, not have to finance trips from England initial efforts fail, rely on Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, convinces to finance migrations to Carolina from England, eventually successful wants planned and well-ordered community, Fundamental Constitution for Carolina in 1669, system of land distribution, social order, also North vs. South, North backwoods farmers, isolated, subsistence agriculture, no aristocracy, no slaves, South, prosperous economy and aristocratic society, trade in crops especially rice, Charles Town a market also close ties to Barbados, important trading partner, Africans imported and plantation society established however, very unstable, united no more than in name, farmers vs planters, rich vs smaller landowners, 1729, colonies split NEW YORK: 1664, Charles gives to brother James Duke of York land between Connecticut and Delaware Rivers, but some already controlled by Dutch, because of commercial rivalry and resent the Dutch wedge, capture New Amsterdam, diverse colony racially and religiously, delegated powers to local governments, had religious tolerance, but tensions over power, landlords, patroons, fur traders with all power, but growing and prosperous NEW JERSEY: James, Duke of York, gives portion of land to John Berkeley and George Cartaret, after political squabbling and economic profitlessness, back to Crown, has ethnic and religious diversity, but no important class of large landowners, mostly small farmers, nor any major city PENNSYLVANIA: born out of efforts of dissenting English Protestants to find home for religion and distinctive social order, home of Quakers, look to America for asylum, at first persecuted, want their own colony William Penn to find a place, father's debt results in acquiring valuable land and total authority over this land, wanted profit, so tried to attract settlers via advertising, and settlers flock, but never profitable for Penn good relations with Indians, no major conflicts, Penn seen as an honest white man, success through recruitment of emigrants, planning, region's climate and soil eventually, opposition to absolute authority of Penn, signs Charter of Liberties, creates representative assembly, also eventually leads to Delaware

Describe the causes and consequences of the 1680 Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico.

CAUSES: discontent at Spanish efforts to suppress tribal rituals, also major drought and series of raids by Apache nearby, instability sparks uprising CONSEQUENCES: Spanish crush last revolt in 1696, intensified efforts to assimilate, but also permitted Pueblos to own land, replace encomienda system, tolerate rituals, New Mexico becomes reasonably stable, but weak and isolated

How did the status and lifecycle of women in the Chesapeake compare with the status and lifecycle of women in New England? In what ways were women's experiences similar, and what explains the differences? What explains the "revival of the patriarchy" in the Chesapeake?

CHESAPEAKE: at first, in Chesapeake, high mortality rates affect women, hard to maintain traditionally male-centered family structure, few families remain intact for long, rigid patterns of male authority undermined, standards of sexual behavior more flexible, but life consumed by child bearing, one of most frequent causes of death is child bearing but also more power, more freedom than elsewhere in America, could choose husbands, if outlived them, then had plantation/farm with significant economic power within combinations of complex families, women become peacemakers, given authority within the family but by early 18th century, life expectancy increasing, less indentured servitude, reproduction becoming principal source of population increase, women lose power, patriarchy revived NEW ENGLAND: death rates declined quickly, people brought family members, family structure was more traditional and stable, women bear children, but children more likely to survive, families more likely to remain intact, fewer widows, and widows older, thus less often cast in roles independent of husbands, also less control over marriages lives still consumed by child bearing and rearing, spouses chosen with regards to parents' wishes, Puritans also reinforce patriarchy, woman lives to serve husband and hosuehold

What are some ways that Native Americans dramatically reshaped their environments?

Cahokia, left with earthen mounds everywhere created small plots, reshaped entire landscapes too, fire as a principal tool to keep underbrush down and open grassy conditions for game biggest impact on Midwestern prairie, created and maintained by fire, shaped plains into vast buffalo farms on a bigger scale, Amazon forest itself is a cultural, artificial artifact, to the ill-prepared, a death trap where forest soils would be overtaxed, but smart use of charcoal-rich dirt signifies human habitation, culture that wasn't supposed to be there, in process of terraforming Amazon when Columbus ruined it, big chunks used nondestructively by clever people

How were the Caribbean settlements connected to the North American colonies?

Caribbean an important part of the Atlantic trading world, sugar and rum, slaves, models for plantations that were copied in North America

Identify and briefly describe some of the settlements that became "offshoots" of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Why did they form and how did their founders' goals vary? What does this expansion ("exodus") reveal about the colony of Massachusetts Bay?

Connecticut Valley, about 100 miles west of Boston, attracting settlers as soon as 1630s, Thomas Hooker defied Massachusetts government in 1635, led congregation through wild to establish Hartford, four years later, Hartford and two other towns make own colonial government, adopt Fundamental Orders of Connecticut a second from Puritan minister and wealthy merchant form England grew around New Haven on Connecticut coast, reflected impatience with increasing religious laxity in Massachusetts, more strict than Boston, joins with Hartford to form Connecticut in 1662 religious and political dissent of Roger Williams, engaging but controversial young minister, a separatist, thought Massachusetts should abandon all allegiance to Church of England, also called for separation of church and state, banished, buys land from Narragansett tribe, creates town of Providence, 1644 gets charter from Parliament, allows liberty in religious concernments alarmed by Hutchinson, many men in clergy limit women further, leading to creation of New Hampshire and Maine, colonies already there in 1629 from John Mason and Ferdinando Gorges, had grant from New England council, but few settlers until dispute in Massachusetts, dissenting and orthodox Puritans arrive

What were Spain's North American settlements, and what were some of their notable features?

Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, attracted religious minorities, missionaries, ranchers, troops, but overall weaker and peripheral to empire New Mexico the most prosperous and populous, develops flourishing agriculture, but still less than Spanish in Mexico colonize California upon realization of presence of other Europeans, arrival and disease devastates natives, others converted to Catholicism and used as labor to create an agricultural economy greatest threat are French if they decide to move west, try to fortify claim to Texas like California, Arizona, also trying missionaries, but little success, people are nomadic there, frequently at war, and vulnerable to disease

Evaluate the British and French approaches to the "middle grounds."

French good at mutually beneficial relationships, formed close relations with many, also recognized importance of chief and treating them with respect and channeling gifts and tribute through them, but French influence in decline English take longer to learn, but get there eventually, eventually establish precarious peace

What does Brinkley mean when he writes, "Georgia was unique in its origins." (p57)

Georgia a unique colony in origins, interested in economic success, but primarily military and philanthropic motives as a military barrier and refuge for the impoverished, barrier particularly necessary as conflict continues compact settlement easier to defend, excluded Africans, rum, Catholics, regulated trade with Indians to reduce chances of conflict but strict rules stifled early development, need workforce, South Carolina preferred at first resistance to change, but frustrated at no growth and military disappointments, turned over to king, assembly, grows slowly

Using the map on p5 and the text, explain how the civilizations of the North - that is, in what is now the US and Canada - differed from the southern civilizations?

In the North: empires not as large, political systems not as elaborate as south, complex civilizations based on hunting, gathering, fishing, some nomadic, some substantial permanent settlements others primarily agricultural, large irrigation systems and constructed substantial towns that became centers of trade, crafts, religious and civic rituals, also pueblos sedentary farming in great plains, but also some nomadic tribes that hunted buffalo East has Woodland Indians, greatest food resources, hunting, gathering, farming, fishing towards the South of the North, substantial permanent settlements and large trading networks, Cahokia emerges as result of trade, at 1200 CE has 10000 people and a complex of earthen mounds Northeast more nomadic, farming with hunting and gathering, exploited land, used forest fires and cutting, then moved tribes east of Mississippi loosely linked by language, Algonquins are largest and dominate Atlantic seaboard, Iroquoian in New York with five distinct nations, and Muskogean is southernmost region of eastern seaboard, but fragile alliances

What is a "keystone species"? How is the concept of Native Americans as a "keystone species" important to Mann's discussion?

Indians were keystone species, a species that affects the survival and abundance of many other species with disproportionate impact, removal causes significant shift in ecological community humankind tends to be keystone species

Compare Maryland's proprietary rule with Virginia's joint stock venture.

Maryland established by Calvert as speculative venture in real estate, but also as retreat for English Catholics, huge territory from charter, but also great power, defined as "true and absolute lords and proprietaries," acknowledged sovereignty of king only via annual fees built on high and dry bluff, neighboring Indians befriend the settlers, provide shelter, land, corn, no Indian assaults, no plagues, no starving time to attract settlers to make profitable, had to have religious toleration for Protestants and Catholics to protect minority Catholics

Compare colonists' life spans in New England and the Chesapeake. What might account for the differences?

NEW ENGLAND: increased reproduction rates in New England and Mid-Atlantic colonies after 1650s, exceptional longevity, average life spans are that of 20th century, because of cool climate, disease free environment, clean water, absence of large population centers CHESAPEAKE: mortality rates in Chesapeake remain higher until 1750s, continuing ravages of diseases, salt-contaminated waters, population growth substantial, but mostly from immigration improvement in numbers anywhere a result of balancing of sex ratio death rates of women giving birth a result of lacking knowledge in medicine, easy to enter field without training, midwives popular, four humors in body and treatment was expulsion, purging, bleeding, no scientific method

Why did Massachusetts Bay colony grow and prosper more rapidly than the other English colonies?

Pilgrims and neighboring Indians helped with food and advice, wealthy incoming settlers brought tools and other goods and traded, and large number of family groups ensure community and sense of order, population reproduces quickly, and strong religious and social hierarchy ensures measure of social stability

Compare the earliest Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the late 15th Century - include relevant names; dates; goals; and routes.

