Arab-Israeli Conflict: Origins, Mandate Period and British Withdrawal (1896-1948)

Political Zionism

(1) Associated with Herzl (2) Contrast to practical Zionism (means) Political Zionism is the interpretation of the Zionist movement as a political issue with international ramifications that thus must be discussed within an international political forum.

Impact of the Second World War and Holocaust

(1) Britain in decline as a great power: (a) British economy was devastated due to war effort = very costly to deploy troops and retain the mandate of Palestine. (b) Britain faced international scrutiny for the way it handled the Jewish refugee crisis following the Second World War. (2) Emergence of American influence in the region (see Biltmore Progam) (3) Holocaust underlined the plight of the Jewish people and espoused international sympathy = promoted the Zionist cause.

Practical Zionism

(1) Contrast to political Zionism (means) (2) Began in Russia when "the Lovers of Zion" in 1881 started to promote Jewish immigration into Palestine in light of persecution and pogroms against Russian Jews. Practical Zionism emphasizes the importance of achieving a Jewish minority (with or without international support) in Palestine as requisite to the Zionist goal of a homeland. - link to immigration

Reasons for the Creation of Israeli State

(1) Holocaust served to support the Zionist narrative = few people disputed the Jews' right to a homeland; by supporting a Jewish state in Palestine, the West could compensate for its complicity in the atrocities and anti-Semitism of the Second World War. (see Exodus Affair) (2) Zionist lobbying and the politics of the UN (a) Intense US Zionist lobby (were able to postpone the vote in order to have more time to galvanize a 2/3 majority required to pass the UNSCOP proposal. (b) USSR supported Jewish homeland = stood to gain a Middle Eastern ally in Israel that to a great extent was inspired by Russian socialism and collectivism. (3) Factors for Britain's withdrawal = made the Jewish homeland possible.

Reasons for British withdrawal from Palestine

(1) Jewish and Arab revolts = signaled that Britain failed to keep the peace and had angered both communities = originates in Britain's immigration policies during the last years of the mandate and thus ultimately takes root in the underlying issue of competing nationalisms that characterize the Arab-Israeli conflict as a whole. (2) Britain's economic devastation = hard to justify the retention of British presence in Palestine when the ultimate domestic priority was post-war reconstruction.

Hussein-McMahon Correspondence

1915/1916. Context: Ottoman Empire had entered on Germany's side of the First World War. Agreement between British official Sir Henry McMahn and Hashemite leader Sharif Hussein. Britain pledges its allegiance to the Arabs and their struggle for self-determination in exchange for the Arabs' promise to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. British perspective: Attempt to destabilize Germany's war ally (Ottoman Empire)

Sykes-Picot Agreement

1916 Context: First World War and in anticipation of the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. A covert agreement between France and Britain regarding the division of Europe/Ottoman Empire after the war. Palestine was designated an international zone. Motives: (1) To prevent a power vacuum in areas after the First World War. (2) To prevent Russians from entering the region. Significance: Illustrates how Britain had no intention of really helping the Arabs (Hussein-McMahon 1915) or the Jews (Balfour Declaration 1917) when pledging allegiance to these respective communities.

Balfour Declaration

1917 Britain announces support for the Zionist cause and commits itself to facilitating the mass immigration of Jews into Palestine. A major triumph for Zionist diplomacy; orchestrated by Chaim Weizmann, a chief Zionist lobbyist in Britain whose career was committed to enlisting British support for a "Jewish commonwealth" in Palestine. Motives: Expedient foreign policy on Britain's behalf in light of the First World War: (1) in order to appease the Russian Zionists who were thought to be prominent in Russia's revolutionary circles and hence, sustain Russia's effort in the First World War (=Entente/British side) (2) in order to appease the prominent Zionist lobby in the US so as to galvanize President Wilson's entry on the Entente side of the First World War and the supply of aid to Britain. (3) Allowed Britain to occupy Palestine, which was of strategic geographical interest (i.e. due to Suez canal and access to oil reserves), under the pretense of helping the Zionist community. Consequences: (1) Britain sets up provisional military government in Jerusalem 1918 (2) Physically claims area (that even was to be internationalized according to Sykes-Picot agreement) (3) Arab community is outraged as it perceives the Balfour Declaration 1917 as a negation of the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence 1915/16. Creates (a) Arab resentment towards British mandatory authority and (b) Arab hostility to Zionist state-building project.

