Arch Hist Exam 3

Belper Mills

-1739-1804 English Industrial Architecture -William Strutt -Derbyshire, England -Slender, cast iron columns on a regular grid, large windows, thick masonry exterior walls, water wheel operates machinery. jack arches in section made of brick, regular fenestration patterns, design virtue of sobriety, no frills! engineering, diagramatic logic. is not in a city, is out in a rural setting. cotton transported by waterways. mills were all on waterways regardless of whether or not they were for factory use or solely transport.

Coalbrookdale Bridge

-1779 English Industrial Architecture -Abraham Darby -Shropshire, England -first entirely iron bridge

VA State Capital Building

-1785-89 Period Revivalism -Thomas Jefferson -Richmond, VA -Looks like an enormous Maison Carree with two wings, one on each side. Why is American interested in Roman model? Jefferson admires Republican era of Rome, Roman Republican virtues. Model is the Maison Carree, adaption has windows in between columns, offices at base instead of grand steps, though steps added on later. Ionic instead of corinthian capitals because easier to make. also has multiple stories, dome inside, not like roman temple interior at all.

2nd Bank of US

-1819-1824 Period Revivalism -William Strickland -Philadelphia -Model is the Parthenon, Greek doric order. Symbolism is representing Greek democracy. Adapted inside has a series of bank rooms. "Corinthian" capital is actually corn cobbs, search for an American Order! Also can find tobacco leaves or magnolias in other attempts in American buildings

"Contrasts"

-1836 -AWN Pugin -English -Talks about present day decay of taste in architecture. Driven by mostly images, few words. Also about Gothic moralism. Architecture shapes society and correct social behavior is embodied in a particular design vocabulary. Gothic is the morally correct way to build.

Houses of Parliament

-1836-68 Gothic Revival -AWN Pugin and Charles Barry -London -When old building was burned down, national competition was held for new building to replace it, had to be Gothic, due to idea that Gothic is "native" to England and is an expression of English-ness. Is a huge building, has Big Ben, asymmetrical towers, fairly regular plan. As a modern government building, needs committee rooms, assembly rooms, offices, etc. Lots of windows and glass let in as much light as possible.

Reform Club

-1841 Period Revivalism -Charles Barry and AWN Pugin -London -Looks like an Italian palazzo- square doughnut. Copied palazzo because Renaissance was humanistic, like the "reformers." However is an adaption of this building type, glass canopy over cortile so it can be used year-round. Pugin is a Gothic moralist and only likes to makes Gothic because believes it is morally better, but Barry likes Renaissance and Greek as well as Gothic so wants to use different styles.

Library of Sainte Genevieve

-1842-50 French Civic Architecture -Henri Labrouste -Paris -acquired by state from the monastery. large windows, surface enrichment- names of authors, chronologically organized. rectangular plan split by slender cast iron columns. one of the first buildings with lamps (scholarship no longer ends when the sun sets). masonry exterior. can be compared to English mills.

Albert Docks

-1845 English Industrial Architecture -Jesse Hartley -Liverpool, England -transatlantic trade. locks provided theft resistant places to store products. also protected from fire and weather damage.

Restoration of Notre Dame

-1845-70 Gothic Revival -Eugene Viollet-le-Duc -Paris, France

"The 4 Elements of Architecture"

-1851 -Gottfried Semper -German - writes an essay about his version of the primitive hut, claims they exist in the Caribbean. 4 elements are: -hearth- social center, gathering place -platform- off the ground, marks off a piece of earth -roof- with supports holding it up -enclosure- woven walls -makes building into a skeletal structure with an enclosure/skin, no load bearing walls. Look at Indian teepees, they're not load bearing, just "skin" and a frame. Frame is overed by a curtain, where "curtain walls" come from.

Crystal Palace

-1851 English Industrial Architecture -Joseph Paxton -London -

Dictionnaire Raisonne 10 vols

-1858-65 Gothic Revival -Eugene Viollet-le-Duc -Paris

Entretetiens Sur l'Architecture

-1863-1872 Gothic Revival -Eugene Viollet-le-Duc -Paris

Wainwright Building

-1890 -Adler and Sullivan -St. Louis -Brick exterior, steel framed interior. Used steel frame and raft foundation common for buildings in Chicago at the time. Is on corner, looks like a square but is actually u-shaped to get light into center of building. Street level is retail shops, upper levels are all identical plans of offices. Is terminated at top with a deep cornice, has tripartite division. Steel frame is wrapped in brick to fireproof it. Vertical lines on elevations are multiplied to emphasize height. While is organized vertically in tripartite, horizontally is anchored at corners by heavier pier. is not structurally necessary, only visually. Spandrel panels are in between vertical members, same panel throughout level but variations in between levels. Terra cotta ornament of organic forms, leaves, seeds, flowers. Frieze at top has big circles w/leafy forms woven in- designs are geometric forms that become organic.