Portuguese are first, preeminent maritime power in 15th century because of Prince Henry the Navigator, wanted to explore the western coast of Africa to establish Christian empire and find gold, goes as far as Cape Verde Bartholomeu Dias rounds southern tip, Cape of Good Hope in 1486 1497-1498, Vasco da Gama proceeds around cape to India 1500, next fleet bound for India under command of Pedro Cabral was blown westward off of southerly course, lands on coast of Brazil Spanish, Columbus the first, experience in service of the Portuguese, wanted to reach Asia by going west, based on several misconceptions, thought world was smaller, Asia extended farther, nothing in between, with help of Spain leaves in August 1492 across Atlantic, lands on Bahamas and Cuba tries a second time, arrives in Caribbean and Hispaniola third voyage in 1498, reaches mainland and goes along northern coast of South America, realizes a separate continent, fails in sailing around northeastern coast of South America to Indies years later, Portuguese explorer Amerigo Vespucci, expedition to New World, wrote vivid descriptions of lands he visited, recognizes Americas as new continents Spanish Vasco de Balboa crosses Isthmus of Panama in 1513, first European to gaze upon Pacific Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese in employment of Spanish, found strait at southern end of South America, finds Pacific and proceeds to Philippines, dies in conflict but expedition circumnavigates the globe 1518, Hernando Cortes leads military expedition of 600 into Mexico looking for treasure, news of silver attracts others, Francisco Pizarro conquered Peru in 1532-1538, reveals wealth of Incas, opens way for advances into Southern America deputy Hernando de Soto leads expeditions through Florida in 1539-1541 and crosses Mississippi Francisco Coronado travels north from Mexico (1540-1542) into New Mexico, opens up southwest of what is now US

To what extent did the Puritans embrace "freedom of religion" and "separation of church and state?"

Puritans sought freedom, right to worship without interference from England or from established churches, still, community expects obedience to authority, but authority largely based within community itself and monitored by its members also Massachusetts a theocratic society, acted as beacon to other emigrants, had to maintain holiness, ministers with no formal political power, instead influence church members, who were only people who could vote or hold office also, dissidents with no freedom of worship, as Massachusetts was theocratic

How were the Quakers distinct from the other Protestant sectarians of the time (and from the Puritans in particular?)

Quakers who believe that no predestination, all with divinity which if cultivated could lead to salvation, also give women within the church a position equal to men, Quakers are democratic and anarchistic, meetings of representatives, also pacifists

Explain how the Caribbean Islands' development in the 17th and 18th centuries illustrates the continuing contest for control of North America.

Spanish claim all lands in Caribbean, but settlement only on Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, English, French, and Dutch take the smaller islands, but these are weak colonies and always vulnerable to Spanish attack Spanish and Netherlands go to war in 1621, allows England to colonize unmolested, takes Barbados, Antigua, St. Kitts, Jamaica too, but still, Caribbean remains violent and turbulent

Compare the Spanish colonists in North America with the English colonists in North America in terms of their attitudes toward and interactions with Indians?

Spanish colonies committed not to displacing Indians, but rather enlisting them, sought to convert to Catholicism, to recruit them (sometimes forcibly) as agricultural workers, to cultivate them as trading partners not considered equals, but also not obstacles

Describe similarities and differences between the Africans of upper and lower Guinea.

UPPER: extensive civilizations and complex political systems, contact with Mediterranean for trade, converts to Islam, center of Mali called Timbuktu becomes center of trade and education, fishing and rice LOWER: more isolated from Europe and Mediterranean, politically fragmented, but also extensive trade, more with themselves than outside world, wheat, food crops, livestock, fishing economies reflect lands' climate and resources matrilineal, divided work by gender, but nature of division varies greatly, also divide political power by gender, but overall, greater degree of sexual equality worship many gods, also forms of ancestor worship more elaborate social ranks, also more liberal version of slavery, more forgiving, slavery not a new world invention, responding to labor shortages since 8th century through 1500s and beyond

Using the maps on p13 and p16: a. Compare the Spanish, Portuguese, English and French exploration routes. b. Describe the geographic extent of the Spanish empire in the Americas.

a. Columbus and Spanish move quickly into lands of Mexico, Caribbean, and Central and South America, but English and French explore northern territories, glide along coasts b. from southern regions of South America south of Buenos Aires and Montevideo excluding modern-day Brazil up through Central America into eastern third of modern day US and Florida

How was the increasing level of exchange between Europeans and Native Americans both beneficial and harmful for: a. Native Americans b. Europeans

a. Europeans bring diseases, millions of natives die, demographic catastrophe as good as or worse than Black Death, also suffer from conquistadors and their brutal subjugation and extermination, but Europeans introduce crops, livestock, the horse b. Europeans first learn of riches of gold and silver via exchanges, agricultural techniques, new crops like maize/corn, revolutionized agriculture in Europe, through persuasion and coercion spread Catholicism

