APUSH Vocab (1940-1980)

Atlantic Charter Conference

(1941) This brought together Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on a warship in Newfoundland. Great Britain was officially at war with Germany, while the United States would not enter until the attack on Pearl Harbor later in the year. The Atlantic Charter laid out the leaders' vision for the post-war world, which included disarmament, self-determination, freedom of the seas, and guarantees of each nation's security.

Rev. Jesse Jackson

(1941- ) A civil rights leader who campaigned for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988. Jackson was considered the first African American with a chance of winning the nomination (Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm attracted attention but few votes during 1972 run). In both elections, Jackson won several state primaries with a "Rainbow Coalition" of ethnic minorities and other marginalized groups, including gay people, the poor, and white progressives.

Korematsu v. United States

(1944) The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Japanese-American internment policy. Fred Korematsu, a U.S.-born Japanese-American, was convicted of remaining in his hometown of San Leandro, California, in violation of Executive Order 9066. In response to Korematsu's challenge, the Supreme Court ruled that the government can curtail and even violate a citizen's civil liberties during wartime.

Warren Court

(1953-1969) Th period when the Supreme Court was led by liberal Chief Justice Earl Warren. During this time, the court contributed greatly to the civil rights movement, enforcing voting rights for African Americans and forcing states to redraw congressional districts so minorities would receive better representation. The Court also issued rulings prohibiting school prayer, guaranteeing a right privacy, and strengthening the rights afforded to criminal defendants.

Geneva Accords

(1954) Signed at the end of the conflict between the French army and the Vietminh. These agreements temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel; Ho Chi Minh's Communist forces would control North Vietnam, while South Vietnam would be ruled by former emperor Bo Dai. It was greed that election would be held in two years to unite the country (this plan was later undermined by the United States, which feared Minh's election).

Brown v. Board of Education

(1954) The Supreme Court ruled 9-0 that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" and that schools must desegregate "with all deliberate speed." The ruling overturned the "separate but equal" standard in place since Plessy v. Ferguson. The case was brought by the NAACP on behalf of the young Linda Brown. Her case was argued by Thurgood Marshall, who would later become the first African-American Supreme Court justice.

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

(1954) The decisive battle between the French army and the Vietminh forces fighting to free Vietnam from colonial control. The Vietminh surrounded the French near the town of Dien Bien Phu in northwestern Vietnam. After two months of skirmishes, the French surrendered. Soon after that, the warring parties gathered in Switzerland to sign the Geneva Accords that ended the conflict and granted Vietnam its independence.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

(1955) Triggered by the arrest of Rosa Parks, who refused to give up her seat to a white man. African-Americans' anger over Jim Crow laws fueled the year-long boycott of the city's buses. The boycott brought Martin Luther King, Jr., a leading civil rights advocate, to national prominence as a result. A ruling by the Supreme Court ultimately resulted in the integration of city buses in Montgomery and elsewhere.

Cuban Revolution

(1959) Fidel Castro led a group of armed insurgents in overthrowing the U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista. At the time, American businesses controlled Cuba's electricity and telephone service; they also owned more than 3 million acres of Cuban farmland. The resentment felt by poor Cubans toward the governing elite led many to cheer the revolution and to welcome the nationalization of American property.

Cuban Missile Crisis

(1962) This caused panic among many Americans; it was the closest the U.S. and the Soviet Union had come to nuclear confrontation. In October, American intelligence revealed Soviet missiles stationed in Cuba. Kennedy, concerned about Soviet weapons reaching U.S. shores, imposed a naval quarantine and demanded the weapons be withdrawn. After 13 tense days, the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles after securing a U.S. promise not to invade.

Gideon v. Wainwright

(1963) A landmark Supreme Court case that guaranteed defendants in felony trials the right to a free lawyer if they could not afford to pay for one. It was one of a series of rulings issued by the liberal Warren Court that strengthened the rights of the accused. Following the ruling, many states expanded their public defender programs.

The Feminine Mystique

(1963) Written by Betty Friedan, this book sparked the modern women's movement, which had largely lain dormant since the success of women's suffrage. Friedan wrote the book after conducting a survey of college graduates and identifying "the problem that has no name," i.e., the dissatisfaction felt by many women who stayed at home while their husbands worked. The Feminine Mystique openly challenged assumptions about a woman's role in society. The book quickly became a bestseller.

