Art History #1

Great Pyramids Gizeh: Menkaure (2490-2472 BCE) Khafre (2520-2494 BCE) Khufu (2551-2528 BCE)

-Aligned with cardinal points of a compass -Re was the sun god -Oldest Pyramid was for Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure newest -Built over 75 yr span -Great pyramids are symbols of the sun -Shape reflects the influence of Heliopolis, the seat of the powerful cult of Re -Pyramids were where the pharaohs were reborn, like the sun is reborn each day -Priests made offerings at the *mortuary temple* -Khufu: 480 ft tall, largest, 73 acres below -Chambers added to the interior -Khafre: 470 ft -Solid stone -Stones were *dressed*, makes stones usable -Perhaps a pulley system was used to move stones logistics -Ground was leveled first -Must be dressed perfectly -Laid in one level at a time -Must be absolutely flat and perfect to meet at top -Called *ashlar masonry* -Originally covered in limestone, white, exterior shell Reflected sun -Each had a golden cap -Probably a permanent labor force -Used seasonal workers when agricultural jobs were not available -Pharaoh is a god, that is every reason to help construct - Khufu: oldest, tallest (480 ft), length of each side at the base (775 ft) - Khafre: (470 ft) and (707 ft) - Menkaure: (281) and (356) - grandfather, son, grandson > ruled for 20 years - 4 smooth sides, isosceles triangle, symbol associated with sun god Re, line up with sun rays - NOT stepped - pyramid is ---place to ascend---, pharaoh moving up to heavens - these represent planning and effort, construction goes on during pharaohs rule so its ready by his death ---mathematically sophisticated---, leveled the ground before building pyramids, constructed out of solid stone, stones dressed precisely so that they met be flat against each other *ashlar masonry* - once finished, encased in pure white limestone slabs, smooth, each had cap of gold on the top - permanently paid labor force, highly skilled in how to handle stone, helping pharaoh would help them in the afterlife (believed pharaoh was a god)

mastaba

- *mastaba* > arabic for "bench", simple tombs made of piled earth - early forms of pyramids - buildings with flat top and sloping sides - tomb structures - stable - inside is the chapel where people leave things and portrait for the deceased - air shaft - subterranean tomb chamber underneath - deceased's bodies underground - made of mud brick and cut stone - mastaba acts as marker for underground grave - gifts, food, art brought for the ka to use after death, so ka can enjoy same pleasures as when he was alive - false door for ka to see the gifts/offerings left - house-like quality - mastabas stacked to gradually morph into *stepped pyramid* *Egyptians did not bury the dead among the living, but buried them on the other side of the Nile *Memphis (living) and Saqqara (dead) separate cities *deceased located in the west (some distance from the river because of flooding)

Plan of the palace complex at Persepolis Processional frieze on terrace of royal audience hall, Persepolis, 520-465 BCE

- Apadana: enter through courtyard - porches - audience hall enclosed within walls - 36 columns in room, columns supported by porches - *post and lentil* (vertical and horizontal) architecture - 217 ft squared (length of football field) - columns 64ft tall (6 story building) - impressive space > (conveys importance and power of the Persian king) - power/control/might shown through massive scale -*Relief decor* UNLIKE hunting and war scenes of Assyria - Obedient subjects calmly coming to respect king -This culture shows processional scenes -*conceptual figure*: *mixed profile*, turned torso, good for information about scene - Stylized features with the hair and drapes - relief decor on base of audience hall, illustrates individuals paying homage to king (they respect and honor him) - conceptual approach to figure (not individualized) - mixed profile presentation - large eyes - certain body features stylized - hypostyle hall: 100 column wall (10x10) - 40 ft tall columns - *hypostyle style halls* large room, interior filled with regularly spaced columns - hold up ceiling - has ornate capitals (shaped like bulls) - were painted - Greeks gave Persians column ideas, *fluting* > long vertical indentions, Greeks introduced > Persians adapted - bull > mix of naturalized characteristics with stylized touches

Bison, 12,000 - 11,000 BCE

- Detail of painted ceiling in Altamira Cave, Santander, Spain - No ground line, they seem to float, no indication of place - Bison are turned in on themselves **surface of cave gives animals form; cave structure influences art -Larger artwork than sculpture because of freedom of medium -Profile view -Conceptual, the notion of the animal -You can see all 4 legs, better sense of anatomy -Provides more information with profile view -Minerals used for this -Palette is limited -Paintbrushes used -Paleolithic man lived in mouth of caves, yet this wall art is very deep, why? -No light, crude animal oil lamps used -It gets cold there -Therefore, this was important for these people -What did this mean? -These people ate reindeer largely, why bison depicted? -Perhaps a religious cult, it has mystical significance - First discovered in Modern Age (1879) - Mouths of caves were covered over in wilderness - Updraft of air led to its discovery - Bison curled into himself LIKE in Bison with turned head - Surface of cave itself suggests animal form. Artist gave protrusion dimensionality - Used pigmented minerals, natural/earthtone colors. Applied with paintbrushes (sticks and animal fur) and mixed with water or human saliva. Paint splattered on? - Conceptual approach of bison - Sculpted animals profile because you can see shape and size - provides more information with more body - Paleolithic man live in mouth of cave? - Paintings found deep in the cave - man went to a lot of effort to hide their images (gives importance) - No lighting, found crude oil lamps for little lighting - Very cold temperature, lowered to 50 degrees - Why did they go through so much trouble? 19th century had romantic idea while 20th century said it was to ensure animals for the hunt for food - but only reindeer bones were found at the mouths of the cave. Maybe they worshipped the animals which would explain the sheltered images, perhaps they found mysical power in animals.

Chinese Horse, 15,000-13,000 BCE

- Lascaux - Called so because it is dainty - calligraphic, delicate representation - curvy lines, dancing feet - small muzzle - what are the lines? spears? plants?