Compare English, French, and Dutch settlement in North America in terms of: a. Population b. Geography c. Relationships with Indians

a. French population grew comparatively very slowly, English after year or two, population boom, Dutch encourage settlement, but remain relatively small with loose unity and chronically weak leadership b. first French in Quebec to the north, go inland in forming ties with natives, English hug the coastline, north is Plymouth group, south is London group, Dutch by New York by Hudson River, establishing trade around the world in Africa, Asia, America c. French with influence disproportionate to numbers because of relationship with Native Americans, French forge direct ties, coureurs de bois establish extensive fur trade, leads to agricultural estates, trade and military centers, alliance with Algonquins, English trade with Iroquois, the enemy, but cruel to Indians, Dutch with active trade in furs

Describe one specific example of a way in which the environment led to particular developments in a native group's: a. Main mode of subsistence b. Religion c. Gender roles

a. agricultural societies and tribes in the Northeast, more nomadic by necessity because land was infertile and less worked, so combined farming with hunting and exploited land quickly, burning and cutting it to clear it, then planting crops among blackened trunks, exhaust the land then move on, foraging in the winters b. religion bound with natural world in which Indians live, worship gods associated with crops, game, forests, rivers, other elements of nature, some create totems, others with festivals during times of harvest and hunting c. in all tribes, women care for children, prepare meals, gather certain foods, some like Pueblos reserve farming for men only, others like Algonquins and Iroquois and Muskogees women tend fields while men hunt and war and clean land, women tend to control organization of settlements and have powerful roles in family

Bacon's Rebellion, 1676: a. What caused it? b. Why was it significant?

a. backcountry not represented or underrepresented in government under autocratic rule of Berkeley, also indentured servants found without home or money, many working, begging, or stealing, became a factor in Bacon's Rebellion, also disagreement on policies towards natives, backcountry constantly in danger of being attacked Bacon resents also exclusion from government, also Berkeley's refusal to allow him a part in Indian fur trade, once Indians attack, Bacon fed up with gov's cautious response to demand for help, struck out on own and challenged colonial government b. significant because shows how boundaries continued to be an issue, English can't abide by earlier agreements, Indians unwilling to tolerate further, bitterness of competition between Eastern and Western landowners, also instability in population of free, landless men, creation of giddy multitude, want to prevent social unrest, increasingly turn to slave trade

Write a working definition for each of the following ideas relevant to North American colonial history (and be able to distinguish between the two) a. Borderlands b. Middle ground

a. borderlands are conflict zones between Europeans fighting for control of America b. Middle grounds are interaction areas between Europeans and natives, balance of power not shifted one way or another, natives are actors too stable accommodation and mutual adaptation, Indians not obstacles, but actors deteriorates over time with new, inexperienced settlers and thirst for land

What were the causes and consequences of: a. The Pequot War b. King Philip's War

a. first major conflict in 1637, hostilities between settlers of Connecticut Valley and Pequot Indians, result of competition over trade with Dutch in New Netherland and friction over land, English ally with Mohegan and Narragansett, bloodiest act of war was burning down Pequot stronghold, almost wipes out Pequot tribe b. longest, deadliest encounter in 1675 with King Philip's War, tribe of Wampanoags under leadership of Metacomet rise to resist English, convinced that only armed resistance could protect from English incursions onto land and protect from imposition of English law for three years, weakens society and economy of Massachusetts, but 1676, settlers fight back and prevail with aid from Mohawks, Metacomet dies, Europeans able to crush the uprising, Wampanoags and allies now with depleted populations and natural resources reduced, powerless to resist the English also flintlock musket, other tech of war, etc. (see textbook pg 48-49)

Describe or define each of the following terms and explain how each one contributed to English interest or readiness for exploration and colonization in the 17th Century? a. The enclosure movement b. Chartered companies c. Mercantilism d. Richard Hakluyt e. English Reformation f. Colonization and subjugation of Ireland g. "sea dogs"

a. harsh economic transformation of countryside, as demand for wool increases, farmers with tenants and serfs enclose land for sheep runs, evicted tenants left to roam, begging, robbing, attempts at laws to halt enclosures, relieve poor, compel able-bodied to work, but to no avail, also can't feed population, surplus population problem b. rising class of merchant capitalists prospering from expansion of foreign trade, merchants join forces to form chartered companies, charter acquired from monarch gives monopoly in certain region, investors make fantastic profits, efforts to continue expansion of profitable trade c. central to chartered companies motivation was mercantilism, assumption that nation as a whole was principal actor in economy, goal to increase nation's wealth in world's finite wealth, export a lot, import very little, new merchant capitalists' positions enhanced, benefit nation and receive gov. assistance, also increases competition, colonies now very attractive d. Hakluyt argues for colonies, creates new markets for English goods, alleviate poverty and reduce unemployment by siphoning off surplus population, also able to acquire products previously dependent on, such as silver and gold e. begins with Luther's challenge to RCC, bible>church, wins following of people, creates schism to never be healed, others offer alternatives to orthodox Catholicism, Calvinists believe in destiny with opportunity for salvation, creates groups like Huguenots and Puritans English Reformation, political dispute between king and Pope more than result of doctrinal revolts, connection to Catholic Church severed and instead Church of England, Catholics still assert allegiance to Pope, Puritans hope to purify church as reformation did not do enough Separatists are radical Puritans, want to worship as pleased, most Puritans resist Separatism, instead want to simplify worship, remove corruption and power from Church and reform local clergy discontent grows after James I takes throne, believes kings rule by divine right, antagonize Puritans, Puritans look overseas f. first experience with Colonization is Ireland, assumptions guide colonists later in America, assumptions that natives were wild, vicious, ignorant savages, must be suppressed, isolated, destroyed, civilized if thoroughly subordinated, also plantation model, must retain rigid separation, tried to build separate society instead of integration g. sea dogs, stage successful raids on Spanish merchant ships, built confidence in English ability to challenge Spanish sea power, also invasion of King Philips II fails