"Ornament in Architecture"

-1892 -Louis Sullivan -Chicago? USA - Building can be noble and dignified just because of its mass, doesn't need ornament- so why use ornament? Why ask for more? "A building which is truly a work of art, is in its nature, essence and physical being an emotional expression. This being so.... it must have, almost literally, a life." Get a sense of life from nature, like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Transcendentalists, look to nature!

Tassel House

-1892-93 Art Nouveau -Victor Horta -Brussels, Belgium -townhouse, iron stair, smooth stone exterior with an expressed iron portion. iron support becomes 3d expression of the linear pattern shown on the exterior (comparable to calligraphy)

Winslow House

-1893 -Frank Lloyd Wright -River Forest, IL -Has frieze of dark terra cotta with organic forms, white base, brick "shaft", tripartite division again. Approach house on axis, flower bed right in front on axis. Front is smooth, only slight plane change around front door. Rear is much more 3D, projects out, lots of different shapes. Represents family as a social unit- public face (front) is calm, normal, formal, symmetrical. Private face (back) is asymmetrical, has many plane changes, is more informal. Enter house on axis, fireplace is in center of plan, almost like position of altar. Has a nook for a place to gather. Important social space.

Modern Architecture

-1896 Art Nouveau -Otto Wagner -Vienna, Austria -4 editions printed. First cause and original purpose of building was protection against weather, men, animals, but pure utility is not enough. The sense of beauty dwelling within man called on art and made her the constant companion of building. Every architectural form has risen in construction and has therefore become a work of art. New purposes must give birth to new methods of construction, new forms. Metal and stone cannot be built the same way.

Van Eetvelde House

-1897 Art Nouveau -Victor Horta -Brussels, Belgium -townhouse, iron is beginning to be used in domestic residences. iron columns support skylight/light well, which is surrounded by the stair so that it may run the height of the whole house.

Amsterdam Stock Exchange

-1897-1903 Art Nouveau -H.P. Berlage -Amsterdam, the Netherlands -huge building in the center of the city. brick building culture. first design featured animated skyline, towers (1885). final design is chosen about a decade later and is less ornate, less decorated (1897). at points of human contact the brick becomes stone. Sculptural enrichment is kept within the plane of the wall. plan features large, open rooms where sellers and buyers meet. lots of natural light. gigantic skylights. Interior supports are stone, but the surfaces are brick. the iron skylight supports are not hidden. he makes the building "an essay about building materials." How do you harmonize the materials? Where do you use which? keep brick and stone coplanar, express the joints clearly.

Glasgow School of Art

-1897-1909 Art Nouveau -Charles Rennie Mackintosh -Glasgow, Scotland -Architect Mackintosh also did graphic design, furniture design, with wife, friend, and friend's wife. Is an art building in an urban location, lots of studio spaces, big rooms full of light. Sits on a hill at an incline. Is simple, straightforward, functional, even severe. Has lots of glass but a very solid main entry, like traditional Scottish architecture, castles. Is not symmetrical. Mostly smooth stone walls, though slight changes in moulding that you notice when get closer. Moulding is subtle and manipulates wall. raw space inside, except library- is special room. dark wood, he designed furniture, articulation in wood, articulated volumes as well as surfaces.

Willits House

-1901 -Frank Lloyd Wright -Highland Park, IL -House has to give sense of shelter, has big roof. In Midwest prairie and horizontality is dominant, reflect that in building with lots of horizontal and no vertical lines. House design is protective, front door is hard to find. Fireplace is in middle again, social center, space radiates out from there. In kitchen is asymmetrical stained glass. Starts with organic, natural form and boils it down to geometry, opposite of Sullivan.

Apartment Building

-1902-1903 Art Nouveau -Auguste Perret -Paris, France -Takes Italian palazzo type, makes a reinforced concrete building. Ceramic tiles done in a floral pattern.