Freedom Summer

(1964) A campaign to register as many black voters as possible in Mississippi, a state with notoriously harsh Jim Crow laws. It was opposed by mainstream civil rights groups like the NAACP and led instead by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Many white volunteers traveled from outside Mississippi to join in-state volunteers, who were largely black. Volunteers were harassed and beaten, and three were murdered.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

(1964) This resolution enabled the United States to escalate its military efforts in Southeast Asia. In August, reports emerged that two American destroyer ships in the Tonkin Gulf were attacked by the North Vietnamese. President Lyndon B. Johnson then persuaded Congress to pass the resolution, which allowed him to do whatever was necessary to protect American interests in the region. The resolution was the closest that Congress would come to declaring war in Vietnam.

Miranda v. Arizona

(1966) The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren ruled 5-4 that arrested suspects must be advised of their right to remain silent and to consult with a lawyer. If a law enforcement officer fails to advice a suspect of these rights, any information volunteered by the suspect is not admissible in court. The ruling led to the development of the "Miranda warning," now a routine part of police procedure.

My Lai Massacre

(1968) American soldiers abused, tortured, and killed between 347 and 400 civilians in a small village in South Vietnam, including women, children,and the elderly. The story broke a year later, outraging the American public and helping turn public opinion against the war.

Roe v. Wade

(1973) Supreme Court case that legalized abortion. Roe entitled women to obtain abortions in any state, until the point at which their fetuses could live outside the womb. In issuing the ruling, the Supreme Court referred to its 1965 ruling in Griswold v. Connecticut, which established the right to privacy. Roe v. Wade remains a contentious issue in American politics, with pro-life advocates calling for it to be overturned.

Millicent v. Bradley

(1974) The Supreme Court required segregated municipal areas to bus students to nearby schools in order to promote racial integration. Forced busing policies were unpopular among many white voters and some black voters, who argued that schools in predominantly black districts should receive more funding. In 1974 and 1975, riots broke out in South Boston after black students were bused into a white, working-class neighborhood.

Camp David Accords

(1978) A treaty between Israel and Egypt that is seen as the high point of the Carter Administration. Egypt and Israel had been warring parties for years, exacerbated by the 1967 war in which Israel claimed portions of Egypt's territory. In 1978, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin agreed to meet in each other's countries. President Jimmy Carter then brought both to Camp David where he personally secured an agreement.

Winston Churchill

(1874-1965) British Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. A member of the Conservative Party, he nevertheless formed close alliances with U.S. Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman based upon a mutual interest in defeating fascism and winning World War II. Following his defeat by the Labour Party, Churchill warned the United States about the descending "Iron Curtain" in a 1946 speech in Missouri.

Joseph Stalin

(1878-1953) He led the Soviet Union from the 1920s until his death. Stalin fought with the Allies during World War II and participated in the conferences that divided post-war Europe. The USSR's postwar expansionism fostered a growing divide with the United States. During the 1930s, Stalin also began the "Great Purge," the persecution and execution of large numbers of his political opponents. Hundred of thousands were sent to prison camps called gulags.

General Douglas MacArthur

(1880-1964) He led the U.S. Army in the Pacific region during World War II. He accepted Japan's surrender on September 2, 1945 and presided over the country's reconstruction. When China entered the Korean War on behalf of the North Koreans, MacArthur recommended an all-out confrontation and began to criticize President Harry S. Truman publicly. Truman fired him for insubordination, although the move backfired politically due to MacArthur's widespread popularity.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

(1890-1969) A five-star U.S. Army general who served as president from 1952 to 1960. Eisenhower commanded Allied forces in Europe during WWII, then served as the first supreme commander of NATO. Running as a Republican, Eisenhower easily beat challenger Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 election and again in 1956. Eisenhower's presidency was marked by moderate conservatism at home and a continuing emphasis on Soviet containment abroad.

Ho Chi Minh

(1890-1969) President of Communist North Vietnam (also known as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) from its founding in 1945 to Ho Chi Minh's death in 1969. Ho Chi Minh was schooled in France and received CIA assistance during World War II. He later led Vietminh forces against French, and later, Japanese occupation. When Saigon fell, ending the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese renamed it Ho Chi Minh City in honor of their president.