In 1966, what did Henry F. Dobyns add to the scientific and intellectual discourse about Native Americans? a. What are the low and high estimates of the Native American population before European exploration? b. How did Dobyns arrive at his numbers? c. What criticisms do the low-ballers have of the high-ballers and vice-versa?

a. prior to Dobyns, historians accept James Mooney's estimate in 1910 of 1.15 million inhabitants in North America in 1491, most researchers accept figure uncritically, but Dobyns publishes book, estimates 90-112 million people, numbers range from 1.8 million by Ubelaker to 18 million, Dobyns revised number, modern lows are 55 million, Dobyns 90-112 million still the high b. arrives at number, notices deaths like club between the eyes, smallpox plus typhus plus influenza plus diphtheria plus measles suggests high death rate of +90%, uses that number to calculate, suggests Mooney's estimation was population nadirs, Dobyns says 95% death rate c. low-ballers criticize Dobyns for being politically motivated, inflate the toll of imperialism, attacks continue to this day, think it is suspect, no evidence, all theoretical, assumption of % death rate is sketch high ballers say low-ballers refuse to relinquish vision of empty continent, call it irrational or worse, easy to regard continent as up for grabs, morally justifiable

Why and how did each of the following grow over time in Massachusetts: a. Tensions between New Englanders and Indians b. Puritans' views of the Indians c. Puritans' approach to interacting with the Indians

a. surviving Indians after epidemics sell much of land, many convert and join Christian and Puritan communities, provide crucial assistance in crops, agricultural tech, trading, act as markets but in other areas, conflicts, peaceful relations do not last because of white colonists' continuing appetite for land, a result of change in agrarian economy, focus on domesticated animals, need even more land b. Puritan attitudes, no longer condescending admiration, but see Indians as heathens and savages c. efforts to civilize, displace, or exterminate, seizing land, clearing forests, driving away game,

According to the new research, were Native Americans relatively few in number? Were they generally nomadic hunter-gatherers? Were they utopian? Did they leave nature undisrupted? Explain. And if not, what explains the traditional view that they were?

according to Hernando de Soto's accounts, thousands of warriors, into thickly settled lands, peopled with large towns, clusters of small cities with earthen walls, sizeable moats, and deadeye archers, but just a "privileged glimpse" of Indian world previously, architecture of public plazas, ceremonial platforms, mausoleums, wide streets, ornate buildings, markets, gardens, etc. also reached democracy first in actuality, Indians in central Mexico were one of the two world-altering centers of invention, Indians independently created neolithic inventions excluding writing no beasts of burden or wheel or steel, but great in agriculture, many crops, such as maize thought of as nomadic hunters because everything else, including the heavily populated urbanized societies, was wiped out disease destructive because many plagues, no knowledge on how to fight them, no quarantine, bad genes and MHC types was not utopia, though, diseases, daily grind, life spans not too different, not political utopia, Inca take totalitarian rule, state terrorism

Explain why Anne Hutchinson was a threat to Puritan society?

argued that members of clergy of Massachusetts who were not among the elect had no right to spiritual office, much of clergy had no right to exercise authority over congregations, charged that all ministers were not among elect, also challenged assumptions about proper role of women within Puritan society put on trial, continued to defy clerical authority, claimed she had communicated directly with holy spirit, so banished

What is the Pristine Myth?

belief that the Americas in 1491 were an almost unmarked, even Edenic land, untrammeled by man, when in reality, Western Hemisphere was vastly more populous and sophisticated than previously thought pristine myth that Indians had come to America in small, isolated groups, little impact on environment, mostly wilderness, but this is wrong in almost every aspect

Describe key differences between the Spanish Empire and the later English Empire (you haven't read about the English Empire thoroughly yet, but Brinkley highlights some differences here.)

by end of 16th century, monarchy with direct authority over colonies, a difference Spanish more successful in extracting surface wealth (think mines), but concentrated less on agriculture, commercial profit. gov stifles economic development also English and others focus on permanent settlements and family life after year or two, people it faster, Spanish do not