Churchill White Paper

1922 Limited British support for a Jewish homeland (~Balfour Declaration) in three significant ways: (1) introduced economic criteria for Jewish immigration, i.e. only Jews could immigrate who had sufficient capital to provide for their own absorption; (2) proposed elected institutions based on proportional representation rather than parity; (3) excluded Transjordan from the areas available to Jewish immigrants. Consequences: (1) Zionists began to resent the way Britain administered immigration and the establishment of the homeland. Haganah gains momentum. (2) Official Zionist leadership blamed such policy for the slow immigration rate after 1917, however the Zionist organization had limited funds to begin with which also restricted immigration into Palestine.

Approval of British Mandate in Palestine

1922 by League of Nations Adopts the Balfour Declaration into the constitution of the British mandatory. As the mandatory authority, Britain committed itself to "placing the country under such 'political, administrative, and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home ... and the development of self-governing institutions, and also for safeguarding the civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine, irrespective of race and religion." (Schulze)

Wailing Wall Riots

1928-1929 Long-running dispute between Muslim and Jewish communities erupted in violence over access to the Western Wall, i.e. a holy site for both religions in Jerusalem.

Passfield White Paper

1930. Context: Wailing Wall Riots. (1) Restricted Jewish immigration further after 1922 Churchill White Paper. (2) Criticized Histadrut "land purchase policies", i.e. the eviction of Arab tenants (3) Returned to the idea of a legislative council with proportional representation in Palestine Consequences: Jewish community outraged; Passfield White Paper was interpreted as a negation of Balfour Declaration.

Hitler's Rise

1933 Put pressure on Palestine to accept Jewish immigrants.

Peel Commission Report

1937. Response to the Arab Revolt 1936. Commission concludes that Jewish nationalism was as intense and self-centered as Arab nationalism. Because the gap between the communities was widening, the only solution was to partition Palestine into two states. It proposed (1) a small Jewish state of app. 5000 square km; (2) a large Arab state; (3) the area from Jerusalem to Jaffa under permanent British mandatory control. (See map on p. 21 in Shlaim) Consequences: (1) Marks the beginning of the end of the British mandate (2) A Jewish homeland is addressed internationally as a viable political program. (3) Zionist leadership is divided in its response to Peel Commission due to disputes over the small size of territory and the ability of the Yishuv to stand on its own independently of Britain. (a) Weizmann agrees to the proposal as a part of Zionism's alliance with Britain. (b) Ben-Gurion agrees to accept the proposal, however with the intention to consolidate the Jewish community in Palestine as an independent power. Ben-Gurion did not view the borders recommended by the Peel Commission as permanent = had the intention to gradually expand the Jewish territory to include the whole mandate. (4) Arabs boycotted the commission = gave Zionists the opportunity to bypass the Arabs and negotiate with British officials.

White Paper 1939

1939. Context: Second World War. Limited Jewish immigration to app. 15 000 a year until 1944, after which Jewish immigration was made contingent on Arab permission. Stated that the Jewish community never was to exceed 1/3 of the population and, therefore, would always have minority status in Palestine. The future state was to be Arab-led. Motives: (1) In light of the rise of German and Italian fascism and the beginning of the Second World War, Britain wanted to retain its strategic position in the Middle East. This required the goodwill of the Arabs. Consequences: (1) Jews outraged, especially in light of Hitler's anti-Semitism in Europe and later the Holocaust. Interpreted by Zionists as Britain's betrayal of its commitments to the Zionist community made in the Balfour Declaration. Sends the signal that a Jewish state never will happen. (2) Inaugurates the Jewish revolt of the 1940's and promotes the Zionist community to develop its own military capacity via the Haganah. (3) Jewish opposition to White Paper: illegal immigration to which the British respond by intercepting refugee ships.

Irgun and Stern Gang

A paramilitary group that was formed as part of the Revisionist movement under the leadership of Menachem Begin. Split took place in 1939: the more militant parts of the Irgun formed independent group, the Stern Gang.

Zionism

A secular movement that emerged in Europe from the 1880's onwards. It aims at the national revival of the Jewish people in its ancestral home, Israel. It concludes that the assimilation of Jews in other European countries was impossible and therefore, a Jewish nation was a necessity. "Zionism was in essence an answer to the Jewish problem that derived from two basic facts: the Jews were dispersed in various countries around the world, and in each country they constituted a minority. The Zionist solution was to end this anomalous existence and dependence on others, to return to Zion, to attain majority status there and, ultimately, political independence and statehood." (Shlaim)

Iron Wall

A strategy proposed by Ze'ev Jabotinsky to deal with the Arabs in Palestine. Published in as series of articles 1923. Jabotinsky argues that no voluntary agreement with the Arab communities is possible in the foreseeable future, because "every indigenous people will resist alien settlers as long as they see any hope of ridding themselves of the danger of foreign settlement". Therefore, the Zionists must erect an "iron wall" of Jewish military force in order to crush Arab resistance and thus break the Arabs' "gleam of hope that they can prevent 'Palestine' from becoming the Land of Israel". This is why diplomacy would be incapable of resolving the conflict. According to Jabotinsky, the iron wall is the means to the end of making Arab moderates come forward and engage in an agreement with the Zionists in Palestine.

