arcl 103 final

niah cave, borneo (AMH)

first occupies 46-52 kya. site of the "deep skull", which is the oldest skull in SE Asia (adolescent male, ca 37 kya). tropical forest foraging, simple core and flake tool technology.

what is the wallace line?

the faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by a british naturalist that separates the ecozones of asia and wallacea, a transitional zone between asia and australia

what happened between ca. 11,000 yrs and 2000 years ago?

the neolithic transition: most of the world's people shifted their subsistence economies from foraging to food production

san pedro valley, arizona

"black mat" seen here, which is 12,900 yrs ago and exhibits the younger dryas climate change -no mammoths seen in or above the black mat, though they are seen just prior to it.

fertile crescent neolithic transition climate

- 20kya (pleistocene) : broad spectrum diet, wild plants (wild barley, wheat), hunting animals (gazelle, goat) -14 kya (Bolling-Allerod): complex foraging, larger settlements, sedentism, food storage, social differentiation -11 kya (holocene): domesticated plants

what percentage of megafauna became extinct in the late pleistocene?

- 65% or megafauna became extinct globally, especially in 50-10 kya -mostly due to human hunting and climate change

what is the most important thing in an archaeological experiment (under methods)?

-replicability!!!

what does sporomiella suggest in terms of the north american megafaunal extinction?

- extinction prior to climate/vegetation change -possibly that humans are responsible

experimental archaeology

-(likely) tools and behaviors may be replicated in a controlled, observable context -apply that model to archaeological contexts (similar results/byproducts are likely the result of similar behaviors) -specific variables and controls may be isolated and manipulated to focus on specific aspects of an experiment

decline of hunter-gatherers

-12,000 BP (end of pleistocene) world population: 10 mil/ HG: 100% -1500 AD world pop: 350 mil/HG: 1% -2016 AD world pop : 7 bil/HG 0.0000001%

channel islands, california

-12.2 t0 11.2 kya -marine adaptations -stemmed projectile points, crescents -marine birds, mammals, fish and shellish

monte verde, chile

-14.6 kya, maybe earlier - excellent organic preservation -few stone tools -maritime-adapted hunter-gatherer-fishers -supports early coastal migration model

extent of north american megafaunal extinctions

-37 genera went extinct -extinctions occurred at around the same time as major climate change (Younger Dryas) and Clovis Culture

ivane valley, new guinea

-7 sites ca. 49-43 kya -earliest known high-altitude human settlement (2000 m ASL) -stone tools with starch grain residues (yams, pandanus nuts) -small animal hunting -'waistes axes' for clearing forests, possibly to promote food plant growth?

extinction of new zealand's moa

-9 specied of moa (large flightless birds) -DNA : populations were large and viable for 40,000 years -<200 yrs after human arrival (ca AD 1300) they became extinct. -human activities responsible.

coastal route for peopling the americas

-became available ~15 kya -marine-adapted culture -watercraft -island hopping? -glacial refudia -changing sea levels have inundated the pleistocene coastline, submerging archaeological evidence

whats the resolvent of the extinction debates?

-DNA evidence: changes in genetic diversity (pop. declines, bottlenecks, occurred at many times) -detailed paleoclimate/paleoecology reconstructions -histories of individual species and their interactions

the extra-terrestrial impact hypothesis

-a rejected megafauna extinction hypothesis -bolide impact caused younger dryas cold period and megafaunal extinctions -problems? -lack of replication -misleading/incorrect evidence, errors -extinctions not globally synchronous

plant domestication

-agriculture-large scale, few crops -horticulture- smaller scale, many crops -selective planting produces genetic differences from wild species

blitzkrieg hypothesis

-aka rapid overkill -rejected megafaunal extinction hypothesis -humans wiped out megafauna rapidly as they expanded into new territories -naive fauna -extinctions on islands, australia, americas

denali complex

-alaska -very similar to dyuktai culture in siberia, but dates to 11-10 kya (post-clovis)

animal domestication

-animal husbandry- caring for/raising animals -pastoralism- mobile herding -selective breeding/culling produces genetic differences from wild versions

how did genyornis become extinct?

