Architecture History 2- test 4

The date 1750 roughly coincides with:

(1) French and Italian theorists on the origins of architecture (2) Archaeological efforts in Greece and Rome which led to a neoclassicism, thereby making a strong argument for the timing of the beginnings of modernism.

Etienne-Louis Boullee

(1728-1799) Mostly a Meta-Architect - A French Visionary architect focused mostly on utopian and visionary projects

Claude-Nicolas Ledoux

(1736-1806) Architect - A French Visionary architect with some work focused on utopian projects - Worked often for King Louis XV - Architecture marked by strong volumetric forms and very inventive detailing

École Polytechnique

(anything that was suggestive of the old order, or the monarchy, was in retrograde, if not physically threatened.)

Boulton & Watt Soho Manufactory

(made steam engines) (1765) in Birmingham. A large complex. Main facade was a five-bay facade with a central block that exhibited some classical detail, including a thermal window over the front door, symmetry, hipped roof. Made of timber beams (not fireproof). Open floor plan to accommodate manufacturing. Starting to develop a new building type.

William Beckford design Fonthill Abbey (1795)

- Architect :: James Wyatt - Picturesque, rambling, asymmetrical, dramatic country house with Gothic detailing and elements but at a residential scale - Structurally not very stable. Tower collapsed.

• Stourhead Gardens (south of Bath) about 1740-1770

- Architect: Henry Flitcroft • Artistic / Philosophical concept of nature so beautiful and so raw that nature had the potential to be scary, frightening, terrible, dangerous • An extreme representation of nature • English Landscape designers tried to replicate this sensation in contrived, artificial, designed settings

• Ange-Jacques Gabriel (1698-1782)

- Clear, crisp, articulate, volumetric classical (as Blondel suggested) - Place de la Concorde (a.k.a. Place Louis XV) on the north edge of the Place as twin government buildings shaping the space Place de la Concorde was used during the Revolution as the public place for beheadings. Sim to the East front of the Louvre. - Petite Trianon at Versailles for Louis XV's mistress Madame Pompadour. Very clear and crisp neo-classicism

Horace Walpole designs Strawberry Hill (1749-1779)

- Coins term serendipity - Assisted by Robert Adam architect - Gothic features the house, as if from a cathedral, but scaled for a country house, very asymmetrical, picturesque, rambling

Ieyasu's shrine: Tosho-gu in Nikko

- Designed by Kora Munehiro, Master Builder - Kora Munehiro developed for the shogun an architectural treatise called: Shomei (show-MAY) indicating proportions, joinery, and so forth, similar to Yingzao Fashi

Carlo Lodoli (1690-1761)

- Did not publish his treatise - form follows function - use of the term organic - rational architecture based on the strength of materials

Jacques Gondoin (1737-1818)

- Ecole de Chirurgie (1769) means School of Surgery - Classic Enlightenment building, in the form of a French hotel type that is used for scientific study, as opposed to merely being a house for a rich person - A four-row deep screen of ionic columns separates courtyard from street. - Small courtyard with arcade and expressed pavilion with the main lecture hall inside. - Lecture Hall of the School is a theater space steeply elevated to create a focused stage and with a half occurs above. This room was a model for many subsequent governmental legislative halls in Europe and America...

Marc-Antoine Laugier (1713-1769)

- Essay on Architecture (1753) - The Primitive Hut - theoretical concept of a return to the origins of architecture as a natural phenomenon and natural elements as well as rational and scientific construction technology - Vitruvius described a theoretical Primitive Hut as well

Encyclopédie (1751-1765)

- Foundational publication of the Enlightenment - Editor-in-Chief :: Denis Diderot - Assistant Editor for a time :: Jean-Baptiste d'Alembert - Frontispiece symbolizing light shining forth, as in Enlightenment - The Encyclopedia went against the doctrines of church and monarchy (the science and enlightenment of the individual countered the traditions and faiths of the monarchy and the church)