Rosetta Stone

- Nile Delta - Napoleon invaded Egypt, scholars traveled with his military discovering Rosetta Stone - inscriptions in 3 different languages, Frenchman deciphered 2/3: greek and demotic - the texts were the exact same, so he was able to translate the hieroglyphics in relation to the greek and demotic texts (3/3)

Dying Lioness, detail of relief from palace of Ashurbanipal, Nineveh, 650 BCE

- figures are *formulaic* - *naturalism* in animals - lioness paralyzed? dragging her hind quarters -crying out in pain

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, c. 2254-2218 BCE

-*Akkadian* -Remember, ---god like kings--- -King Naram-Sin -Commemorates *defeat of Lullubi* -FIRST known monument celebrating an individual military victory > the king wanted it documented -Soldiers are hiking up side of mountain -We can see a *hierarchy of scale* -LIKE ziggurat, the gods are at the top -gods shining down on victory -Naram-Sin wears a special helmet -Bull horns -he is about to shoot the enemy -Enemy begs for mercy, the other is dead -Man is under Naram-Sin's control -Contrast between the organization of the Akkadians and the disorder of the enemies -NOT A TRADITIONAL FRIEZE -This is the first time we see an artist chose to use a landscape while still using *tiers*, NOT a succession of bands -The narrative is organized by the mountain in this sense -Obviously *mixed profile*, frontal of torso, conceptual - large, flat piece of stone - erected, partially in the ground, vertical - *carved in relief* - 6.5 ft tall - sand stone - military victory celebrated, remembered/documented - soldiers hiking up mountain - Naram-Sin (bigger in scale) at the top - hierarchy of scale (bigger people are most important) - importance of elevation, being closer to the heavens - gods shining down on victory - Naram-Sin holding bow and arrow (holding back the string), holding battle ax - He is about to kill his last enemy (who is pleading for mercy in front of dead enemy) - bodies falling down side of the mountain - Naram-Sin wearing symbol of his kingship: helmet with bull (signifying power) - *cuneiform inscription* (dashes and lines) - figures are in mixed-profile view, not naturalistic - full narrative, complex story being told - NOT compartmentalized, loosening in arrangement of subject matter

Ashurbanipal hunting lions, relief from palace, Nineveh, 645-640 BCE

-*Assyrians* also hunted, and it defined manliness and an indicator of success in warfare endeavors -Lions would be captured and then released for hunt -*Relief* -Part of a continuous panel -*Ashurbanipal* is in chariot -Depiction of lions' strained muscles -Greeks called Assurbanipal Sardanapalus -DEATH OF SARDANAPALUS by Delacroix OMG OMG OMG !! - aggressive hunting scenes > manhood found/achieved through war and hunting - lions captured by the king's slaves - lions kept in cages until the king wanted to hunt - king is killing the lions that are released - action packed scene, leaving a trail of destruction - king's servants killing the surviving lions behind the chariot

BABYLON

-*City state* in *Mesopotamia* -*Hammurabi* reestablished a centralized government in southern Mesopotamia -He was famous for his conquest -His law code prescribed penalties for everything -Early 18th century he took over (1790 BCE) - 18th century bc, Babylonians overthrow - King Hammurabi 1792-1750 BC

Stele with law code of Hammurabi, from Susa, c. 1780 BCE

-*Cuneiform* -Law codes -EARLIEST law code in entirety, 280 laws -Includes punishments -Hammurabi is at the top left, seated with a god -Laws are validated through this imagery because Hammurabi is collaborating with the gods -The god is the sun god, Shamash (see flames off shoulders) -He holds builders tools -Symbols of his authority to build a law system -*Mixed profile* and *conceptual* - classic - earliest law code in entirety - extremely detailed, 280 laws, covering all aspects of life - for every law, there's a punishment - punishment categorized among social class, age, sex - sun god (Shamash) with flames of fire, 4 teared crown, larger in size, seated - Shamash giving Hammurabi right to do this - he is having conversation with god, which gives laws more significance because he's establishing laws with a god - looking at each other's eyes - coil of robe and measuring rod given to king (pieces symbolizing power)

Funerary Statue of King Zoser, enthroned; 2600 BCE

-*Formulaic structure* for presenting kings -Feet elevated (he is a level about you) -Sits with headdress of linen -Long false beard-addition of fake facial hair (sign of manly power) -Wearing a tunic -Stiff, symmetrical -King is powerful eternally -Serenity, erect body, powerful -5-6 feet tall-seated -Size is power - Djoser enthroned, seated in a simple chair, ---raised off the ground (kings always elevated)--- - painted originally - lenin headdress, long heavy false beard (conveys masculinity) - tunic - stiffness to presentation, body is symmetrical, looking straight ahead > gives him sense of permanency/eternalizes him, king is now symbol of power forever, - divine being embodying stillness, serenity, erect, strength - horizontal and vertical lines, *linear statue* (even fingers and toes are straight) ---lack of sophistication---

Senmut, Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri, 1473-1458 BCE

-*Mortuary temples* provided places for rulers to worship their patron gods, and this later became a temple to honor the pharaohs themselves after death -Female pharaoh: Hatshepsut -She originally was a regent ruler for her stepson, and would not allow him to have the throne when he came of age -Wore the male ceremonial clothing -Rises from valley floor in three colonnaded terraces, connected by ramps on a central axis -Long horizontals and verticals of the colonnades ---repeat pattern of limestone--- -200 statues in the round depict Hatshepsut -Separate from the Funerary/mortuary Temple -The funerary/mortuary temple was for offerings, it was a monument -She would have used this during her life ***Tomb was separate, at Valley Temple*** -One would arrive here by the Nile -*Processional way* to Temple -Straight ahead -*Axial alignment* -100 sphinx lined pathway -*Ramps* were used, good for dragging offerings -Oasis -There would have been plants on terrace -Painted walls in galleries -Architectural forms compliment the setting -Large monuments-Egypt had the money for it -FIRST great female ruler in our history - female king, presented herself as a male ruler, wore a false beard -kept throne for 20 years when stepson was too young to rule, he sent people to sack her complex when she died -she is actually buried in a *rock-cut tomb* in the cliffs of the Nile, complex is funerary temple (separate from the location of her tomb) -complex is ---accessible---, arrive by Nile > enter valley temple > sacred way to complex - *axial alignment* - 100 sphinx with her head mark the path - *ramp* on axis - partially carved out of *living rock*, partly filled in using *ashlar masonry* - planted like oasis - 600 ft, monuments began to be large again in the New Kingdom