Nikita Khrushchev

(1894-1971) He led Russia from 1953 (when Stalin died) until 1964. The Eisenhower Administration hope that new leadership might improve relations; Khrushchev condemned totalitarianism and called for a "peaceful coexistence" between rival nations. But when the Soviet leader crushed rebellions in Poland and Hungary, U.S.-Soviet relations returned to their Stalin-era levels. Under Khrushchev, the USSR exploded its first hydrogen bomb and launched the first satellite into space, further heightening American anxieties.

Edward R. Murrow

(1908-1965) A respected radio and television journalist whose inquiries helped bring down Senator Joseph McCarthy. Murrow is most famous for his program See It Now, which aired on CBS during the 1950s. Several of the program's broadcasts built a case against the Red Scare, culminating in a famous broadcast aired on March 9, 1954, which laid out a devastating case against McCarthy and contributed to a growing backlash against the senator.

Rosa Parks

(1913-2005) A civil rights activist whose 1955 refusal to give up a bus seat to a white man sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. At the time, a city ordinance required African Americans to sit in the back of the bus and surrender their seat to white passengers if asked. Civil rights activists used the publicity surrounding Parks's arrest to fuel the year-long boycott. Parks stayed active in civil rights causes thought her life.

Gerald Ford

(1913-2006) He was vice president under Richard Nixon and president from 1974 to 1976, following Nixon's resignation. Ford was a moderate Republican whose tenure in office was ravaged by a weak economy and an OPEC-imposed oil embargo. Ford's most famous and controversial decision came when he pardoned former President Nixon, citing a desire to bring the Watergate era to a close but angering Americans who felt Nixon should face punishment.

Jackie Robinson

(1919-1972) When he stepped onto the field as a Brooklyn Dodger in 1947, he became the first African American to play in Major League baseball. Previously, African Americans had been relegated to the Negro Leagues. Robinson's talent and character were undeniable, and his example helped desegregate Major League baseball and contributed to the growing civil rights movement.

George Wallace

(1919-1998) He was the Democratic governor of Alabama and four-time presidential candidate infamous for his pro-segregationist stance. He was known for standing in front of the doors of the University of Alabama to prevent its desegregation. In 1968, Wallace ran for president on a third-party ticket. Republican nominee Richard Nixon and Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey both worried that Wallace would siphon votes from them. Wallace won five Southern states, not enough to cost Nixon the presidency.

Henry Kissinger

(1923- ) He was Secretary of State under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Kissinger was known for his close relationship with Nixon, with whom he orchestrated American withdrawal from Vietnam and the gradual thawing of relations with China and the Soviet Union. Kissinger remains a controversial figure for supporting military dictatorships in Latin America and aggressive bombing campaigns in Southeast Asia prior to American withdrawal.

Jimmy Carter

(1924- ) The governor of Georgia and Democratic president of the United States from 1976-1980. Carter created the Department of Energy to research alternative sources of power in the wake of the OPEC oil embargo. He is also best remembered for the Camp David peace agreement between Israel and Egypt. But continuing economic problems, as well as his failure to resolve the Iranian hostage crisis, made Carter a one-term president.

Malcolm X

(1925-1965) A Nation of Islam minister and a prominent black nationalist during the civil rights era. His philosophy is often contrasted with Martin Luther King, Jr. While king argued for nonviolent resistance, he urged blacks to stand up for their rights "by any means necessary." His autobiography is an essential document of the civil rights movement. He was assassinated in 1965.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

(SCLC) A civil rights organization founded after the Montgomery Bus Boycott and initially led by Martin Luther King, Jr. The group coordinated much of the nonviolent resistance to segregation, including the 1963 March on Washington. King later broadened the organization's focus to include a Poor People's Campaign advocating against poverty and hunger. Civil rights activist Ralph Abernathy led the SCLC after King's death.

Southeast Asian Treaty Organization

(SEATO) A mutual defense society formed in 1954 to defend Southeast Asian countries, particularly South Vietnam, against Communist takeover. SEATO was modeled after NATO, bu tit had no standing forces. France, a SEATO member, continually blocked American efforts to get the organization militarily involved in the Vietnam War. SEATO disbanded in 1977.