The Seven Lamps of Architecture

- Gothic Revival underway by 1849, but this book helped to summarize the movement.... Seven Lamps were.... - Sacrifice - Dedication of man's craft to God - Truth - Handcrafted and honest use of materials and structure - Power - Buildings assessed by their massing (hence power), but also by their genesis as the product of the human mind at work (an expression of power) - Beauty - Aspiration towards God, ornamentation from nature - Life - Buildings should be made by human hands - Memory - Buildings should respect their culture of origin - Obedience - No originality for its own sake, instead follow the finest of English values

John Soane (1753-1837)

- Innovative architect in use of direct and indirect light. Strong volumetric compositions and use of the shallow segmental domes one would have seen in Byzantine architecture. Collector of antiquities and artifacts in his own house, which essentially was a museum of architecture - Bank of England (1788-1830) Central Bank of England. Privately owned from 1694-1946. Nationalized in 1946. - John Soane's House (1810) Soane rebuilds and extends bank in the neoclassical style. Much of his work now destroyed

- All Saints (Margaret Street) by William Butterfield (1849)

- Inventive and elaborate use of brick in a Gothic structure that kicks the Gothic Revival up to the next level - so-to-speak - Decoration and structure are derived from nature - Very colorful use of material but still using Gothic detailing

Abraham Darby (the Elder) (1678-1717)

- Key improvement to iron production (pig iron) using coke rather than charcoal

Jean-Nicolaus-Louis Durand (1760-1834)

- Leads to modern concept by rewriting Vitruvius's famous statement: Firmness - Commodity - Delight into.... Economy - Simplicity - Convenience - Durand develops modularity system that could be applied to modern typologies as well as be applied to historic buildings - Durand & Thibault win a competition for a Temple of Equality in 1796

Focus of much of the Industrial Revolution

- Manchester, Birmingham, Wales, etc... - These locations were close to Liverpool for shipping - These locations were tied to extensive canal networks - There were large supplies of coal in the area

• Column House at the Desert du Retz (near Paris) 1770s

- Owner Racine de Monville most likely designed the many follies himself

James Watt (1736-1819)

- Patented key improvement to steam engine (1765) -Factories resembled palaces and chateaux to a certain degree in the beginning (the King's saltworks at Chaux by Ledoux, for example)

The Stones of Venice (1853)

- Ruskin uses Venice as an example to prove the earlier book Lamps, by describing the nature of the Gothic as expressed by the architecture of Venice. A very influential book.

William Chambers (1723-1796)

- Somerset House (1776) Stong, volumetric classical composition with prominent central block, clear piano nobile, rusticated base, etc.

Jacques-Germain Soufflot (1713-1780)

- Started as Ste. Genevieve — built from 1757-1792 - Structurally dramatic, use of structural iron, spatial flow of five interior domes, hellenistic decoration, clean, volumetric massing with proper details

Thomas Telford (1757-1834)

- Telford's first iron bridge at Buildwas (BUILD-wuz) over the Severn River (1795) - Telford's second iron bridge at Sunderland over the River Wear (1796) - Compare Sunderland with the ancient Chinese Zhaozhou Bridge from 616CE (pure geometry) - Telford's Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (PONT-see-silt) (1795-1805) carried the Ellesmere Canal over the River Dee, a cast iron canal basin and framing held up on masonry piers - Telford's Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct carried the Shrewsbury Canal (1797) - Telford's masterpiece iron Menai Bridge (1819) that connected mainland Wales to Anglesey Island. Giant iron chains suspending iron tension rods, all held up by giant masonry piers that have classical details.

University of Virginia (1819)

- Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) founded. One of his three proudest achievements. - Received advice and help from William Thornton and B. Henry Latrobe. - Latrobe advised him to add the Rotunda (library) at the east end of the complex. It's a half-size version of the Pantheon in Rome. - Ten pavilions arranged around a central Lawn. Each Pavilion housed a professor on second level and classrooms on the first floor, with services and gardens and privies behind. Each Pavilion was a representation of a certain architectural example from ancient Rome - therefore, each Pavilion was a living example of the architectural course of study. - Lawn Rooms - Student rooms or chambers nestled between Pavilions and fronted with a continuous arcade. The Pavilions intersect with the arcade each with a different arrangement. - Range Rooms - The outer limits (ranges) of the University, connected by the famous serpentine walls and gardens, contained more student rooms and several dining halls called hotels. The student rooms out on the extreme circulation are called Range Rooms. - Pavilion IX is an American example of Ledoux's French hôtel for Madame Guimard