PERSIA

-*Neo-Babylonians fell* to Persians in 539 -Under *Cyrus the Great* -Persians were east of gulf, *Nomadic*, they conquered moving west -Built a massive empire all the way to India -Defeated in 331 BCE by Alexander the Great -Because they were so nomadic, they ---never really developed cities--- - northeastern - nomadic - slowly conquered moving west in Tigris and Euphrates - empire was twice the size than the prior civilization, vast territorial holding, extended authority well into the Mediterranean - fell to Alexander the Great - no firmly established palace/capitol - most famous place is *Percepolis*

Assyrian archers pursuing enemies, ca 875-860 BCE, Palace of King Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud

-*Relief sculpture* -3 ft tall, 7 ft wide -Part of a continuous decoration -*Assyrian* king drove enemies to *Euphrates* river -Enemies are swimming back to safety -Bladder floatation devices -*Conceptual*: size explains and emphasizes -The artist wants to tell the story, she is not worried about the logic of scale -Not worried about optical reality -Originally painted -Category of imagery: war - lining the corridors and passageways - stone with *low relief* for inscription - 3ft tall, 7ft wide - Assyrian king drove enemy through Euphrates river - Assyrian archers attacking - bladders inflated to help enemy across the river - *mixed profile* presentation - fort is on the other side - enemy's king waiting for them - artist wants us to understand the central action (people swimming away) - imagery = war, Assyrians prided themselves on being fighters

White Temple and Ziggurat, Uruk, c 3200-3000 BCE

-*Ziggurat*: man-made mountain for a religious temple -Elevate temple for worship, towards heavens -This was a room where the gods would be invited for praise and offerings, a "waiting room" -Here gods would communicate with priests ---Exclusive--- space in the middle of the city -CONSTANT reminder of the power of religion: control of authority -Core of structure was earth, encased by baked brick -Hence, little has survived ---No easily accessible stone supply---, so earth had to suffice -40 feet tall -4 corners align with compass -Plastered over with whitewash, hence "white temple" -Offering table with statues -For priests -Dedicated to Anu, sky god

Alabaster vase, from Uruk, c 3200-3000 BCE

-3 ft tall -For fertility goddess, Inanna -Cylinder base, flairs at mouth -Used to pour out libations -Remember---no stone in Uruk---, so somebody really went through some effort for this-very dear object -Done in *relief*: carve out material away from form -Low relief, painted -Carving tools now exist -UNLIKE wall painting, this is highly organized -Fertility: not just people, but also for crops and animals -*Hierarchy of scale* -Lower levels are food, higher levels are people then gods, LIKE the Ziggurat > gods are at the top -Highly stylized -Male and female animals -Nudity was a manifestation of humility, as men carry offering baskets -Imagery gets larger as one goes up vase -Direction of bands change -Animals are shown in profile -People are shown *mixed profile* -*Conceptual*, not literal -Fundamental form of figures -Narrative relief sculpture -Found within a temple -Lowest: water, crops, animals, naked men offering to goddess, goddess on highest with priest perhaps

PREDYNASTIC AND EARLY DYNASTIC (3500-2500)

-3500-2500 BCE -Lower and upper Kingdom unified -Remember Nile flows north, so lower Egypt is downstream (but north of upper Egypt) - Nile harnessed for agriculture and transportation - hieroglyphics invented - upper and lower kingdoms unified > becoming 1 kingdom - FIRST large unified political entity - lower Egypt in the north (closer to where the Nile deposits into the Mediterranean), upper Egypt in the south (closer to the source of the Nile), Nile flowing south>>>north

NEO-BABYLONIAN PERIOD

-7th cent BCE -Under rule of *Nebuchadnezzar II* -Hanging gardens of Babylon -Famous wall-11 miles and wide enough on top for 2 carriages to patrol at once -Mudbrick walls -8 different entrances to the city -SIMILAR to Assyrian barrel vaults -Each gate named for a god - Nebuchadnezzar - Babylon created 2 wonders: *hanging gardens of Babylon* (oasis dripping over walls of city) and *unpenetrable walls* (11 miles in circumference, chariots could patrol on top, thick, mud brick - 8 different entrances - *crenelation* > defensive architecture

Lion, from the Processional Way, Babylon, 575 BCE

-Against blue background - lion snarling, noble

Great Sphinx, Gizeh, 2520-2494 BCE

-Body of crouching lion and head of the pharaoh ---Carved out of living rock--- (rock already on sight) -Stone was added to fill spaces -Man's head = intelligence, lion's body = majesty and power -linen headdress -Function: expression of pharaoh's power -Guardian figure -SIMMILAR to the winged bull -65ft tall -Image of Khafre - *SACRED CAUSEWAY*: walkways with walls around them (allows families to walk to the dead), bodies come from Memphis on boats to funerary temple with family - outside of *valley temple* was sphinx (body of a crouching lion, head of pharaoh), pharaoh=majesty lion=power - carved out of living rock (rock already on sight), stone added to fill the spaces - lenin headdress - function: expression of pharaoh's power, guardian figure -65 ft tall

ASSYRIA

-C. 1595 BCE Babylonians fall -C. 900 BCE Assyrians dominate until 612 BCE -Their cities were largely on Tigris -Stone in north, a Assyrian spread, their resources increase -Highly militarized culture, very violent -Never very secure -Fell in 612 BCE - highly militarized - brutal, aggressive - killed everyone in cities they captured - complex and highly decorated with art - king held enormous amount of power and had to be protected