Revisionist Zionism

Associated with Ze'ev Jabotinsky ("the spiritual father of the Israeli right") and based on the "Iron Wall" tactic. Contrast to labor Zionism, i.e the official Zionist leadership in the early 20th century. Developed during the 1920's in light of growing Arab militancy in response to the Balfour Declaration and thus Britain's attempts to appease the Arabs, and Britain's post-WW1 policies that disappointed many Zionists (see e.g. Churchhill White Paper 1922). (1) Emphasizes the territorial integrity of Eretz Israel (2) Declares the Jewish right to political sovereignty in all of Palestine (3) Stresses the importance of a great power's help (=Great Britain) in the establishment of Israel, like the remaining Zionist movement)

Arab nationalism

Based on self-determination. The belief that the Arab people constitute a single political community that should be unified under a common government (="Arab empire") or as a set of allied Arab independent states. Arab nationalism adopted the following principles: (1) Anti-Turkish/anti-imperialist sentiment (= the Arab people's reaction to decades under Ottoman control) (2) Anti-Zionist sentiment (= because Arab nationalism inevitably competed with Zionist nationalism in this time period. In contrast to Zionism, Arab nationalism was not unified due to (1) disagreements concerning the preferable political system between Arab countries and (2) the emergence of separate, localized nationalisms.

UNSCOP

Committee created by the UN to investigate the causes of tension in Palestine and to recommend a solution (like Peel Commission). Recommends partition. Consequences: (1) Boycotted by the Arab Higher Committee = thought it was dispositionally biased towards the Zionist case.

Biltmore Program

Conference organized by the US Zionist lobby in 1942. Attended by both Ben-Gurion and Weizmann. Called for the establishment of a Jewish state in all of Palestine and rejected the White Paper. The program did not find immediate support in the US administration as President Roosevelt did not want to jeopardize Arab oil supplies during the war. However, in the elections of 1944 both the Republican and Democratic (Truman) camps endorsed the Biltmore program in order to secure the votes from the dominant US Zionist lobby. Significance: the context of US foreign policy with regards to the Arab-Israeli conflict after the Second World War.

Second Aliyah 1904-1913

Consisted mostly of 60, 000 Eastern European and Russian Jews who fled anti-semitic persecution under Nicolas II following the aftermath of the failed 1905 revolution. This wave of immigration is associated with the beginning of Israel's proto-state formation and is responsible for the establishment of (1) various Jewish institutions in Palestine and (2) the kibbutz (i.e. collective agricultural settlements).

Histadrut

Established 1920. General Labor Federation in Israel. For Jewish workers. Included Arab workers 1969.

Britain Submits Palestine Problem to UN

February 1947. Motives: (1) See reaons for British withdrawal from Palestine

World Zionist Organization

Founded in 1897

Haganah

Jewish paramilitary group that was to become the core of the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) after May 1948. Established 1920 following increasing Arab militancy and riots and the Jewish community's resentment towards Britain for the failure to protect Jews from the Arab incitements to violence.

Yishuv

Jewish settlement in Palestine before the establishment of Israel.

Proclamation of Israeli Statehood

May 14th 1948 Ben-Gurion = President Consequences: (1) Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon and Jordan declare war on newly proclaimed Israeli state to "liberate Palestine"

Arab Revolt

Organized by the Arab Higher Committee in 1936. First popular expression of Palestinian nationalism. Orchestrated strikes that found widespread support among Arab nationalist community and turned into a large-scale uprising. Causes: (1) Increase in Jewish immigration after Hitler's rise (2) Response to the assassination of a Muslim religious leader Consequences: (1) Britain forced to deploy 20 000 troops in Britain = financial strain (contributes to decision to withdraw from mandate) (2) Britain sends Lord Peel to investigate causes of the uprising and recommmend a solution = Peel Commission 1937.

Theodor Herzl's "Der Judenstaat"

Published 1896 and is considered the cornerstone of the Zionist movement. Herzl argues that the Jews were not merely a religious group but a true nation left to be born and provides details on the establishment of a Jewish state.