Changes to cities due to industrialization:

- factories dramatically changed the scale of cities - over-crowding of cities - lack of housing due to fast influx - use of child labor - substandard safety - crime increase - pollution from coal-burning

Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778)

Mostly Roman subjects, often imaginary - Meta-Architect — did not build much but influenced many through images and publications - Published many volumes of architectural plates (copperplate engravings) that were sold as souvenirs to British and others in Italy for the Grand Tour - Depicted very detailed and scenographic images of ruins, monuments, architectural features like obelisks, imagined carceri (prisons), imagined elaborate plans and reconstructions, tombs, and so on.

Emerging European Republics and Neoclassicism

Sets stage for modern European republics to emerge from the ruins of the old order, that is, the old monarchies. • The emerging modern bureaucracies led to new buildings and new building types. The new building types of the 19th century were an intersection of new programmatic requirements (travel, bureaucracies, art museums, covered shopping areas, conservatories, e.g.) with technological advancements which occurred very quickly

Washington Navy Yard (1806

Shipyard and engineering project

French Visionary Architecture

an architecture that sought to reflect upon the sublimity and the immensity of nature as well as the divinity of human intelligence that is required to understand (and perhaps design) such profound works.

Surveyor of Public Buildings in Washington

appointed by Jefferson Also known as Architect of the Capitol

Masson Mill

at Cromford (1783) by Richard Arkwright (1732-1792). A five-story facade with projecting central block entry that contained Palladian windows

Industrial Age

begins in England about 1750 meant that the majority of workers moved from an agricultural way of life (farms) to an industrial way of life (factories). • Architecturally (spatially) this signifies a large shift of people previously inhabiting the countryside now moving to cities, which were the sites of most of the industrialization.

shakkei

borrowed landscapes in distant background or framed views

Nobunaga

built the first tenshu at Azuchi - a strategic high point overlooking Kyoto, which was the capital at the time (c 1576)

Benjamin Henry Latrobe

creates an early design for the Baltimore Cathedral in 1804 in the Gothic Revival style. May be the earliest

Ditherington Flax Mill (1797)

designed by the owner Charles Bage (1751-1822) Fire-resistant factory as fully framed cast iron construction. Cruciform shape cast-iron column innovation. Open floor plan for machinery, a characteristic of the new factory building type

Hotêl Guimard

designed for Madame Guimard (a French hotel) of a screen of columns in front of an exedra. Very inventive. An American version of this was built at the University of Virginia by Jefferson (who loved French architecture)

Jedediah and William Strutt

develop first fireproof factory construction at North Mill, Belper. An iron frame with brick vaulting.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

developed and promoted a concept for a prison design called a Panopticon, wherein cells would be situated radially and open toward a central space where guards could watch from, but not themselves be seen. And invisible omniscience that introduced a psychological dimension to architecture. It was patented. Panopticon, of course, etymologically means all-seeing....

tatami mat

established modular system based on a sleeping person - Sleeping person is oriented to the vertical axis (the axis of time), oddly the western modular system, Vitruvian Man, is oriented to the horizontal axes (the axes of space) RC

• Hameau de la Reine - Marie Antoinette...

fake milk-maid village at Versailles for role-playing milk-maid and return to rustic, simple life

daimyo

feudal lords

Etruria Pottery Factory in Burslem (1768)

for Josiah Wedgewood and his very fine china manufactory next to a canal. Projecting central block with classical details (Georgian) yet simple. Round end pieces to terminate the facade.

Stowe House and Gardens

in Buckingham (north of London) • 1680s - 1780s • Architects and Landscape Architects on Stowe :: - John Vanbrugh (see Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard) - William Kent (worked with Lord Burlington) - James Gibbs (St. Martin's in the Field) - Capability Brown - top Landscape Architect of the time • Except for the crisply articulated Palladian manor house, Stowe is a large estate of planned views, serendipitous discoveries, pastoral landscapes, garden follies, pathways with visual connection but require continuation on the pathway before arriving... etc...