Restored view of Catal Huyuk, Turkey 6,000 - 5,900 BCE

-City was destroyed and rebuilt 12 times -There were very few ways to enter the city-it was a security measure -No streets -One could only move between houses using a ladder system -Dwellings shared walls -Was more economical -Built of timber and mud -No kilns yet, bricks would dry in sun -Shrine for the bull: -Same type of imagery that we have seen in caves -Why the bull? Symbol of physical energy, male power - younger than Jericho - box-like structure - archeological sight > city destroyed and rebuilt 12x - each building shows better sophistication - no streets, no doors = better defense, exterior walls impenetrable, windows difficult to get through - people used ladders to get from level to level > practical/economical > every structure is sharing a wall with the next - made of mud bricks, timber, and straw - room/building found to be religious, shrines and ritualistic images, same animalistic imagery as in the caves, why the bull? > symbol of physical/ energy and sexual potency, bull also found in later settlements

Lamassu, from the citadel of Sargon II, Khorsabad, 720-705 BCE

-Colossal limestone monsters -Winged, man headed bulls -Mystical power of bird, mind of man, strength of bull -served to ward off enemies -13 feet tall -Lots of detail and attempts at naturalism -5 legs -*Conceptual*, want to convey information about the form ---Combo of front and side view--- - guardian figures - guarded entryway into king's throne room - *composite form* = combination of bull body, human head (king's), and wings of a giant bird - bull=power, human=intelligence, bird=mystical - 13 ft high - made of limestone - originally painted - ornamental treatment added to certain parts (beard, hair, wings), ---natural figure with decorative treatment--- - built into architecture, sits against wall - treated like a *relief* - 5 legs (so you see legs from side and frontal views)

Ziggurat, Ur, c. 2100 BCE

-Dedicated to Moon god -Bottom is 50 ft tall -Originally multi-leveled, evolved into a larger structure -Annual floods meant that for preservation it had to be elevated -shrine/temple on top - bombed in Iraq war - more than one staircase, grand/cerimonial, tower, pavilions - each level painted a different color - ornamental qualities, terraces

Great Stone Tower, Jericho, c 8,000-7,000 BCE

-Early fortification -30 ft tall, 30 ft diameter -Wealth grew, needed protection -Part of defense system - Jericho is the earliest known city - water source - round hut with stone foundation - community enclosed with *fortification* - walls made of mud and stone - wall had watch towers and mote - man protects from outside attacks

EGYPTIAN ART

-Egypt was isolated by deserts, protecting the civilization from outside influence -3500-500 BCE Egypt flourished -We know much more about Egyptian art than we do of Mesopotamian -This is partly accounted for by Mesopotamian societies just destroying each other constantly -A lot of Egyptian art is in stone-they had plenty of it -Hieroglyphics developed in 5000 BCE -Shortly after cuneiform -Rosetta Stone -1799 found during Napoléon's Egyptian campaign Jean Francois Champollion -The decree appears in three scripts: the upper text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the middle portion is Demotic script, and the lowest is Ancient Greek -Egypt centered on Nile, and unlike the Tigris and Euphrates the Nile was very navigable -Was a secure, stable water source -Egyptian art heavily influences tombs -They did this because life was so secure there were about to wish and dream about a great afterlife -Meanwhile in Mesopotamia, huge temples, the largest of architectural structures, was to ensure political stability THIS IS A HUGE DIFFERENCE -Ka: the energy, the animation of your being -It was eternal -Needed a resting place once body died -Also worshipped the Pharaoh as a god -Important for political power - isolated by deserts, little interaction with outsiders - natural setting protects Egyptians from outside influence/aggression - 3500-500 BCE - Egypt has more information than *Mesopotamia* because wars resulted in the destruction of their artifacts, Egypt has more intact archeological remains with few interruptions - Libyan and Arabian deserts protected - Egyptian remains intact because they were carved out of stone, *Mesopotamia* used too much mud brick for it to last - Egypt had abundant amount of stone > more records - (permanent materials and little military invasions) - *hieroglyphics* > written language - *Rosetta Stone* - Egypt centered around Nile river, river was critical for survival - (Tigris and Euphrates not easily navigable) - Nile allowed for stability and unity, provided agriculture (water and greens) - life in Egypt was stable, secure, predictable - #1 form of architecture: *funerary architecture*, the building of tombs - put efforts into afterlife (so it may be peaceful, secure, abundant) - humans come into life with *ka* (life force/energy) - when mortal body dies, their ka is eternal - polytheistic > nature deities, local deities - worshipped the Pharaoh as a god

Landscape with volcanic eruption, wall painting, Catal Hoyuk, c. 6150 BCE

-FIRST landscape -*Conceptual* -Looking down at city, looking up at the volcano -Two different perspectives -Devoid of human and animal - first known landscape - first created picture/view that is NOT isolated - conceptual approach > not interested in realism - arial view of town buildings, profile view of double coned volcano

Hall of the Bulls c. 15,000-13,000 BCE

-Lascaux, France -Discovered in 1940 -All in profile -Painted by different artists at vastly different times -People continued to create, NOT a unified wall mural -Act of creating was more important than respecting previous paintings -This was ritualistic -Individual images, no relation among animals in scene - series of underground caverns - #1 tourist attraction - dry areas of cave - cave painting started to deteriorate because of sweaty humans - closed off to public after 23 years - depicts horses, bison, reindeer -outlines, different textures, some solid silhouettes > animals painted by different artists at different times (100s of years passed) -animals overlap > act of creating image was more important than conserving art

MESOPOTAMIA

-Fertile Crescent; *city states* develop; writing is invented; 2 rivers flowing to Persian Gulf (Tigris and Euphrates) -Major cultural shift, many large cities developing, city states, independent -Power held by kings and powerful priest -Royal vs religious authority -Agricultural economy -With the development of recorded history, we leave prehistory -Polytheistic worship -Each city state had a patron deity - *Cuneiform*: 3,500 BCE - *Sumerians* were first developed civilization here -Because agriculture was so successful, Sumerians had time to develop craft people -Their art was largely religious and found in tombs - Mesopotamia is Greek for "land between the rivers," Euphrates and Tigris, Fertile Crescent - number of large cities developed, they owned and controlled land around them, *city states* developed (independent) - complex organization, king had most power, priesthood also had power > balance between royal and religious authority - built on agriculture and trade - had FIRST written language SUMERIANS: - accumulated vast wealth, build economy - people come and overthrow over and over again - cultures rooted by foundation culture of the SUMERIANS - refined many aspects of culture and agriculture: 1. developed city state 2. invented *polytheistic worship* (system of gods associated with something in nature and other human activities - similar to Greeks) 3. city state had protecting deity 4. developed first known written language in 3500 BCE 5. developed first monumental architecture *ZIGGURAT*