Describe the Jamestown settlers' struggles between 1607 and 1610, and explain how they were able to survive them?

colony of London Company/Virginia Company, problem, chose location for security, but worst possible location, swampy, low, thick woods, disease, focus on search for gold rather than food and community because no women survived at all because of Indians, taught colonists how to live in new lands, showed agricultural tech, new crops, also how to build canoes, without help of natives, would not have survived owed survival to Indians and John Smith, shaky relations with Indians

Why did the King revoke the Virginia Company's charter in 1624?

company was defunct, all funds into profitless Jamestown venture, after Indian uprising, faced imminent bankruptcy, 1624, charter revoked, colony under control of crown until 1776

Why and how did Bradford and his fellow Pilgrims found Plymouth Plantation?

discontent of Puritans within England, imprisoned and executed for defying Church of England, in search of freedom to worship many try to move to Holland, but blocked from Dutch craft guilds, also troubled by tolerance of the Dutch, can't have close-knit Christian community, look across Atlantic to spread Gospel of Christ to remote parts of world get permission from Virginia company, informal assurances from king that he would not interfere arrive too late at America, end up at Cape Cod, picked a site John Smith had named Plymouth, but outside London Company's territory, no legal basis for settling, so sign the Mayflower Compact, establishes civil government and allegiance to the king, and 12/21/1620, step ashore Plymouth settle on land that was once Indian village wiped out by plague, first winter is a rough winter, half colonists perish, Bradford becomes governor also change landscape, eliminate Indian population, greatly deplete land of animals because of demand for furs and skins of English, introduce new crops while incorporating native foods, impose European pattern onto American landscape in form of pastures, meadows, orchards fenced in

How and why did tobacco transform the Chesapeake socially, economically, and politically?

discovered tobacco, first profitable crop for settlers, encourages tobacco farmers to move farther inland demand for tobacco soars, 1612 John Rolfe plants harsh strain of tobacco of Indians, finds buyers in England, crop spreads required territorial expansion, exhausts soil, demand for land increases even more, leads to headright system, last effort from Virginia company to make colony profitable, recruit new settlers and workers, encourages families to create plantations by combining headrights women transported and purchased with tobacco, also as part of effort of company, promise full rights, end to communal years, even self-gov, 1619 is elected legislature, also first step towards slavery with Dutch ship of slaves in 1619

Why was Europe in the Middle Ages "not an adventurous civilization?" (7)

divided into innumerable small duchies and kingdoms, overwhelmingly provincial outlook, subsistence agriculture, commerce limited, Roman Catholic Church with some spiritual authority and Holy Roman Empire provides nominal political center, but real power was widely dispersed

What were the causes of the English Civil War? Why is the war significant to an understanding of English colonialism in America?

during rule of James I, attracted widespread opposition, then Charles I, dissolved Parliament in 1629, began rule as absolute monarch, alienates subjects, calls Parliament back only to levy taxes to get money, then disbands again, 1642, some organize military challenge to king, starting civil war Cavaliers support king, Roundheads against king, 1649 Roundheads win, behead Charles I, Oliver Cromwell becomes protector, then after his death, Charles II rules Charles II faces similar problems as father, people suspect he is Roman Catholic, supported religious toleration to dismay of Protestants, as it allows Catholicism again in England, but Parliament refused to agree son James II faces similar difficulties

Describe Jamestown settlers' relationships with the Powhatan Indians?

effective suppression of Powhatan Indians who resisted expanding English presence, can't attack because of overwhelming odds, but then must defend rapidly deteriorating land, fails in uprisings, eventually cease to challenge control of eastern lands

Describe the ways in which the lines separating the Spanish and the Indians in the Spanish Empire grew less distinct.

exchange described above intermarriage becomes frequent as two peoples mix, intimate, but unequal, as a result of unequal gender ratios among Spanish, create mestizos, and results in racial hierarchy, but over time, wealth takes priority also labor, some Indians slaves, more often a wage system, eventually need to import Africans

Describe English/Spanish tension in the American Southeast.

fear of the other, responding to the presence of each other, building forts, place between Carolinas and Florida site of continuing tension and frequent conflict no formal war, but hostilities, and both sides sought to make use of natives, but fighting drives Spanish settlers out of Florida, Spanish remaining rely more on natives and Africans there, English eventually acquire Florida

In the early 1700s, what groups of Europeans began migrating to North America as English immigration declined? Describe some of the reasons for their migrations.

flow of immigrants from England declines, result of better economic conditions, also new government restrictions on emigration in the face of massive depopulation but French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, and Scandinavian continues and increases earliest are French Calvinists/Huguenots, Edict of Nantes of 1598 revoked in 1685, Germans have to follow religious policies too, and wars with King Louis XIV, also unusually cold winter of 1708-1709, Germans make way to Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Dutch, Quaker colonies are common, also North Carolina most numerous are Scots-Irish, Ulster colonists can no longer export to England woolens and other products that had become basis of economy in Ireland, also outlaws Presbyterian religion, insisted on conformity with Anglican church, also long term leases expire, must pay expensive rent