Chaux Saltworks

in eastern France for the King - Number of Barriéres (90) or thereabouts tax collector Barriéres located around the city walls built during the 1770s and 1780s. Whenever a person entered Paris, they had to pay a tax. People resented it a great deal and this led in part to the anger behind the Revolution (1789)

Richard Upjohn

later on in the 1860s one of the Founders of the AIA - Very Gothic. Gothic details, load-bearing masonry, steeple and spire, buttressing, tapering of masonry to reduce weight with height (no Wheel Window however).

Antiquities of Athens

major publication a.k.a. Stuart & Revett - James Stuart (1713-1788) and Nicholas Revett (1720-1804) - Rediscovery of great monuments such as the Tower of the Winds, Greek theaters, Choragic Monuments to Lysicrates and Thrasyllus and so on.

Nolli Plan of Rome (1748)

major publication of map of contemporary Rome depicted as figure-ground diagram, in which all major public spaces (including streets) are light and all building fabric is shown as dark.

Ieyasu's tenshu in Edo

no longer exists but is depicted on the painted screen in a museum - the painted screen is called the Edozu byobu

Trinity Church

on Wall Street, New York City (1846). Replaced a wooden Trinity Church that was there during George Washington's inauguration (1789). First Trinity Church at that location burned in 1776

Hideyoshi

succeeded Nobunaga from 1585-1598 -He blurred the separation between art and life - built a luxurious palace in Kyoto called Jurakudai

chanoyu

tea ceremony (Zen Buddhist tea ceremony conducted by a Tea Master.

tokonoma

the formal alcove with the painted scene

shogun

the leader of an administration called a shogunate

shoji screen

translucent screen of rice paper

bonzai

trees and worn materials

tenshu

were tall structures as high as seven stories of pagoda-like stories with deep shaped concavely eaves. A-framed gables, hipped roofs, high, battered, dry laid base foundation walls. Very intimidating on high ground.

Barrières

were wonderfully inventive classical forms of strong volumetric interest and variety. No two were alike.

Kedleston Hall (1780)

west of London. Strong, volumetric composition with rustic base, aedicule windows, broken entablature. Strongly classical.

Jacques-Francois Blondel

wrote the architectural articles in the Encyclopedia, espousing return to origins — i.e. pure forms, rational, geometric, much less ornament - Other authors included :: Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, et al.

Ieyasu

Third of the three shoguns to complete unification • Best preserved example of tenshu west of Kobe: Himeji tenshu (1610) nicknamed the White Heron is built by Ieyasu's ally Terumasa

Ohiroma Hall interior

Typical screens that opened to landscape, raised platforms (shogun sat on tatami mat on the upper level). Behind is the niche for a painting - in this case a gnarled solitary pine - a symbol for enduring authority

Analytical Dictionary of French Architecture from the 11th-16th Centuries - 1854-1868

V-L-D's work on cathedrals and chateaux

Biblioteque Nationale project and Cenotaph to Isaac Newton

Visionary, surreal, fantastical, vast, crisp clean classical architecture of strong volume

Charles Barry

1795-1860) wins competition for British Parliament buildings with the assistance of Pugin in 1840. Competition called for Gothic style or Tudor style. - Includes clock tower called Big Ben (1840) - Pugin did the Gothic Revival interiors - Of course, as one might suspect, the Gothic Revival Parliament led to an identification of the national character of Great Britain with the Gothic

Panopticon

...was not built by Bentham, but William Strutt used the concept to design a factory Round House (1803) in Belper, introducing the invisible omniscience into factory design.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841)

Altes Museum in Berlin (1822) Eighteen-bay front in antis with Greek ornamental anthemia (singular: anthemion) on top of the cornice aligned with each column. Central space with interior dome and second-level porch are that views back to the city. Strong, volumetric composition.

Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1754-1820)

Baltimore Cathedral (1806) First Cathedral in the U.S. Very innovative indirect natural lighting

Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732-1808)

Brandenburg Gate in Berlin (1788) A Greek-style (archeologically-correct) propylaea or ancient Greek prototype of a monumental gateway. Compare to ancient Acropolis

Charles Pierre L'Enfant (1754-1825)

Designs a city plan for Washington DC (1791) at the behest of George Washington as written into law by the Residence Act of 1790. The composition is an orthogonal city grid superimposed by an array of broad avenues at various angles that connected the high elevations. - L'Enfant's plan is a physical expression of the political constitution of the nation, which is known by the Latin word civitas (pronounced: kiwi-toss). Civitas means that each citizen is a civis and has agreed to that political constitution. - Capitol (on the most prominent hill on the long axis) and Chief Executive's House (at the cross axis) are principal symbolic elements of the civitas. In L'Enfant's words, the hill was a "pedestal waiting for a monument."

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Tied together philosophical concepts of nature and natural gardens with theory of Natural Man, Natural Right • Rousseau was foundational to the Romantic Movement (which followed Enlightenment) and was an intellectual rebuttal to the science of the Enlightenment as a return to nature, art, poetry and intellectual potentia

• Abraham Darby III (1750-1791) and Architect Thomas Pritchard (1723-1777)

First cast-iron bridge at Coalbrookdale (1779)

- Bank of Pennsylvania (1800)

First example of Greek Revival architecture in America Introduced a very sleek and modern look in the prominently brick Phila. waterfront

Philadelphia Waterworks (1800

First waterworks in the U.S. A new building type

Alexis de Tocqueville

French author, diplomat, writer who traveled about America a great deal and wrote extensively on the American way of life in the middle of the 19th century wrote of the factories and cities of industrialization in Manchester on a visit to England in 1835: "From this foul drain the greatest stream of human industry flows out to fertilize the whole world. From this filthy sewer pure gold flows." "Here humanity attains its most complete development and its most brutish." These quotes signifying the the irony and complexity of the impact of industrialization.

The French

French borrow the style of the English Garden

William Chambers' Kew Gardens in London, 1764

Garden Follies included Chinese, Persian, Roman, Greek, etc. • Purpose was to delight visitors in a designed natural setting • Different, curious, exotic

Eastern Penitentiary in Philadelphia designed by John Haviland (1821)

Radiating wings, single story, solitary cells with gardens, guards controlled corridors with angled mirrors.

Chesapeake and Delaware Canal (1804)

Major engineering project

Friedrich Gilly (1772-1800)

Monument to Frederick the Great (1797) - appears very Greek-like, like a temple on a hill. - Reminder: the word acropolis literally means high city

• original-source investigations of Greek and Roman architecture leads to...

Neoclassical movement of the 2nd half of the 18th century

Ieyasu's palace in Kyoto: Ninomaru (1610)

Ninomaru (1610) was of the shoin palace type, and followed the plan of a "flock of wild geese" on an oblique axis

Three powerful shoguns (military generals who ran the country) achieved unity, ending centuries of civil wars

Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) - (no-bu-NAG-A) • Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) - (heed-YEAH-oh-see) • Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) - (ee-YEAH-ah-suh)

Robert Adam (1728-1792)

Studied under Clérisseau and Piranesi on the continent and brought back to England and was a strong proponent of neoclassicism

Virginia State Capitol (1785)

Thomas Jefferson saw the Roman temple Maison Carrée in Nimes (FR) and asked French architect Charles-Louis Clérisseau to make a model of it and ship it to Virginia to be used as a model for the Capitol building. Jefferson was living in Paris at the time. It was not simply a replication of a marble temple, of course, it had to be adapted as a wood structure and as a new type of legislative building.