Postal Savings Bank

-1904-1912 Art Nouveau -Otto Wagner -Vienna, Austria -Post offices are multifunctional; mail as well as bank and place to pay bills. Four courtyards in plan. Large office building due to the multifunctionality. Skeletal reinforced concrete frame. "Skin"/ facade is not load bearing. Head of the bolts used to attach panels are visible and arranged into a pattern. "Mini basilica covered by a glass canopy." Glass canopy is hung by cables. Bank vaults feature black and white tiles; new, lighter materials. Early attempt at air conditioning (HVAC) is expressed explicitly. Electric lights.

Casa Mila

-1905-07 Art Nouveau -Antonio Gaudi -Barcelona, Spain -An urban apartment building, similar to GSB because both use reinforced concrete. However differences are Loos is anonymous while Gaudi uses imagination for dramatic effect. He has almost no right angles at all, and no straight lines. Rejects values of rationalization- uses imagination to create vivid architectural spaces, make a memorable experience of a building. As a nickname is called the Rock Quarry, or also looks like a cliff that has been worn away. Has decorative ironwork on balconies, each a little different, looks like clinging seaweed. Outside is color of stone, inside is vividly colorful. Feels almost aquatic, because Barcelona is seaport. Gaudi worked closely with builders, let them have some say. On roof are crazy chimneys, all are different, looks like a fantasy landscape. Gaudi is really trying something new with this building.

Unity Temple

-1906 -Frank Lloyd Wright -Oak Park, IL -Houses Unitarian community in Oak park. Original church burned down, was Gothic with a large steeple. People want something that won't burn down again, result is concrete box. 2 parts to building: square main gathering space, then rectangular social "unity hall"- for after services. Spaces are lit by skylights. Doorway is in hallway connecting 2 spaces, is hard to find. Light comes in from above while street level is very solid and protective. Low doors feels compressive. Worship space is clustered around pulpit, levels of seating are stacked, 4 levels of space, very complex.

Goldman-Salatsch Building

-1909-11 Art Nouveau -Adolf Loos -Vienna, Austria -In a strange lot shape, all surrounding buildings look more or less the same. Loos has specific argument about urbanism and architecture: middle class lives in the city, not just upper class anymore, need to cater more to their needs. People want privacy at home, some kind of refuge. Better to not be elaborate and decorative, instead exterior should be like a shield, anonymous, not attracting attention. Controvertial idea! Exterior is very plain above first level. Street level is very rich marble, rich polished wood inside- use materials to set tone of building. It's not carved though, just great flat sheets. Unusual that most ornate part is base of building, not piano nobile. Columns across front support steel beam, large glass windows in between- integrating in new materials. Building is ornate at commercial realm anonymous at private realm.

Fagus Factory

-1911 Modernism -Walter Gropius -Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany -Factory building with as many windows as possible to get in light and frehs air. Asymmetrical composition, key feature is clock on front. Strictly functional, not civic, meant to be efficient, very industrial. Plane of glass wraps around corner, projects out farther than brick wall. Traditionally windows are within wall, not outside, this reveals that windows operate independently of walls. plan is a large, simple grid for flexibility, nothing pretty. Walls don't feel solid, are quite thin, don't follow rules of tectonics.

Maison Dom-ino

-1914 Modernism -Le Corbusier -never built -3 concrete slabs separated by 6 concrete columns, just need some skin to wrap around it- a basic module. compare to primitive hut- no longer based in nature or culture, but based on modern industrial production. Symbol is Model T- mass produced. this house can be mass produced too. the more you make, the less each costs, becomes available for everyone. Corbusier made house cheap and easy to assemble just like Model T Ford. idealized, utopian presentation of modern technology. NO ENTASIS, industry=uniformity

Zoning law

-1916 -NYC -Problem- when a tall building is built, it casts shadows on everyone around it, blocks light from neighbors. Space becomes dark and no longer as valuable. Zoning ordinance says that have to get narrower as you get taller, basically pyramid shaped. Restrictive legislation ensure property values. Says nothing about structure, style, materials, only regulates mass of building.

Bauhaus (The School)

-1919-1923 Modernism -School started by Walter Gropius -3 locations- Weimar, Dessau, Berlin -Gropius founded school in Weimar, Germany, and combined 2 existing schools- Fine Arts and Applied Arts, he thought that arts shouldn't be isolated, but should all work together, like in cathedrals. Unity of the arts. No study of the past in his school, Bauhaus didn't want to be like traditional design educations. Took classroom and studio and redefined as LABORATORY, a place of experimentation. An object is defined by its nature, how it serves its purpose, must be durable/economical, functional, beautiful (like Vitruvian Triad).