Hesire, panel from his mastaba tomb at Saqqara, 2630 BCE

-From the tomb of a court official -Everyone wanted to be buried near the Pharaoh -Wooden, *relief panel* -affordable -45 inches tall -Holding the tools of his trade -Idealized Egyptian style -Broad shoulders, narrow waist and hips -This was a way to preserve this man's life - court scribe that served under King Djoser - prestigious since buried near a pharaoh (showed favor) - buried in simple *mastaba* - 45in tall wooden panel (more appropriate for the average man) - he is holding the tools of his trade, wrote documents of pharaoh's reign ---portrait needed for burial---, this immortalizes/preserves him - *mixed profile*, men shown with broad muscular shoulders with tiny waists and thin hips - originally painted

Head of an Akkadian ruler, from Nineveh. C.2250-2200 BCE

-Hollow -Eyes were likely seashells -*Akkadian* KING understood to be a GOD -Youthful and beautiful -Strong nose, big lips -He is calm, peaceful, important -Beard and hair > very ornate, rendered with detail, and ringlet sets curl in opposite directions -Naturalistic face, stylized hair -Hair signified maleness in the ancient world -Head has been mutilated -Symbolic way to show taking of power is by vandalizing art -Bronze - hollow - probably on a full size body - different material in eye opening, stone or seashells? - tried to project idea that he was a god - portrayed youthful/beautiful - strong nose, full sensual lips - serenity, calmness, confidence, strength in expression - a lot of hair (ornate/fancy style) - careful attention to detail (curls, beard cut in layers) - naturalistic face and stylized hair - hair signified manhood - head has been mutilated, eye gouged out, symbolic way of disempowering someone

MIDDLE KINGDOM

-In the Old Kingdom, the pharaoh was not challenged -Pharaohs wrecked the economy -Growing population -Growing unrest -Old Kingdom ends -*Capital* moved from Memphis to Thebes -Middle Kingdom is born -Because of unrest -100 years or so of civil unrest - During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs were not questioned nor challenged, they could command pyramids with their authority, pharaohs nearly wrecked the economy, marshalling recourses of the kingdom with projects - kingdom grew, was decentralized, hard to control > aristocrats and wealthy people angry - MIDDLE KINGDOM return to new order by new dynasty -movement of capital from Memphis to THEBES, shifts Upper Egypt to Thebes - NEVER see such a concentration of tomb buildings as in the Old Kingdom

Temple of Ramses II, Abu Simbel, 1290-1224 BCE

-In the Valley of the Kings -Monument near border of Nubia -*Rock cut tomb* -"Super impressive" -Warrior pharaoh -65ft tall-4 statues of Ramses seated -Wearing COMBINED crown of Egypt -Kilt, beard, classic -Eternal, enthroned -Wives and children nestled between his feet -Features military battle scenes -This enthroned Ramses looks thicker because of the scale -Interior: Lined with more statues of him, 32 feet tall -*Osiris*-death god - 4 statues of himself - figures standing in-between his legs are his wives and children - carved out of *living rock* - *symmetrical* -*relief carvings* of military battles, conveys that Ramses was a mighty warrior - standing statues of Ramses inside portraying him as the god of death (Osiris)

Reconstruction drawing of the citadel of Sargon II, Khorsabad, 720-705 BCE

-King was very powerful -Made themselves merciless (or tried to cultivate that) -Whole city had a wall around it -*Raised citadel* -One can enter via a *fortified gate* -Mindful of attacks -!!!25 acres inside!!! -Included administrative buildings -Palace has an additional set of fortifications ---elevated--- , king is the highest -Giant ramp -*Barrel vaults* -Mud brick, outer wall is stone -For this culture, king is not god but plays *intermediary* - citadel raised (king's fortress lies within) - city had secure wall with brick and stone, gates - towers enclosed citadel - gate > courtyard - palace is 50ft above town (proclaiming power of king, ability to look at surrounding area for intruders) - ramp > courtyard > (*exclusive*) - one of the first to use *oval archway* - king was not seen as god but as an important INTERMEDIARY with the gods

Bison with turned head, 12,000

-La Madeleine, Dordogne, France -Reindeer horn medium -4 inches long -Sculptor incised lines into mane using sharp tool -Head turned, licking flank -Irregular shape and small size may have been factor in decision to render it this way, saving space -Notable: head turned 180 degrees to maintain strict profile, for the sake of clarity and completeness -12,000 after Venus of Willendorf -Possible idea of movement towards animal worship - Carved from reindeer antler. Person realizing potential in object (antler). - Antler soft enough for tools - Hasn't required deep digging/working. Labor is minimized because they used more of antler's natural shape, which also explains why head is turned - Repetitive insisions made for mane - Age difference between Venus is 12,000 yrs and there hasnt been a lot of artistic innovation - Intention/representation of animals featured in cave paintings? Animal worship?

Rhinoceros, wounded man, and disemboweled bison, 15,000 - 13,000 BCE

-Lascaux -Is bison challenging the man? -Man is stick figure - occasional human figures - spear through bison, disemboweled - hunter falling because bison challenged him? (there is contact between them) - stick figure, beak-like, male gender, limbs represented - handprints with pigments found - possible signature?