Noh Theater

a classical, Japanese musical theater since 1400. Very scripted, traditional stories of history, morality, and Japanese tradition

samurai

a distinctive class of swordsman (military noble) devoted to the shogun.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

a rock-star writer and intellectual, and famous at an early age. • Wrote essay On German Architecture (1773) proclaiming Gothic to be the product of German genius. The area we now know as Germany was called Prussia at that time. Goethe reinvigorates interest in Gothic Architecture. • We recall that the Gothic actually emerged in France and then was exported to Germany. • Construction began again on Cologne Cathedral in 1832, after a 300 year hiatus, and was completed by 1880, about the time of the German unification. Thus, this example of the Gothic had a strong association with a unified Germany. • Refers to architecture as frozen music, but it's not clear that he was the first to actually say this as there have always been connections between the creative realms, such as rhythms, cadences, points and counterpoints, octaves, chapters, beginnings and ends, conclusions, codas, master-strokes... etc... • Schelling also attributed as saying this famous quote (1802) • M.C. Escher enigmatic drawings of architecture (impossible looping sequences such as perpetually rising canons of J.S. Bach)

wabi-sabi

a rustic simplicity of design that celebrated heightened consciousness. The aesthetic of the wabi-sabi is: - imperfect - impermanent - incomplete

John Ruskin (1819-1900)

• Art & Architecture Critic, Essayist, Oxford Professor, accomplished watercolorist • Wrote about connections between art and culture and nature - and as one who advocated for naturalism, hand-crafted, strong communities devoted to honest labor, and a similar sort of moral stance as had Pugin — Ruskin essentially was a primary voice in support of the Gothic Revival as an architectural movement, an art movement (the Pre-Raphaelites), a subject for his own artistic endeavors (he was an exquisite watercolor painter), but as an entire way of life.

Picturesque Architecture to Picturesque Urbanism

• Bath, England (about 120 miles west of London, very near Bristol • Site of ancient Roman Thermal Bath • Queen Square very urban, like Place des Vosges :: Circus much less urban and more suburban :: Royal Crescent very much suburban, introducing landscape into residential space :: Lansdown Crescent very suburban • The Queen Square at Bath (1730) - John Wood the Elder (1704-1754) • The Circus at Bath (1754) - John Wood the Elder (1704-1754) • The Royal Crescent at Bath (1767) - John Wood the Younger (1728-1782) • Lansdown Crescent at Bath (1789) - John Palmer (1738-1817)

Claude Lorrain (1600-1682)

• French painter working mostly in Italy. Contrived, or imagined landscapes that included great atmospheric distance, distant or foreground ruins, idyllic scenes with figures. • Very collectible paintings, brought back to England • Seen by British and others on the Grand Tour to the Italian sites and ruins

Regent Street in London (1810)

• Glamorous Royal Mile designed for Prince Regent George IV • John Nash (1752-1835) • Picturesque, shifting, rambling, large commercial street from St. James Park to Regents Park with curves, visual sight lines, discovered monuments and picturesque buildings, so that the sequence of the pathway becomes a path of discovery and delight

English Gardens of the 18th Century

• Pastoral landscapes featured :: - Irregularity - Asymmetry - Surprise (delight) - Rare plantings - Exotic cultures - Follies - Artificial Ruins - Very often English Gardens supplemented a Palladian great house

Dry Garden (Zen Garden)

• Stroll Garden (similar to Scholars' Gardens of Suzhou) • Ideas behind the gardens: - frequently changing points of view - symbolic, miniaturized - poetic, metaphorical artifact of nature - enlightenment through meditation - time's unstoppable advance • Forms that are manifest in the gardens: - avoided formality such as axis, symmetry - raked white gravel symbolic of water

Eugene Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879)

• Very talented painter and artist who became a self-taught architect by traveling with an uncle. • Not long before he became France's premier authority on the history of French Gothic architecture and France's collection of cathedrals and chateaux. • Preservation work of V-L-D leads to establishment of the field of preservation as thought of now - Four core principles of preservation according to V-L-D :: - (1) Architecture had to be documented - (2) Preserve not just appearance but structure - (3) May exclude modifications contrary to evidence - (4) May include older modifications

Augustus Pugin (1812-1852)

• Wrote essay Contrasts in 1836, which compared and contrasted medieval life (pre-modern) with the modern life emerging from the early decades of the Industrial Age and established that the medieval life of honest labor, hand-made crafts, etc, was morally superior.