Describe the Pilgrims' exchanges and experiences with the Indians, and compare them with those of the Virginians and Marylanders.

for a time, very different from experiences farther south, neighbors by Pilgrims were weakened by disease, far weaker than those south, forced to get along with Europeans out of necessity in the end, colony's survival and growth depended crucially on assistance from Indians, how to gather seafood, cultivate corn, hunt local animals, alliance marked by first Thanksgiving in October but good relations do not last when smallpox epidemic comes through and wipes out many eventually rely on semi-military regime to impose discipline and modest surplus of corn and other crops, also fur trade with Abenaki Indians of Maine

Describe the steps that led to the establishment of black slavery in the English American colonies.

from beginning, always demand in south for scarce labor, demand grows with introduction of tobacco however, from beginning North America was a less important market than, say, the Caribbean or Brazil, where labor-intensive economies created an especially large demand for slaves, not until 1670s did Africans get shipped straight to North America but flow was small, the Royal African Company of England had monopoly on slave trade, kept prices high and supplies low (see answer to question below) for a time, uncertain status, lived in relative equality, but by early 18th century, there was a rigid distinction between black and white, masters no longer need to free black workers, also because children are enslaved too, creates a self-perpetuating labor force assumptions about inferiority contribute to rapidly growing system, idea of subordinating supposedly inferior race already established in English imagination then slave codes in early 18th century, blacks without rights, almost absolute authority to white masters, distinctions made via color and ancestry

What were the motivations of the merchants who founded the Massachusetts Bay Company?

group of Puritan merchants organize enterprise to take advantage of opportunities within America, at first mostly economic, grant of land in New England, charter from Charles I unaware that they were Puritans however, some see it as more than a business venture, consider emigrating themselves and creating a haven for Puritans, agreed to buy out other investors and move en masse to America Winthrop, governor of Massachusetts, carried with him charter of Massachusetts Bay Company, responsible to no company officials in England, only themselves

Explain the debate among historians over how and why white Americans created a system of slave labor using African Americans.

historiography debate, did racism cause slavery or did slavery cause racism some say racism was already in minds of slave owners, led to slavery, racism shaped system from the beginning, others try to offer alternative causes for slavery more economically viable in some scenarios, permanent, one generation to the next, did not need incentive because forced into labor, all efforts by colonial legislatures to increase the available workforce there was a labor shortage for rice, but also fears of a black labor force, slavery as a means of control, to create needed stable and reliable workforce, tobacco too, arguable more profitable, employed to serve the needs of the emerging market economy

What effects did the agricultural revolution have on native cultures?

last centuries before arrival of Europeans, undergoing an agricultural revolution, tribes becoming more sedentary, new sources of food, clothing, and shelter most regions with significant population growth, developing social customs and rituals with specialization, religion bound up with natural world and featured many gods, some create totems and others stage large festivals divide tasks according to gender, all tribes women care for children, prepare meals, gather certain foods, varies among men in different tribes, some reserve farming tasks for men only, in others women tend fields and men make war and hunt and clear land, but women tend to control social and economic organization of settlements and have powerful roles within families

Describe the southern American Indian civilizations - i.e. the Incas, Olmecs, Mayans, and Aztecs (Mexicas) in South and Central America and what is now Mexico.

most elaborate early civilizations from the South in Peru, Incas create largest empire in the Americas, early 15th century under the leader Pachacuti, creates empire via persuasion and force, sustained by innovative administrative systems and large network of paved roads also Meso-Americans, as early as 10000 BCE, first truly complex society is Olmec peoples in 1000 BCE more sophisticated culture around 800 CE called the Mayans in Yucatan peninsula in Mexico, developed written language, number system like Arabs, accurate calendar, advanced agriculture system, important trade routes into continent multitude of Meso-American tribes known collectively as Aztecs, called themselves Mexica, 1300 CE, establish Tenochtitlan, greatest city ever created at that point, 100,000 people by 1500, had aqueducts, public buildings, schools, military, medical system, slave workforce, system of tributes, sacrifices to gods nonetheless, lacking some technology that Europeans and Asians had at the time

Describe Calvert's motivation for founding Maryland and the religious composition, policies, and problems in colonial Maryland.

motivation, establishing Maryland as speculative venture in real estate and retreat for Catholics, but need to attract settlers, so welcomes Catholics and Protestants, adopted policy of religious toleration but tensions between Catholic minority and Protestant majority, antagonize each other, 1655 a temporary civil war eventually adopts headright system to address severe labor shortage, so becomes center of tobacco, indentured servants, and slaves

Why was England later than Spain to explore and colonize in the New World?

needed internal transformations, begin in 16th century, attracted because of newness compared to troubled lands, society could start anew, Thomas More's Utopia, perfect society on imaginary island, comment on social and economic ills of England at the time, frequent and costly wars, religious strife, harsh economic transformation of countryside