Bull-headed lyre from the tomb of Puabi, Royal Cemetery, Ur, c 2600 BCE

-Lyre from tomb of Puabi Royal Cemetery, Ur -The base has been recreated -Used for entertainment -Bullhead-male energy -Animal details > we do not fully understand meaning -Image of power -Hair and beard of bull are lapis lazuli -Shell and red limestone -Animal detail in profile - modern reconstruction that incorporates original, archeologist relied on art to put harp together - gold and lapis - used for entertainment in court - head of magnificent bull - energy/strength - images on front > banqueting, feasting, associated with constellations, man wrestling bull

NEW KINGDOM

-Middle Kingdom ended when the *Hyksos came* in, and Egypt conquered them, leading to the New Kingdom, *best of kingdoms* - end of Middle kingdom: Egyptians taken over by Hyksos, Egyptians took military organization knowledge from him > they built up their *military* and protected their resources by capturing more territories , Hyksos also left horses - Sudan had gold and led Egyptians to have ---tremendous wealth--- - New Kingdom lasts for 5 centuries - Egypt invaded by Syrians, Persians, Alexander the Great - *Priesthood* build up their wealth and power, led to more religious buildings, ---balance between the priests and pharaohs---

Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, England, aerial view, c 2,550- 1600 BCE

-Monumental architecture using massive stones: *megaliths* (great stones); megalithic age -Megalithic monument -South England -*Henge*: an arrangement of megalithic stones in a circle, often surrounded by a ditch -*Post and lintel* - Vertical member supports horizontal - Stones are *dressed*: forms have been shaped; adding effect to surface - Tapered at the top - Site developed c 3,000 BCE - Around 2,000 BCE upright stones added - Outer ring, inner ring, horseshoe shaped - 4 layers of rings total - Giant solar clock theory: - Agricultural society, so a clock like this would help with harvesting and planting - Way to know when summer solstice was - Burial site 1,000 yrs before stones - Sandstone and volcanic stone - Outer ring: 100 ft in diameter - Someone has authority and there is a sense of community-many people came together to create this - Society is organized, there is progression -sizable/sophisticated - social/political/religious - theres a number of stone circles in the UK - megaliths (figures) - moved and dressed (shaped) and put in upright positions - *excavated* > landscape has been sculpted - circles are like ripples in water - stones marked graves/place of burial > upright stones then added, stones added at different times - outer ring, inner ring, horseshoe shape, smaller stones - *dressing* - working with stone to make effect on surface/shape, =narrowed/tapered at the top, caps on top, *post and lentil* - most basic form of architecture (vertical member supports horizontal member) > enclosing outer ring - inner horseshoe "broken" lentils NOT continuous - giant solar clock, help man plan for seasons, help priest know when summer solstice is because days get shorter and shorter - 100 ft in diameter -spearheaded by religious people - shows man has advanced > developed equipment, organization, hierarchy of structure, IMPORTANT: enough people could construct this

Ishtar Gate, Babylon, 575 BCE

-Most gods had corresponding animals forms -*Ishtar*: love, war, fertility goddess -Her animal was a lion -This *processional walkway* was to her shrine -Large *arcuated openings* (arch-shaped) - blue > glazed bricks - abstract AND figurative decor - all gods had animal form (in this case a lion) - lined with 60 lions (sacred shrine)

Ka-Aper (Sheikh el Belel), from his mastaba tomb at Saqqara, 2450-2350 BCE

-Outside of the royal tomb complex -In a mastaba tomb -The stick he would have held- a symbol of authority -Carved from a tree trunk -Arms were pegged in -Would have been plastered and painted over -Rock crystal eyes -Less idealized -As you move down the social classes, art gets more natural -Ka needed a place to go, this is his precaution if he needs a place - court official from Old Kingdom, Saqqara - same walking pose as Menkaure and Khamerernebty - mastaba tomb outside of royal tomb complex, but in the same vicinity - walking stick in the left hand, baton in the right hand (showing power/authority) - wooden material, carved out of tree trunk while arms were made out of wood separately and pegged in - wood was easier to work with and cheaper - rock and crystal eyes - pharaohs statues are more idealized, BUT this is more natural, individualized face, roused belly suggests he's older/aging - believed that ka had life force

Venus of Willendorf, 28,000-25,000 BCE

-Paleolithic -Limestone figure -Found in Willendorf, Austria (named after findspot) -Round because the artist used the natural shape of the stone -Belly button is a natural impression in stone -Exaggeration of anatomy suggest it was a fertility object -Artist did not aim for naturalism -Emphasis on female anatomy -Pubic area sculpted too -Breast have huge focus, small arms rest on them -Nomadic lifestyle, must carry everything with you, so this is small -Limited selection of carving tools -Top concern was survival, not significant free time -She is not individualized -Conceptual: idea of woman, not a real représentation -4 inches tall -Color had been applied to this at one point - Austria - Small figurative sculpture - Limestone - 4 inches tall - Was pigmented using natural materials (ochre) - Shape of stone presented form (perhaps this is why the feet are cut off), the bellybutton is a natural impression of stone - Small and easily carried (nomadic) - Tools (other stone pieces, stick, animal bone) - Simple form, didn't have tools for details - Survival is most important - not a lot of time to create - Objects named by location found or person who found them - Venus = fertility figure, reproduction - A number of these figures found shows shared interest in reproduction - The way body was created puts emphasis on breasts, pubic area, stomach area. Other parts of body ignored to bring more attention to reproductive areas - Not individualized, no facial features - Not accurate proportionately, had certain motivation to highlight femininity - People probably didn't live that long - fertility important because there's safety in numbers - Could this be a doll? Piece of erotica? Teach young girls about reproducing/female body? - Conceptual - concept of women and female body function/female experience, emphasizing idea about women sexuality. Not a literal representation, the form isn't perfect. It's not drawn from observation but from an idea