Robert Kennedy

(1925-1968) The younger brother of John F. Kennedy, under whom he served as attorney general. By 1968, Kennedy was a senator from New York and the leading contender for the Democratic presidential nomination. Kennedy ran as an advocate for the poor, and he harshly criticized the war in Vietnam. In June, soon after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Robert Kennedy was assassinated, convincing many Americans that peaceful change was impossible.

detente

A new foreign-policy term popularized under Richard Nixon. The term referred to an approach formulated by Nixon and Kissinger, which called for countries to cooperate more closely and to respect each other's differences. It was followed by a brief period of relaxed tensions between the superpowers, during which the United States increased trade and organized arms treaties with the Soviet Union. Relations grew tense again during the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

stagflation

A period of economic recession and inflation. The American economy experienced stagflation during the presidency of Richard Nixon, who attempted to combat it with federal spending (to stop the recession) and price and wage controls (to curb inflation). His efforts produced few results and the U.S. economy continued to sputter. The boom times that America had enjoyed since the end of World War II were definitively over.

Iron Curtain

A phrase first used by Winston Churchill, and later adopted by American leaders, to describe the division of Soviet-controlled Easter Europe from the "free" world. The Soviet military takeover of Romania, launched immediately after the Yalta Conference, marked the descent of the Iron Curtain and the beginning of the Cold War.

massive retaliation

A term coined by John Foster Dulles, secretary of state under President Eisenhower, who favored an aggressive stance in the Cold War. The term referred to the nuclear attack the United States would launch if the Soviet Union overstepped its bounds.

third world

A term that refers to countries in Africa, Asia, and South America that broke free of European domination following World War II. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union competed for influence over these unaligned nations, which represented potential markets and sources of raw materials, as well as strategic locations for military bases.

domino theory

A theory that was advanced beginning in the Eisenhower Administration, which argued that if one nation fell to Communism, the nations around it would fall as well, like dominoes. This belief made even small countries militarily significant. It was used as a justification for American involvement in Vietnam and other countries in Southeast Asia.

Berlin Blockade

After World War II, Berlin was divided into four areas controlled by England, France, the United States, and the USSR. Upon learning the former three planned to combine their sectors, the Soviets imposed a blockade on the entire city in 1948, known as the Berlin Blockade, and sparked an international crisis. Truman and his allies refused to give up control of their portion, and the Soviets ended their blockade the following year.

reconstruction of Japan

After World War II, this was led by the United States and the Soviet Union. The former controlled the Pacific Islands as well as the southern half of Korea, while the latter controlled the northern half of Japan. U.S. forces led by General Douglas MacArthur ensured that Japan demilitarized and wrote a democratic constitution. Japan also began an economic revival that would bring it remarkable prosperity within a few decades.

Manhattan Project

Begun in 1942, this was the code name for the U.S.-led research project that developed the first nuclear weapon. Under physicist Robert Oppenheimer, research teams from the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom worked to develop the technology before Nazi Germany. The first atomic bomb was tested in the New Mexico desert on July 16, 1945. A few weeks later, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Japan, ending World War II.

Chinese Revolution

During this revolution, the United States sided with the Nationalist government, led by Chiang Kai-shek, against Communist insurgents led by Mao Zedong. The civil war lasted 20 years, and the Nationalists eventually lost despite massive amounts of American military aid. For decades afterwards, the United States refused to recognize Mao's regime. Relations became normal after President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to the country, notably the first visit to Communist China by an American president.

termination

Eisenhower's policy of 1953 was an attempt to change federal policy toward Native Americans. The termination policy would have shut down reservations, ended federal support for tribes, and placed them under the jurisdiction of state law. Native Americans protested, convinced that the policy would deprive them of the little land they had left, and the plan was ultimately defeated.

suburbs

Residential areas, dominated by single-family homes, within commuting distance of an urban center. After World War II, a booming economy fueled the growth of suburbs across the United States. Planned communities like Levittown, New York, became famous for their mass-produced, cookie-cutter houses. In the 1960s and 1970s, racial tensions in urban areas sent many whites fleeing for the suburbs in a process known as "white flight."