Summarize recent scientists' and historians' main findings about the Western Hemisphere before European exploration. (Consider both the numbers and activities of Native Americans).

new evidence of extent of population and agricultural advancement, Indians present for far longer than previously thought, in much greater numbers, and could impose will on landscape, so Columbus arrived on hemisphere thoroughly dominated by human kind

How has each of the following changed scholars' understanding about the first Americans? a. recent archaeological evidence b. recent DNA evidence

previously thought that first Americans were Clovis people from Mongolian stock, crossed Bering strait to Alaska about 11000 years ago with the development of stone tools a. recent archaeological evidence suggests otherwise, migrants from Asia in Chile and Peru before people made it by land, suggesting first migration was by sea in boats, others populated Japan, Australia, and Pacific by boats b. DNA evidence suggests more diversity than previously thought, people from farther south in Asia in Polynesia or Japan, or from Europe and Africa, just that Mongolians were the dominant group

How did the chartering of the restoration colonies mark a shift in English colonial ambitions?

return of Charles II in Stuart Restoration marks resumption of colonization, issues charters for Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, all proprietary ventures like Maryland rather than Virginia or Massachusetts private companies no longer interested in launching colonies, there are no quick profits to be made in the New World goal of colonies not so much quick commercial success as permanent settlements that would provide proprietors with land and power

Beginning with population growth in the 15th century, trace the causes of increasing European readiness for Western exploration. (It would be useful to diagram this out.)

significant population growth in 15th century Europe as Europe rebounds from the Black Death, growth leads to rise in land values, reawakening of commerce, general increase in prosperity, leads to affluent landlords and merchants starting trade, leads to interest in developing new markets and finding new products and opening new trade routes paralleling this, rise of new governments that were more united and powerful, monarchs eager to enhance commercial growth of nations, hopes and dreams of commercial glory find audience with monarchs, ready to finance voyages of exploration

Why is 1697 considered a "turning point in the history of the black population in America"? What had this change resulted in by the 1760s?

then, mid 1690s, Royal African Company of England's monopoly was finally broken, trade in slaves now competitive, prices fell, import increased, new slaves being born, natural increase rising in Chesapeake and other areas, but also ratio of men to women holding back natural increase, and high death rates ensure population would barely be able to sustain itself in places like South Carolina by 1760s, number of Africans in colonies increased tenfold to about a quarter of a million, vast majority in the South, and Africans securely established as basis of southern workforce

What were some of the ramifications of Native American maize cultivation?

triumph with global implications, crop spread throughout the planet to Europeans, Serbia, Romania, Moldavia in 19th century, dramatically reduced hunger, Old World population boom transforms agriculture in Africa too, population boom, also makes slave trade possible in Americas, sustained some of world's largest cities such as Tenochtitlan

Compare the religious beliefs, motivations, and organization of the Puritans with those of the Pilgrims.

turbulent events in England in the 1620s plus example of Plymouth colony create interest in colonization among Puritans, King James I with effort to claim divine rights of kings and harsh, repressive policies towards Puritans Charles I, son of King James, makes worse, destroys religious nonconformity and favors Roman Catholicism, England made intolerable, and when Parliament disbanded in 1629, clear the Puritans have no diplomatic solution Winthrop, governor of Massachusetts, carried with him charter of Massachusetts Bay Company, responsible to no company officials in England, only themselves quickly produce new settlements and other towns, transforms into colonial government where eight stockholders/freemen meet as general court to choose officers and adopt rules, but eventually includes all male citizens, not just stockholders UNLIKE PLYMOUTH, Massachusetts with no intention of breaking from Church of England, but in every town, community church with complete liberty to stand alone, own minister and regulated own affairs, known as Congregational Church Puritans also worship different faith, Bible and minister>orthodoxies of traditional institutional faith, accepted Calvin's vision of destiny at birth thought to be serious and pious people founding holy commonwealth, city upon a hill

Explain the system of indentured servitude that developed in the American colonies. How "free" were indentured servants, would you say? What impact did freed indentures have on colonial sociopolitical development? Why did the flow of indentured servants from England decline in the 1670s?

young men and women bind themselves to masters for fixed period of servitude about 4-5 years, in return receive passage to America, food, and shelter, upon completion of service, men receive clothing, tools, and land- in reality, many leave without anything, unprepared and unequipped most voluntary, others are undesirables shipped away, others victims of kidnapping or impressment, to deal with poor Indian labor force and to capitalize on headright system, volunteers to escape trouble in England or establish themselves, limited success but after service, find selves without land, employment, families, or prospects, roaming population of potential unrest declines in 1670s, result of decrease in English birthrate, increase in English prosperity reduces push factors, not much opportunity in south or Chesapeake, better odds in Mid-Atlantic colonies like Pennsylvania or New York, slavery more convenient anyway for landowners