Palette of King Narmer, from Hierakonpolis, c. 3000 BCE

-Palette: stone slab with a circular depression -Celebrating the defeat of lower Egypt and unification of two kingdoms -Narmer's name is at the top -He wears the upper Egyptian bowling pin like crown -Mixed profile -He effortlessly slays enemy -God Horus, the king's protector, is to the right -Objective: characterize the pharaoh as supreme and protected by the gods -Papyrus plants -King is barefoot -Barefoot was a sign of ritualistic events -Like the dying lioness and like one of the injured lions from Ashurbanipal, the sandal bearer is on his own plane -On the back side the king wears the crown of lower Egypt-sign of victory -The defeated are piled up at the bottom, bull attacks -Pharaoh wears a bull tail -Used kohl eyeliner to protect eyes from the sun -Compare to Mesopotamian art -Both in bands, low relief, formulaic repetition -Normal compositional scheme -This palette was used to prepare eye makeup -Intertwining animal heads are a sign of unified Egypt - towards end of predynastic period - King Narmer claimed to have unified the 2 kingdoms, defeated lower Egypt under his control, (a lot of kings claimed to have done this > collective effort) - Narmer's name in hieroglyphics - he's wearing crown > dominant king of upper Egypt - holding scepter in left hand, holding subjective individual by his hair > the king is about to smite enemy with scepter - person behind king is sandal bearer (king's size is much larger than him) - hawk of Horus (sun god), on top of papyrus plant (plant of lower Egypt) dominating lower Egypt - both the king and the hawk are subjugating lower Egypt - palette is symbolic (no actual record of this event) - when pharaoh is barefooted > symbolic for ritualistic or mystical events - below > more of Narmer's enemies flee - *band-like*, compartmentalized, ordered - mother nature's heifer cow on top On Back side - Narmer wearing crown of lower Egypt, wearing bull's tale (direct association with strong animal) - sandal bearer behind him - soldiers marching in front of Narmer - the defeated are decapitated, their heads in-between their ankles, their bodies stacked - on the bottom: bull attacking enemy - 2 dragons, their necks intertwined for unity - mixed profile (not true human definition) - palettes usually used for kohl makeup, this is mostly a presentation piece - COMPARE: sumerian vase > low relief, no background, subjects placed in formulaic way, mixed profile

Rock-cut tombs, Beni Hasan, 1950-1900 BCE

-People had been looting pyramids ---Remote--- location now -Much more subtle -Rectangular room -Interior decorated with columns-but columns were just for decor not for support - Thus NOT post and lintel -False door for *ka* -*Portico* (roofed porch), then *column hall*, then *burial chamber* -Symmetrical -Painted walls -Hollowed out of cliffs -*Fluted columns* - *portico* - rough natural surface of cliffside > more finished/dressed rock - remote location from city, hard to find, in desert - chambers cut out of living rock - columns fashioned and decorated, but do not serve a function, used to look more architectural/finished - *false* door so ka may come in and out

Human Skull, Jericho, 7,000 - 6,000 BCE

-Rebuilt with plaster (so not all original) -Seashell eyes -Skulls were separate from bodies, then kept for families -Spirits needed a place to dwell -Believed in afterlife -Serves a ritualistic purpose - human skulls reconstructed with plaster and repainted - receptacles for spirits of the dead? - "beheaded" skeletons under city - skulls kept in homes, gallery of ancestors, spiritual essence that lived beyond death

Menkaure and Khamerernebty, from Gizeh, 2490-2472 BCE

-Shift from seated to standing, but still idealized and eternal -Broad shoulders narrow waist -*Symmetrical* -Queen depends on king, she embraces him, is behind him, -he is the stronger of the two -Not finished on the back-this was normal -rarely in the round, always on a wall -Frontal approach/vantage point -Stone ---Plenty of it in Egypt--- -*Conceptual* -Her hand could never reach around like that -Not fully accurate -No shift of hips or anything like that - double portrait of Menkaure and his queen - embodies SAME qualities as Khafre statue - youthful/beautiful - idealized (broad shoulders and narrow hips) - serious serenity - queen is embracing him > showing attachment, belonging to him - queen is secondary to him, dependent on him, he is standing slightly more far forward than she showing power. - queen's left hand placed in front, but no true arm is wrapping around the body, not intended to be enjoyed on the round, the back is usually against something - *relieving* figures from front - stone, abundantly available in Egypt - anatomically inaccurate, conceptual male figure

OLD KINGDOM (2500-2000)

-Stable kingship and economy, emphasis on tombs -Only when people ---believe that the pharaoh is a god--- that they are willing to put in effort -Memphis was the *capital* - stable kingship, unchallenged idea of pharaoh as god - stable economy = stable architecture - BIG architecture > people willing to build because they truly believe pharaoh is god - triad of pyramids in Gizeh, west of Memphis

Khafre, from Gizeh, 2520-2494 BCE

-Statue ---More sophisticated--- -Hard stone found deep in desert, polished (not painted) because of natural color striations -Enthroned, looking ahead, emphasis of stillness, -permanency -*Symmetrical, linear* -Seated on LION throne -On the side, there's a symbol of unified Egypt: a lotus flower (Upper Egypt) and papyrus buds (Lower Egypt) -Hawk around the head, representing *Horus*, protecting the Pharaoh -False beard -Highly idealized portraits - there's a *formula*: masculine and strong -Larger than life (5ft 6in) -On a throne of stylized lions -All movement is stopped, he is eternal - more sophisticated - hard stone found deep in the desert, polished NOT painted because of beautiful natural color striations - enthroned, looking ahead, emphasis of stillness/permanency, *symmetrical, linear* - seated on LION throne, symbol of unified Egypt - hawk around his head - false beard, stiff but more naturalistic, highly idealized portraits > formula: masculine and strong - 5 ft 6 in, larger than life

Female head, from Uruk, c 3200-3000 BCE

-Statue of deity -Marble, hole at base, perhaps put on a wooden skeleton -Only seen from one side, the back would have been covered -Evidence of paint use -Huge eyes, all seeing? Enlightened? We don't know -Usually shells used for eyes -Shell was readily available -Really just a face with a flat back -The missing body was likely covered in expensive fabric and jewels - statues of deity in temple - Inanna, goddess of fertility - carved out of marble - hole at the neck, face put on wooden skeleton, rest of body made of impermanent materials - only seen from one side, back is uncarved - evidence of paint, surface has eroded - enormous eyes, usually shells used for eyes - darker stone for eyebrows - fake hair covering head, meant to look like a full figure

Statuettes from the Temple of Abu, Tell Asmar, c.2700 BCE

-Stone, *votive* offering -Votive was a stand in for worshippers, male, female, child -Size of votive symbolized status -Cylindrical in shape, simple forms -Largest is 30 inches tall -Religious! -Waiting for divinity -Huge eyes: constant prayer, maybe symbolize eternal wakefulness - dozens found - ordinary people gave to priest - worshipper that stood in for them in temple before the gods ---made of stone---, expensive - male and female worshipper - little feet belonged to child - cylindrical in shape - simple forms with clothing - biggest was 30in tall