1972 presidential election

Richard Nixon won this election in a landslide, receiving more than 18 million more votes than liberal anti-war Senator George McGovern. McGovern's campaign suffered after he decided to remove vice-presidential candidate Thomas Eagletonwhen stories emerged that Eagleton had received electroshock therapy and treatment for depression. McGovern was also hampered by his left-wing views and Nixon's success in tapping into public fears around crime and forced busing.

Bay of Pigs invasion

A CIA-led attempt to overthrow Castro's government in Cuba. In April of 1961, Cuban exiles, with covert support from the CIA, landed at the Bay of Pigs in hopes of inspiring a revolution among the Cuban people. The invasion was poorly planned and poorly executed, and its failure caused a major embarrassment for John F. Kennedy's new administration.

Medicare

A U.S.-government-run program that provides health insurance to the elderly. It was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 as part of his Great Society program to expand the social safety net and to reduce poverty.

deterrence

A belief among Cold War hawks that simply knowing the United States was prepared to use nuclear weapons would prevent the Soviet Union from becoming too aggressive. If both countries new they could face mutually assured destruction from the other, both would be eager to keep the peace. The policy of deterrence fueled an American arms buildup that continued through the end of the Cold War.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

A federal agency founded in 1958 to conduct non-military research into space and counter early Soviet victories in the "space race." In 1969, NASA's Apollo program sent a spacecraft to the moon. Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first human beings to walk on the lunar surface. In 1986, the space shuttle Challenger broke apart shortly after takeoff, killing all seven astronauts on board.

Aswan Dam

A large infrastructure project launched by Egypt's nationalist leader Gamal Nassar, in 1955. The United States initially offered large amounts of aid to help build the dam. Both the United States and the Soviet Union were eager to win Nassar's favor, trading offers of aid and military support. The United States withdrew its offer, irritated by Nasser's Cold War neutrality, and Nasser turned to the USSR for financial aid.

Laos

A nation that shares its eastern border with Vietnam. During the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese passed weapons and soldiers through Laos to South Vietnam using the Ho Chi Minh Trail. As a result, the country became one of the most heavily bombed in the history of warfare, under constant attack by American airplanes.

blacklists

Lists of suspected Communists that circulated during the Cold War. At the height of the McCarthy era during the 1950s, blacklists caused thousands of people to lose their jobs in government, education, entertainment, and other industries.

Griswold v. Connecticut

Although the right to privacy is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Supreme Court established it as a precedent in this 1965 case. The case concerned a Connecticut law banning the use of contraceptives. The Supreme Court invalidated the law, claiming that it violated a right to marital privacy. This case was cited by the Supreme Court in its 1973 Roe v. Wade ruling.

containment

An American policy first articulated by diplomat George Kennan in his famous Long Telegram, which he sent in 1946 from his duty station in Germany. Under the containment policy, the United States would not instigate a war with the Soviet Union; the U.S. would, however, attempt to contain Soviet influence by defending countries facing a Soviet takeover. This idea of containment formed the basis of American foreign policy throughout much of the Cold War.

Rosie the Riveter

An iconic image of a working woman, popularized on posters and in movies and songs during World War II. She symbolized the millions of women who took on industrial jobs when men were drafted and sent abroad. The war caused a shift in the gender composition of the U.S. workforce. Unfortunately, once the soldiers returned, women workers were expected to return to more "feminine" professions (or the home).

Eisenhower Doctrine

Announced by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a message to Congress on January 5, 1957. Eisenhower promised that the United States would provide military and economic aid to any country in the Middle East fighting a Communist takeover. At the time, the Soviet Union was attempting to win over Arab leaders, particularly Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. The doctrine was put into practice in 1958, when U.S. forces entered Lebanon to protect a pro-Western government.

military-industrial complex

As he prepared to leave office, President Dwight Eisenhower warned the nation about this complex that had arisen around the Cold War. Eisenhower claimed that the American military, along with arms industries that profited from continued conflict, created a powerful alliance with interests that ran counter to those of the public.

Korean War

In 1950, Communist North Korea invaded U.S.-backed South Korea, launching this war. Operating under the umbrella of the United Nations, American troops attacked North Korea. China, hardly eager to have American troops on their border, eventually entered the war and pushed American and South Korean troops back to the original border between North and South Korea. The war lasted until 1953; more than 30,000 American troops perished.