Citrohan House

-1922 Modernism -Le Corbusier -never built -Pun on Citrohan car, if that can be mass produced than house can be too, system of a few standardized parts. Maximize open space by minimizing structure. NOT architecture as building, but architecture as a formula, as a system of production.Turn housing into an industrial product that can be mass produced.

Vers Un Architecture

-1923 -Le Corbusier French -Corbusier liked the solidity of classical architecture, wrote "Vers un Architecture," towards an architecture, returning to principles of architecture. Travels to Rome, sees buildings as geometric shapes, simplifies. Interested in plan, sequence, experience of moving through a space. NOT interested in color or archaeological reconstruction. likes architectural journey through space. In book pairs 2 Greek temples with 2 automobiles, archaic vs. classical in cars AND temples. Same process in modern technology as in architecture. DOES INDUSTRIALIZATION TURN HUMANS INTO MACHINES/ROBOTS? humanity is lost in the new industrialization and experimentation

"A System of Architectural Ornament"

-1924 -Louis Sullivan -USA somewhere - Rather than look to the past for precedent, look to nature. Series of drawings, starting with geometry, weave through geometry organic forms, geometry is submerged in natural form.

Bauhaus (The Building)

-1925 Modernism -Walter Gropius -Dessau, Germany -Built in an industrial city, aviation and optics. Building was NOT traditional. Had no hierarchy in elevations, no facade, can't see the whole building in one look, is hard to understand. You learn about the building by actually experiencing it. Model is a factory building- a place for learning about industrial production. Also there are lots of windows.

Chrysler Building

-1928, Modernism/ Art Deco -William Van Alen -NYC - Strange shaped lot. Rich decoration in lobby, Art Deco. Modern building type and materials, but architect thought ornament was important. Spire at very top, individualizes building along skyline. Decorations are exterior- look kind of like car wheels, or car bumper- Chrysler was a car company after all.

The modular system

-1945-47 -Le Corbusier -Corbusier wants to save human dignity? relates part-to-part and part-to-whole of human body. Finds golden ratio, though not first to make that argument of course. Turns into a system of architectural proportions. says that primitive builders took measurements from the human body. Architecture remains centered on the human form. Even if it uses industrialism to put buildings together, still respects humanity because uses proportions of human body.

Lever House

-1951-52 Modernism -Skidmore, Owings and Merrill -NYC -made of all glass, no windows open, fully heated and air conditioned. totally sealed off from outside world. Simple geometric formula- 2 rectangle slabs. Corners are thin and transparent, don't need to show that corners are heavy and stronger. "revolutionary" building. "symbol of hope for a peaceful world"- it is light, built when people worried about atomic warfare.

Notre Dame du Haut

-1951-55 Modernism -Le Corbusier -Ronchamp, France - Contrast between this chapel (late) and early work of Corbusier. Is only used occasionally, pilgrimage church, like on the Feast of the Assumption and Birth of Mary. Can see it from far away, is high on a hilltop- a sacred site since pre-Christianity. A chapel to Mary has always been there. Used to be Gothic revival, bombed in WW2, then when rebuilt the church wanted to prove that Modernists could make churches too. Can see all of the surrounding landscape from the church- chapel is a "response to the landscape." Old building material from the old church made into a pyramid- memorial to those who died during the war. Each facade is different. Walking in is like walking into a cave. Modeled after ancient religious spaces- go up to top of a mountain or into a cave to commune with God. Thick wall is actually a light steel skeleton with white stuff sprayed on. Random dumb windows, no order, small outside becomes bigger inside, make light unbalanced. Since light is important to religious space, it should be different than light in regular spaces. Mostly white, but chapel walls are painted, red, etc. WHAT TO DO? architecture in a state of flux, experimentation, while religion is rooted in the past, tradition, how to reconcile to two? CAN THERE BE MODERN RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE? Wright and Corbusier both break from tradition, break from "types," don't want to be boxed in, yet Wright still follows geometry, circles and spirals, and Corbusier has no real geometry- more like a sculptural space. Both mean penetrating a distinctive outer shell and arriving at an inner space.