Arab and Jewish positions during the Second World War

September 1st, 1939: German invasion of Poland. Arab: Official Arab position was neutrality. However Palestinian organization under Hajj Amin al-Husseini had contact to Nazi Germany and saw such an alliance as a way to liberate Palestine from the Zionists and the British. Zionist: Although Zionists opposed British policy in Palestine (i.e. White Paper 1939) they had no choice but to fight alongside Britain and the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers. Contributed with a Jewish legion that fought together with Britain in the Middle East and Europe. Many Palestinian Jews enlisted in the British army. "We will fight with the British against Hitler as if there were no white paper; we will fight the white paper as if there were no war." (Ben-Gurion)

Interwar Period in Palestine

Sir Herber Samuel (liberal statesman and British governor) encouraged both Jewish and Arab communities to establish institutions in Palestine during the 1920s. Period of relative peace during the 1920's under Samuel (with the exception of the Wailing Wall Riots): (1) Jewish immigration decreased as many immigrants left for the US (i.e. Jewish immigration was not as great a provocation for the Arabs); (2) there was a degree of cooperation between Arab and Jewish communities; (3) no widespread violence.

Johnson Act

Strict US immigration law passed 1924. Immigration quotas were restricted to 2% of the total population of each ethnicity/nationality living in the US based on an 1890 census. Consequence: (1) Most Jewish immigrants could not move to the US, which was the preferable destination. Palestine was practically the only alternative. (2) Immigration starts to increase. (3) Increase in Arab opposition and frustration

First Zionist Congress and the Basel Program

The congress was convened by Herzl 1897. The Basel Program states that "the aim of Zionism is to create for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law" and thus affiliates the Zionist movement with political Zionism. (= "Secured by public law" refers to obtaining the support of the great powers in order establish a Jewish homeland.) Thus, the Zionist movement would not achieve its goal through an understanding with local Palestinians but with an alliance with the dominant great powers of the day. This trend of bypassing Palestinians is fundamental to the subsequent unfolding of conflict between the Jewish and Arab communities in Palestine.

Arab Higher Committee

The main institution of the Palestinian-Arab political leadership under the leadership f Hajj Amin al-Husseini. Formed in 1936. Outlawed in 1937 due to its role in the Arab revolt.

Resolution 181

The partition of Palestine. (see map p. 27 in Shlaim) Vote postponed for three days by the US Zionist lobby in order to secure a 2/3 majority in favor. 33 countries in favor 13 against (including Britain) 10 abstentions Motives: (a) Holocaust sympathy = attempt to alleviate the West's conscience for the atrocities of the Second World War (b) Deemd that Arabs and Jews (1) US (2) USSR (2) Britain votes against Partition: since the 1939 White Paper, Britain advocated a one-state solution as they deemed it impossible to reconcile Jewish and Arab claims to territory separately Problems with Resolution 181: (1) Territorial fragmentation of both states - no clean cut borders (2) Assumed that economic unity between Arab and Zionist communities was possible Consequences: (1) Arabs reject the resolution = Arab league adopt a common strategy to go to war against the Jews to prevent the actualization of a Jewish state (2) Arab Higher Committee orders a general strike (early December 1947) (3) Jews and Arabs begin to arm themselves (4) Break out of civil war conditions during the last months of the British mandate = bitter fighting between Jews and Arabs: e.g. Plan Dalet = Deir Yassin massacre by the Irgun and Stern Gang (5) Beginning of Palestinian refugee problem = mass exodus of Palestinian Arabs

Jewish Revolt

Took place during the mid 1940's in response to the British White Paper 1939. A full-scale uprising against the British. Haganah, Irgun and Stern Gang coordinated terrorist attacks. Terrorist activity was secretly supported by American Zionists, who supported paramilitary groups with weapons. Jewish revolt culminates in the bombing of British headquarters, the King David Hotel, in 1946. Massive Britsh crackdown led to the end of the Jewish revolt. Consequences: (1) In light of the aftermath of the Second World War, it became too costly for Britain to attempt to keep the peace in Palestine. (2) Signaled that British in policy was untenable = contributes to the British withdrawal from Palestine. (3) Led Zionist movement to seek the support of the US instead of Britian.

First Aliyah 1882

Up until this point, Jewish immigration into Palestine had been sporadic. In light of Alexander III anti-semitic policies, many Jews emigrated from Russia to Palestine; most notably the Bilu pioneers, i.e. Russian university students whose goal was the agricultural settlement of Palestine.