Equal Pay Act

Enacted by Congress in 1963, this law fought gender discrimination by requiring that men and women receive equal pay for equal work. Unfortunately, many employers circumvented the legislation, however, by changing the titles of available jobs.

President's Committee on Civil Rights

Established by Harry Truman in 1946 as part of his progressive civil rights agenda. The 15-member committee was tasked with investigating the state of civil rights in the United States and issued a report recommending improvements. The 1948 report called for more aggressive anti-lynching laws and an end to segregation and poll taxes.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Established in 1965 by President Lyndon Johnson to ensure that the employment clause of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was being carried out. Its mandate has expanded with the passage of new civil rights legislation. It now guards against workplace discrimination based on race, gender, national origin, religion, age, and disability.

Greensboro

In 1960, a group of African-American college students in this city organized a sit-in at a whites-only lunch counter in a Woolworth's department store. By the fourth day of the sit-in, 300 students were participating. The resulting publicity, as well as the harassment suffered by the students, inspired similar actions across the nation. Several months after the strike, the Greensboro Woolworth's announced it would allow blacks and whites to sit at its lunch counters.

Lend-Lease Act

In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt forced this law through Congress; the act allowed the president to "lend" or "lease" large amounts of armaments to England and other Allied Forces during World War II. To protect these shipments, Roosevelt sent American ships into the war zone, drawing German attacks. The Lend-Lease Act drew the United States away from its position of neutrality and further involved the nation in World War II.

internment of Japanese Americans

In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved Executive Order 9066, a policy that lasted until the end of the war. Claiming that Japanese-Americans might serve as enemy agents within the United States, the government sent more than 111,000 to interment camps Although no one was charged with crimes, many lost their homes and possessions.

government seizure of coal mines

In 1946, President Harry Truman ordered this when a strike led by the United Mine Workers could not be resolved. The strikers, fighting for basic rights, had temporarily cut off the energy supply to other industries, including auto plants and steel foundries. Truman's actions reflected the growing anti-union sentiment in the country. But labor, a key Democratic constituency, was not pleased, and the Republicans took Congress in 1946.

Alger Hiss

In 1949, this former State Department official was accused of spying for the Soviet Union. Although his guilt has never been proven, he served 44 months in prison for perjuring himself during the case. The trial launched the national career of then-congressman Richard Nixon when Hiss appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee. It also fueled American fears of Soviet influence inside the United States.

Berlin Wall

In 1961, the Soviets erected this wall, cutting off West Berlin from Soviet-controlled East Berlin. The wall was designed to prevent East Berliners from defecting to West Germany. Until its deconstruction in 1989, the wall symbolized (to many in the West) the repressive nature of communism. President John F. Kennedy traveled to the Wall in 1963 to show solidarity with West Germans and notably delivered his "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech.

Three Mile Island

In 1979, during the administration of Jimmy Carter, a Pennsylvania nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island failed, releasing radioactive materials into the environment. Although there were no immediate casualties, cancer and leukemia rates, as well as infant mortality, spiked in nearby communities. Many Americans saw nuclear power as a solution to the nation's dependence on foreign oil, but the accident led to fears that nuclear power plant failures could prove catastrophic.

Yalta

In February 1945, the Allied leaders met at Yalta (in Ukraine) to discuss the division of post-war Europe and the pacification of Germany. Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin agreed to form a United Nations organization to guarantee peace, and Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan after Germany was defeated and permit free elections in Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe (an agreement that he did not honor).

Truman Doctrine

In a 1947 speech, President Harry S. Truman asked Congress for $400 million to support Greece and Turkey in their fight against Communist insurgents, declaring that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation." This became known as the Truman Doctrine. In the following years, the United States would provide economic and military aid to numerous countries resisting Soviet control (although not to those resisting U.S.-backed dictators).

consensus of values

In the 1950s, these values reigned across much of America. Many Americans believed that the United States was the best country in the world. A stable life with a suburban home, a good job, and access to modern conveniences were all considered highly desirable. To some, the 1950s was a golden era of American life. To others, it was a time of conformity and consumerism.