-based on burned egg shards (not consistent with wildfires) -eggs likely cooked in ground (not burned) then the shells were discarded in/around fire, where some were burned. -harvesting eggs would decrease genyornis reproductive success -extinct by ~47 kya

pleistocene-holocene transition

-bollong-allerod interstadial (14.7-12.7 kya): final stages of pleistocene, warm &wet -younger dryas stadial (12,900-11,600 BP): sudden cold, dry period (near glacial conditions) -establishment of near modern conditions in ~8.5 kya

homo floresiensis technology

-both simple tools (core and flake) and complex stone tools (blades) -cut marks on stegodon (pygmy elephant) bones show H. floresiensis hunted this animal -charred stegodon bones may indicate H. floresiensis used fire for cooking

subsistence in mesolithic/archaic cultures

-broadens, varies -change from megafauna to smaller animals, fish, shellfish, birds -use of new plant species -marine foods

clovis hunting

-clovis people def hunted megafauna -15 kill sites, mostly mammoth -humans prob played a role in megafauna extinction, though how much of the role is not known.

clovis big game hunters

-clovis points found in direct association with bones of mammoth, bison -at least 14 well-established mammoth kill sites

which megafauna went extinct in north america?

-columbian mammoth, wolly mammoth, mastodon, camel, horse, shrub-ox, ground sloth, short-faced bear, saber toothed, dire wolf, scimitar-toothed cat

genetic evidence (timing) of when people populated the americas

-compare living (modern) people -estimate divergence times based on number of mutations and expected rates of change (molecular clock) -require many assumptions (mutation rates, genetic drift, etc)

bering land bridge

-connected australia to alaska -between 35-11 kya (maximum extent ~20kya, last glacial ice maximum)

when/how did homo floresiensis evolve?

-descendent of earlier hominin (homo habilis?) migrating out of africa, but theres no evidence. -island dwarfism? -evolved from homo erectus?

advantages of domestication (to humans)

-develop desirable characteristics -steady, predictable source of food -increased food supply -allows increased sedentism -allows expansion into new areas (bring domesticates)

mungo man

-earliest human burial in australia, ca. 42 kya -50 year old male, "atlatl elbow'- repetitive throwing -red ochre in burial obtained from long distance away

genetic evidence (ancient) of where people came from into the americas

-few human remains dating to the earliest time of occupation - <30 individuals older than 10 kya - fragmentary -problems with ownership, ethical issues - native americans v archaeologists

clovis culture

-first widespread and highly successful archaeological culture -appeared suddenly and spread rapidly -over 1500 sites throughout most of north america -points similar to clovis occur as south as Venezuela -thin, fluted projectile points -flutes for hafting onto shafts

archaeological evidence of food production

-geography (change in geographic distribution, archaeological plant remains not found in natural contexts) -biological data (plants: bigger seeds, denser seed clusters, less brittle attachments (rachis), animals: less dangerous, decreased bone density/strength (if penned)) -artifacts/features: sickles, plows, hoes, grinding stones, storage pits, silos, dams, field walls, threshing floors -ecofacts: species ID, quantity, microbotanicals (pollen, phytoliths), macrobotanicals (seeds, leaves) -landscape: erosion, field systems. irrigation, monuments -stable isotopes: carbon, nitrogen, sulfur

kebaran/geometric kebaran periods (25-14000 BP)

-glacial to interstandial (cold LGM to warm Bolling-Allerod) -Broad spectrum diet : wild plants (wild grasses, fruits, nuts)

holocene climate change

-holocene from 11,700 yrs ago to present -increased temperatures -higher sea levels -vegetation changes

what are the most likely megafauna extinction causes?

-human impacts (hunting, landscape modification, disease) -climate change

mesolithic/archaic culture

-increased cultural diversity, regionalization, specialization: subsistence strategies, artifacts, settlement patterns -elaboration of art -differentiation in burials -architecture -population growth, cause and consequence of more intense exploitation of local resources.

disadvantages of food production (to humans)

-increased workload -alteration to landscape -poorer health! (less diverse diet, over-reliance on carbohydrates) -attractive resource for enemies

neolithic transition: archaeological overview

-kebaran (25-14 kya) -naturfian (14-12 kya) -pre-pottery neolithic A (12-10.8 kya) -pre-pottery neolithic B (10.8-8.5 kya) -late neolithic (8.5-7 kya)

earliest occupation of australia

-lake mungo (46 kya) -'mungo man' oldest human remains in australia -'mungo lady'- world's oldest human cremation -most archaeological remains found in white line sand dune

what are the consequences of megafaunal extinctions?