Guggenheim Museum

-1957-59 Modernism -Frank Lloyd Wright -NYC -"Museum of non-objective art," lots of abstract art. what is the relationship between a building and the art kept inside? Continuity of materials- design is similar to seashell spiral, all made of concrete, grows larger as you rise, great space in center is heart. Architecture shapes experience, can't pick a path, there's a specific place you must go, walk up the ramp. 2nd volume is next to the larger one, like the Unity Temple. soft, round curving shape stands out from hard, straight shapes around it.

"The Life and Death of Great American Cities"

-1961 -Jane Jacobs -American -wrote about "the way things were" and about how urbanism is changing. Urbanism is complex yet ordered, diverse not specialized. We should find an alternative to modern architecture!

Vanna Venturi House

-1962 Post-Modernism -Robert Venturi -Chesnut Hill, PA - "decorated shed"- box with pediment-ish front. so much flatness, planarity. Wood frame with stucco, pretty cheap. Driveway is off-center, asymmetrical windows, cut splits middle of facade in two. not traditional tectonic molding, just a symbol, nailed to the wall.

Lang House

-1973 Post-Modernism -Robert A. M. Stern -Washington, CT - very flat, thin surfaces. Moulding nailed to flat surface, is NOT tectonic. symbol of traditional architecture without being traditional- just to show they're not modern. is an "ironic quotation."

Piazza D'Italia

-1975 Post-Modernism -Charles Moore -New Orleans, LA - Built by Charles Moore- gentle and funny. Piazza is centerpiece of an urban redevelopment of a city block, surrounded by skyscrapers. project fell apart, now much of the block is a parking lot. Urban piazza dedicated to St. Joseph, patron saint of Italian community of New Orleans, is a place of public festival, especially Mardi Gras and St. Joseph's feats day. Fountain is a model of the Italian peninsula, relief map of Italy. Screens of different architectural orders, everything is a reference to something, not a literal representation. At night is all lit up with neon lights, quite garish! Not a civic building, meant to be a place of recreation.

Willis Building

-1975 Post-Modernism -Norman Foster -London - Office building on an irregular site. blob-like form fills the site. Green roof makes a "park" available. Concrete columns support floor plates. Not a pretty plan. Wrapped in a wall of glass, is dark in the day and glowing at night- explore qualities of building with glass. has NO relationship to the surrounding architecture. "Open office"- instead of individual offices, new progressive idea of how to arrange office spaces, just one big open space. They try to make it a nice place to work, used to have a swimming pool but than closed it.

Fargo-Moorhead Cultural Center

-1977 Post-Modernism -Michael Graves -Minnesota & North Dakota - Bridges a river and connects two cities, references ways traditional architecture is put together, though exaggerated. House/bridge is kind of like what LeDoux designed.

Allen Art Museum Addition

-1977 Post-Modernism -Robert Venturi -Oberlin, OH - fat, silly looking ionic column, exaggerated, not proportional. Steel column support with a wooden shaft around. original building built in 1913, Venturi designed addition. fat ionic columns mimic real ones on the old building. WHY? in the building is a collection of sculpture exaggerated in scale, mimic that in the architecture.

Shenzhen, China

-1979-2013 Post-Modernism -Shenzhen, China - Population grew from 30,000 in 1979 to 10.6 million in 2013. Buildings are faceless blocks covered in ads. Their approach to modern building is to just top everything with Chinese turned up roof. It's not a duck, it's a decorated shed.

Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank

-1979-86 Post-Modernism -Norman Foster -Hong Kong, China -Skyscraper, headquarters of a bank. is a 3D steel cage, skeletal frame. Tall building is reinvented, trusses hold together tall steel poles, like bridge technology. makes unbroken office space with no columns in the way. Makes for more industrial pre-fabrication. Elevator is at corner, not the center of building. Sunlight hits reflecting surfaces, gets angled down deep into building. at street level you ride escalators up to main lobby of building. Is probably the most expensive building ever built, was put on the Chinese currency.

Seaside

-1982 Post-Modernism -Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater Zyberk (DPZ) -Seaside, Florida - Design strategy is to recover knowledge, experience and wisdom. Streets for cars alternate with pedestrian paths. native vegetation everywhere. Variety in individual buildings, yet overall uniformity. Elaborate vocabulary of traditional architecture- small cottages to large houses. Instead of traditional zoning, focused on use, has "form based codes", more focused on design and form. Form of a building depends on urban condition. Urban to rural transect- is a cross section through a large region, organizes density and function.