Executive Order 9881

Issued by President Harry S. Truman in 1948, it ordered the desegregation of the Armed Forces. It built on an earlier order desegregating the federal work force. Truman had served as a soldier in World War I; his disgust at the discrimination faced by returning black World War II soldier contributed to his decision to issue the executive orders.

counterculture

Members were often called hippies who rebelled against "the establishment." Hippies grew their hair long, took drugs, and advocated free love. They opposed racism and the Vietnam War. In short, they lived their lives in opposition to what they considered an oppressive mainstream culture. The ideals and lifestyle of the counterculture were eventually adopted (at least in part) by mainstream America, as counterculture artists became popular and opposition to the Vietnam War spread.

Marshall Plan

Named for the Secretary of State George Marshall, this plan was the U.S.-led program to rebuild Europe following World War II. The United States spent more than $12 billion to help European countries; the plan was meant to revitalize Europe's economy and lay the groundwork for future peace. In return, European countries were expected to become U.S. allies. The Soviet Union and its allies refused aid under this plan.

rationing

Occasions when the government restricts the amount of food or other scarce goods (like fuel or medicine) an individual can purchase. Rationing was prevalent in the United States during World War II, when nearly every consumer good was restricted. The government wanted to ensure that the nation conserved its resources for the war effort.

Kent State University

On May 4, 1970, National Guardsmen shot and killed four young protesters at this university in Ohio. The students were protesting the U.S. invasion of Vietcong camps in neutral Cambodia. The incident heightened anger among antiwar protesters, and a sharply divided public reaction illuminated the division between young people and older, more conservative Americans. When a similar incident occurred at Jackson State University in Mississippi - a historically black college and university (HBCU) - the incident received little media coverage.

free speech movement

Originating at the University of California-Berkeley. In 1964, Berkeley students protested a campus ban on antiwar and civil rights demonstrations. Several hundred students were arrested in one sit-in, and the university eventually loosened its restrictions. The movement was a precursor to the large anti-Vietnam War demonstrations that later rocked campuses across the country. In 1966, Ronald Reagan won the California governorship after promising to "clean up the mess in Berkeley."

G.I. Bill of Rights

Passed by Congress in June 1944, this bill provided an allowance to veterans who chose to pursue a high school diploma or college degree. It also provided an allowance for living expenses. The G.I. Bill fueled the growth of an educated middle class; it also stimulated postwar economic growth by providing low-interest loans for G.I.s who wanted to buy a home or start a business.

War on Poverty

President Lyndon Johnson launched this campaign after his landslide reelection victory. The ambitious domestic initiative included several programs, including Project Head Start (which helped underprivileged children succeed in school). Upward Bound (which did the same for high-school students), a Jobs Corp program offering training for the unskilled, and a domestic Peace Corps-type program called Vista. Johnson's initiatives, although initially popular, were eventually overshadowed by his unpopular support for the Vietnam War.

Great Society

President Lyndon Johnson's ambitious domestic agenda. The legislation passed in 1965 and 1966 represented the most sweeping social legislation since the New Deal. Programs were funded by tax revenues from a quickly growing economy. While Johnson's programs were widely popular, conservatives objected to the growing size of government, and white Southerners protested his civil rights initiatives. Many liberal supporters later abandoned Johnson, angry over the escalation of the war in Vietnam.

Tehran Conference

The 1943 conference was the first to bring together the "Big Three": U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, United Kingdom Prime Minister Churchill, and Soviet Union leader Joseph Stalin. The three leaders planned the D-Day invasion at Normandy and agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupation if and when the country lost World War II. Stalin also agreed to join the war against Japan once German leader Adolf Hitler was defeated.

Tet Offensive

The North Vietnamese launched this attack in January 1968. Working with the Vietcong, the North Vietnamese struck major blows against the American military and came close to capturing the American embassy in Saigon. Although the North Vietnamese eventually lost the upper hand, the battle changed American public opinion. Many Americans realized they were being lied to about the status of the Vietnam War and felt that the war was possibly unwinnable.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

The United States dropped atomic bombs on these two Japanese cities in August of 1945, killing tens of thousands of civilians immediately. In the months to follow, thousands more died of radiation sickness and other illnesses. This is the only instance in which nuclear weapons have been used in conflict. Six days after the August 9 bombing of Nagasaki, the Japanese surrendered to the Allied Powers, ending World War II.