-large herbivores alter ecosystems (maintain openness, trampling and disturbing soil, recycling nutrients (death/decay), intense grazing, dispersing seeds) -late pleistocene mammoth steppe (dry grassland) replaced by holocene moist tundra in n. europe, siberia, alaska/yukon (combo of climate change & extinctions?)

collectors

-larger groups -less mobile than foragers -seasonal base camps -logistical foraging for resources in small groups from base camp -storage of food

peopling the pacific

-last major human colonization -deliberate exploration by brilliant navigators

homo floresiensis significance

-latest surviving premodern hominin! -contemporaneous with both homo erectus and modern humans in indonesia -coexisted with modern humans in flores

sporprmiella fungus

-lives in herbivore dung -more spores (in sediment) more megafauna -vegetation change and increased fires after sporomiella decrease -could possibly indicate that humans were responsible for austalian megafaunal extinction

decreased mobility in mesolithic/archaic cultures

-local resources -smaller territories -more trade

how did domestication occur?

-long process over thousands of years -began with small steps (fencing, watering, burning) -controlled use and breeding through artificial selection by humans -creation of new forms that would otherwise not exist.

genetic evidence (modern) of where people came from into the americas

-mitochondrial DNA -Y chromosomes -modern native americans fall into 5 mtDNA haplogroups (A,B, C, D, X) and 2 y-chromosome haplogroups (C, Q) that originated in central Asia -Native Americans and NE Asians share genetic heritage

foragers (upper paleolithic)

-mobile -egalitarian

flores, indonesia

-never connected to mainland -homo erectus 800 kya -travelled across at least 19 km water -homo floresiensis 95-18 kya

ethnohistory

-people in the past observed and documented behaviors -we can sometimes access those documents -start at the last comprehensively documented time point and work backward

dental evidence for where people came from to get to the americas

-people may have come from sinodonty, due to patterns of dental features -originated in china ~ 20 kya -present in native americans and north asians (eastern siberians, chinese and japanese) -ancestors of native americans lived in NE Asia

ice-free corridor route

-possible after 14-35 kya ? -following megafauna -associated with clovis first hypothesis -little archaeological evidence from corridor itself -oldest site in corridor is charlie lake cave (northern BC) 12.5 kya -oldest sites in americas are older than 14 kya, suggesting that the IFC wasnt the first/OG route.

where did people come from to get to the americas?

-possibly asia, through coastal (pacific/atlantic) or inland migration

why did new zealand's moa become extinct so rapidly?

-predation (intensive hunting including moas of all ages and sizes, as well as eggs) -naive fauna (but they may adapt quickly) -vegetation changes (fires and massive deforestation) -introduced species such as rats and dogs (direct consumption of eggs, competition for resources) -model simulation suggests that even without exploiting eggs or young individuals, 200 humans could have wiped out moa in ~50 years!

complex hunter-gatherers

-semi-sedentary villages -beginning of social stratification

homo floresiensis skull

-short, sloped forehead indicates a smaller brain for hobbits -upper jaw projects forwards in hobbits, more like an ape -hobbits have a very weak chin

dyuktai culture

-siberia, 18-12 kya -microblades -wedge shaped cores similar to ones from pre LGM sites

craniometrics

-skull morphology (e.g., Kennewich, Naia) of 'First Americans' is different from modern Native Americans -2 waves of migration? -older of the two not ancestral to native americans?

foragers

-small social groups (bands) -highly mobile/nomadic -follow resources as they are available seasonally -lack significant food storage

mesolithic/archaic technology

-smaller, specialized artifacts (microliths, bow & arrow) -groundstone tools

ethnoarchaeology

-some behaviors are still practiced by some people -directly observe (modern) behavior, its results and byproducts -apply that model to archaeological contexts: similar results/byproducts are likely the result of similar behaviors

naia skeleton

-teenaged girl -found in mexican cenote with extinct megafauna (sabretooth cat, gomphothere, ground sloth) -~13-12 kya -nearly complete -beringian-derived mtDNA haplogroup D1

how did people navigate the pacific to populate it?