Public Library

-1982 Post-Modernism -Michael Graves -San Juan Capistrano, CA -Limited budget, frame building with stucco and paint. has a series of interior reading rooms, next to outdoor patio, series of gazebos- take a book outside to read. Compare to Alhambra- palace around 2 great courtyards, fountain, delicate stucco. becomes model for the library, WHY this building? no reason, it was just his choice. return of different choice to architecture. Also uses color for cheap articulation.

AT&T Building

-1984 Post-Modernism -Philip Johnson and John Burgee -NYC - Not a traditional modern building, has a distinctive pediment-like top, skin is stone not glass, breaks from modernism. Has a steel frame and same structure as modern buildings, yet different expression of building. looks like a big piece of furniture. Where is the model for the building? nature, technology, classical rules? Post-modernism says ANYTHING can be a model. is a controversial building!

Richmond Riverside

-1984-87 Post-Modernism -Quinian Terry -London - Development in London on the river. Solution to large scale of the site- break down into a series of discreet buildings, reflect different architectural styles. Outside looks old but inside is completely modern- like a shell that reflects traditional urban values, interior reflects modern demands. Looks like a bunch of buildings but is really one big building. NOT Post-Modernist, is faithful to traditional architecture. However is also considered post-modernist because intellectually it rejects modernism.

Chapel of Saint Benedict

-1985-88 Post-Modernism -Peter Zumthor -Sumvitg, Switzerland - Country chapel, not parish church, only occasionally used. replaced existing baroque chapel. tremendous attention to craft, local materials, simple form. Curving wall, door sticks out at an angle, leaf-shaped space, all light comes from above. Also considered boat-shaped. Elusive, suggestive shapes. based on eternity shape, lemniscate figure.

Lawrence Hall Addition

-1986 Post-Modernism -Charles Moore -Williams College, Williams, MA - Built in 1840'2 and addition built to wrap around it. "ironic ionic"- copy real ionic inside the original building. New building quotes the original building but not literally.

Team Disney Building

-1986 Post-Modernism -Michael Graves -Burbank, CA - Office building, whole business is about imagination, whimsey. distinctive color scheme. dwarfs as pillars- like Caryatids, are holding up the pediment. Are super scary looking. Graves' architecture is tied to past but addresses needs of the present and shapes the future.

Storm Water Pumping Station

-1988 Post-Modernism -John Outram -London - Right on the river, has elaborate exterior, brick with large ventilation fan. Stripes of color, huge colorful squat corinthian capitals, flat pediment. Ridiculous looking, like Piazza d'Italia. Is playful, whimsical, cartoonish. "woven" capitals are like the original corinthian baskets with leaves. Garish, vulgar, making fun of old forms- POST-MODERN!

Smith's House

-1989 Post-Modernism -Thomas Gordon Smith -South Bend, IN - Has a real pediment, real columns.

Commerzbank

-1997-99 Post-Modernism -Norman Foster -Frankfurt, Germany - Bank needed a new building, had a tight building site, built right up to the edge of the site. Triangular plan, middle is completely open, structural support at the corners and connected by trusses. 1 side open as multi-story garden space, 3-ish stories, spirals around building. concern for comfort of office workers, also energy strategy because plants clean the air. Thick curtain walls have wind baffles that slow down the wind, so even if you're high up you can open a window. So curtain wall is SO thick, is a move away from modernist tectonics of thinness.

Petronas Towers

-1998 Post-Modernism -Cesar Pelli -Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - Made by an Argentinian architect who studied in the US. 1 tower by Japanese, 1 by Korean constructors. "We need something to express our towering ambition," was tallest building in the world when finished.Was put on malaysian currency. Suddenly tall, tall buildings aren't just in US, are in other countries too. Is reinforced concrete, a solid core and a series of columns around edge, a stiff tube. Is also site of a race track and a giant shopping center. Juxtaposition between old and new scales of small and enormous. had "elements of islamic architecture," didn't "look like it could be built just anywhere." Skyscraper can be custom designed to reflect local traditions. You don't have to buy this argument, but it's the argument that people are making.

Bauhaus (The Design Orientation)

-Understand and exploit the logic of modern technology. Express modern spatial aesthetic. Promote a modern social agenda for mass housing, clean environment and efficient urban systems.