Sputnik 1

The first Earth-orbiting satellite, it was successfully launched into space by the Soviet Union in 1957. It was a major step toward space exploration, but it fueled American fears that the Soviet Union was gaining technological superiority and winning the emerging "space race." The United States poured money into scientific research as a result, creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1958.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

The most comprehensive piece of civil rights legislation in U.S. history. It was first proposed by President John F. Kennedy. After his assassination, it was pushed through Congress by President Lyndon Johnson, not previously known as a civil rights champion. The bill prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, or gender and authorized the attorney general to ensure that voting registration requirements were enforced equally.

Equal Rights Amendment

This amendment to the Constitution would have outlawed discrimination based on sex. It was passed by Congress in 1972. In the years that followed, state legislatures battled over the ERA (three-fourths needed to approve it for the amendment to pass); it was strongly opposed by conservatives who argued that it granted too much power to the federal government. Only 35 of the 38 required states ratified the ERA, and the amendment failed.

1968 Democratic Convention

This convention became infamous for the protests that accompanied it. Meeting in Chicago, delegates chose pro-war Vice President Hubert Humphrey as their standard bearer over the antiwar Eugene McCarthy and refused to condemn the Vietnam War. These moves alienated many on the left and fueled large and disruptive protests on the streets of Chicago, which were met with tear gas and billy clubs from the police.

Beat generation

This cultural movement arose in reaction to what its members saw as the materialism and conformity of 1950s culture. Beat writers like Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William Burroughs challenged the values of suburban America by writing about rootlessness, drug use, sex, and alternative religions such as Eastern mysticism. The movement gained popularity among young people in the 1950s, just as young people in the 1960s would be attracted to hippie culture.

1960 presidential election

This election pitted Vice President Richard Nixon against Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy. Both candidates were Cold War hawks who campaigned against the "Communist menace." Aided by his looks and charm, Kennedy trounced Nixon in their first televised debate. His choice of Texan Lyndon Johnson as a running mate helped win Southern votes. Nevertheless, Kennedy won the election by a narrow margin, and some believe that voter fraud played a role.

1948 presidential election

This election pitted incumbent President Harry Truman against Republican New York Governor Thomas Dewey. Truman was widely unpopular and expected to lose. As the election neared, he recalled the Republican-controlled Congress and challenged it to enact the extremely conservative platform it had just passed at its party convention. Congress met for two weeks without passing any legislation, and Truman, campaigning against a "do-nothing" legislature, won re-election and a Democratic majority in Congress.

isolationism

This foreign policy favors little to no involvement in conflicts beyond the country's borders, as well as trade policies that protect domestic industry. Isolationism was a popular philosophy in the United States after World War I, until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 convinced Americans it was untenable.

Stonewall riots

This launched the modern gay rights movement. The event took place on June 28, 1969, outside a gay bar in New York City's Greenwich Village. A police raid on the bar prompted its patrons to protest violently on the streets. The public outburst and ensuing media attention drew attention to the oppression of homosexuals who, at the time, often faced discrimination and prosecution if they were open about their sexuality.

Americanization

This phase of the Vietnam War occurred as the United States essentially took over the military campaign from the South Vietnamese during the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who flooded the region with American troops and authorized massive Air Force bombing raids into North Vietnam. When Richard Nixon became president, he attempted to reverse this trend by rebuilding the strength of the South Vietnamese army, in a process that became known as "Vietnamization."

Quemoy and Matsu

Two islands that were occupied by American-allied Taiwan in 1954, in what became known as the First Taiwan Strait Crisis. The Taiwanese used the islands to launch military raids on nearby China, prompting the Communist Chinese government to bomb the islands. In response, Eisenhower hinted that he would consider attacking China with nuclear weapons. In the 1960 presidential campaign, President Kennedy argued that two small islands should not trigger a nuclear conflict.

Interstate Highway System

Under Eisenhower, Congress authorized the creation of this road network, which comprises more than 41,000 miles of expressway across the United States. The system was partly designed to move soldiers and nuclear missiles around the country quickly (maintaining military parity with the Soviets was a key concern at the time). The new roads also sped up travel for citizens and fueled the development of the American suburbs.

liberation

Under President Dwight Eisenhower, the United States continued to pursue containment policies against the Soviet Union, but it used the word liberation rather than containment. The term carried the American hope that all of Eastern Europe would eventually be liberated from Soviet influence.