-they used stars, clouds, waves and birds. -both men and women came on boats -brought plants ( food, seedlings of yam, taro, breadfruit, banana, coconut...) ,animals (pigs, chickens, dogs, and rats by accident), and fresh water.

later farmers/agriculture

-towns, cities -hierarchies

solutrean hypothesis

-upper paleolithic european (solutrean) people crossed the North Atlantic by boat, along ice margins. -however, the genetic evidence for this is not clear: - 'first americans' ARE ancestors of native americans -appearance of the skull NOT a good indicator of ancestry -THIS HYPOTHESIS DOES NOT HOLD WATER

early farmers/horticulture

-villages -similar to complex hunter gatherers in social structure

earliest sites in tasmania

-wareen cave, 35 kya -several other sites 30-20 kya

wild vs domesticated plants

-wild: fewer seeds, brittle rachis -domesticated: more seeds, dense rachis

sinodont dentition

-winged incisors with shovel shape, single rooted upper premolar -seen in both native americans and mongols.

homo floresiensis

-~1m tall (similar to modern 3 year old) -fully bipedal -long arms, short legs -very small (400 cc) brain- similar to chimps or australopithecines -definitely not a child, probably not a pathological modern human -generally recognized as distinct from modern homo sapiens, but uncertain about its relationship to other homo species.

structuring an archaeological experiment

1) research question 2) hypothesis 3)experiment -assets -variables -controls -protocol (method) 4) observations 5) conclusion

earliest art in australia

1)charcoal design on a fragment of rock -fell from the roof of a cave and was buried in sediment -28,000 yrs ago. -one of the earliest art pieces in australia 2) depiction of genyornis sp. (emu like bird) -extinct> 40,000 years ago

what was the extent of the megafaunal extinctions in australia?

23 of the 24 megafauna went extinct between 51 and 40 kya. they are broadly synchronous, and occured within 13,500 yrs of human arrival. Climate change was gradual at this time, with increasing aridity.

when did anatomically modern humans go to SE asia?

52-46 kya, proven by niah cave in borneo (46-52 kya) and lena hara, in timor (35 kya)

based on mitocondrial DNA... (peopling of the americas)

NE Asian and ancestral New world peoples likely seperated 25-23 kya, or <20kya (different calculations)

what is clovis biface blade technology similar to?

Nenana. Nenana people may have migrated through IFC and become Clovis.

what defines a megafauna?

animals more than 100 lbs

based on genetic evidence, when did people populate the americas?

around the time of the last glacial maximum (ca. 20 kya) -subsequent migrations also occurred

the "traditional" view of how people peopled the americas

clovis people (ca. 13 kya) were first, and they came through by land through an "ice free corridor' -one of anthropology's most intriguing and enduring topics -debated for decades, no consensus

what was the first domesticate?

dog. ancient wolf domesticated to dog in europe/asia in the pleistocene, before agriculture!

why did hunter-gatherers shift to food production?

environmental unpredictability, only way to deal with food shortages due to environmental changes was to directly intervene in life cycle of plants and animals.

food production and domestication developed...

independently in at least 7 reigions, including SW Asia (Middle East), Africa, South America, MesoAmerica, North America, China and SE Asia. It was a long process that took thousands of years.

where did anatomically modern humans expand into the late pleistocene?

into all landscapes and across water

why is the mal'ta burial significant?

it shows that the first americans came from siberia, because of genetic evidence.

were male or female animals slaughtered first?

males slaughtered at an earlier age (fewer aggressive male adults) -female adults more desirable for milk, breeding

how did people get to sahul?

mammals would have had to cross the wallace line by sea, bc of the wide stretches of open ocean. no asian mammals or homo erectus in sahul. there were two possible routes, the northern and the southern.

island rule

on islands, species get smaller or bigger relative to resource availability. -large mammals get smaller (limited food, smaller area) -small mammals get larger (absence of predators)

domestication

process by which plants/animals enter a state of mutual dependence with humans. Domesticates benefit from human aid in reproduction/survival. Humans benefit through use of domesticates (food, clothing, other products, transportation) and increased reliability and predictability

based on y chromosomes.... (peopling of the americas)

separation of NE Asian and indigenous New World peoples 15-20 kya

states

social and political formations characterized by fixed territorial

where did premodern humans expand in the late pleistocene?

temperate and sub glacial climates, e.g europe

where did homo erectus expand in the late pleistocene?

tropical and -subtropical regions e.g. africa, asia

what are the two possible routes that people may have taken to get to australia and new guinea?

two possible routes, both by sea 1) the northern route: inter-island sea voyages, 10-70 km distance 2) the southern route (more direct) 90 km inter-island sea voyage. it probably occurred over several generations, intentional or accidental, and had to have maritime adaptions (boats) -earliest sites ivane valley (49-43 kya), bobongara hill (40kya), kosipe (26 kya)

sahul

used to be a part of australia, never connected by land SE Asia. only anatomically modern humans, ca. 50,000 BP

fertile crescent (near east) domesticates

wheat, goat, sheep, lentils, barley, donkey, camel