Imhotep, Pyramid and Mortuary complex, King Zoser, Saqqara, c. 2630 BCE

-Subterranean chambers -Solid structure -Earlier mastabas had an exterior of cut stone to protect mud brick -This one is solid -Gifts for Ka could be kept here -Necropolis: city of the dead -Saqqara was the necropolis of Memphis -Western Egypt because the ka travels west -Had to be off the Nile some because of annual flooding -Included a chapel with a false door where the ka could join -the world of the living -Imhotep was first recorded architect -Master builder for King Djoser -Each end oriented towards a compass point -200 ft high -UNLIKE a ziggurat, Djoser's pyramid is a tomb, not a temple -platform -Dual function: sign of power and a funerary complex -Vast space below -Column shafts resemble papyrus stalks -Stability of Egyptian society allowed for architectural developments -Evolved organically -Started as one mastaba -One added, two added, two added -Notion of Pharaoh going towards the heavens to take on a -new role as god of death -200 ft tall -100 underground rooms Protected by a stone wall, with a burial facility near it -Entrace: -Pass through a dark hallway, you transition into the space -Decorated with columns -EArliest known columns!! -Fluted like the papyrus trees -Comes from use of papyrus stalks in bundles -A familiar look and natural idea - stepped pyramid - first name of architect > *Imhotep* made a radical contribution (new, different, impressive) > reason for recorded/documented name - structure evolved organically > started as one mastaba > more mastabas added (5 total) - soars upward > symbolic for movement towards heavens, portrays notion of pharaoh moving to heavens in his afterlife - 200 ft high - deliberately placed to line up with cosmic forces (north, south, east, west) - built out of cut stone - tomb is subterranean - this chunk of rock is a marker/symbol of power - 100 rooms underground - afterlife largely for royalty, preserving their memory - pharaoh is intermediary between the heavens and earth for his people - pyramid not public - 35ft stone wall around compound - limited access inside - smaller tombs outside > (importance on pharaoh) - enter through dark hallway to bright courtyard > transitional space (symbolic for passing through death into other life) - enclosed hallways decorated with evenly spaced columns - EARLIEST known example of columns - made of stone, fluting - *post and lentil* architecture - has sculptures/statues of the deceased - activities take place in funerary chapel - staff keeps offerings going

Standard of Ur, 2600 BCE

-Sumerian -3 *bands*, called registers or *friezes* -All figures on a common ground line -This is very DIFFERENT from the multi-leveled figures seen in cave paintings -Sumerians pioneered a *hierarchy of scale* -Way to distinguish most important figures -Celebratory scene -Not really a standard -Wood decorated with inlay -Natural materials; shells, lapis lazuli (blue); red limestone -Narrative imagery in bands -Subject: war -Enemies are under horses -No background -Lowest level > fighting -middle > Sumerian soldiers/nude prisoners of war -Here, nudity represents the loss of agency -Top > victorious king, the subject is a banquet - *Arranged hierarchically* -Subtle shift in scale -Animals in profile -A *military standard*-would be mounted on a pole -Two sided -IMPORTANT: this says that for the Sumerians, being victorious in war and royal customs are important - in Royal tomb at Ur - box shape - wood decorated - color comes from natural materials (shells, lapis, limestone) - arranged narrative imagery in bands - First side shows victory of war, soldiers and chariots riding into war, falling under legs of horses - no background - lowest level > fighting - 2nd level > Sumerian soldiers marching with prisoners of war (naked = lost, defeated, captive) - arranged heirarchly - top level > soldiers marching/carrying things for feast for king, people entertaining royalty (harp) - *mixed profile view* ---shift in scale--- for king and members of court - importance of being a warrior and customs of guest-host relationship

Comparison to Sumerian Royal Cemetery at Ur (mastaba)

-Sumerians only used mud brick, while Egyptians had stone -Sumerians did not protect burial area nearly as much -Egyptian mastabas were not in the city, but in necropolis -Ziggurat was in the middle of the city, a religious site and daily reminder of power of religion -40 ft tall -Mastaba was to show the power of the Pharaoh -200 ft tall -Regardless of differences, you need a powerful ruling force to create this - Mesopotamian - *ziggurat* 40ft tall - mud brick - in the city - made under power of priesthood - religious temple for worship - outpaced by the Egyptians in size - Egyptian tombs distant from the city (in necropolis) - used permanent materials - tomb/monument of pharaoh and his power - BOTH: massive man-made mountains - flat on top with sloping sides - put efforts into buildings that soared upward

Hypostyle hall, Temple of Amen-Re, Karnak, 1290-1224 BCE

-Temples for gods became grander as the power of priests grew, and the pharaohs wanted to please the priest -Direct walkway to temple -Pylon: the wide entrance gateway to an -Egyptian temple, characterized by sloping walls -Enclosed by walls -Axial arrangement -Column room after the courtyard -Hypostyle hall -134 columns -Central axis was marked by larger columns and larger space between the two columns -Higher ceiling for higher columns -The area between the two ceiling heights is called the clerestory -Was a way to allow light in a room -Columns: -Flower capital for tall columns -Bud capital for smaller -Incised with reliefs -Temple gets more exclusive -Post and lintel -Bright space, gradually gets darker, it is phenomenological, gets more complex and mystical -Axial plan: along a central axis, deriving from a typical pylon temple (the gateways, or pylons, with sloping walls) -Narrow corridors on the longitudinal axis -All this leads to a sanctuary, which only the priests and pharaohs could visit -Most people only went as far as the open court -pylon temple-refering to the gate you enter similar to a mastabas with sloping sides -bright-space space to dim space to dimmer space -experiential, gets more complicated, darker, mysterious -rectangular space -flat ceiling on columns -clerestory space-space between the lower and higher ceilings -columns ornately decorated, richness, importance -columns look like open flower or inverted bell

Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt, relief in the mastaba tomb of Ti, Saqqara, 2450-2350 BCE

-Tomb of Ti -Saqqara -He was an ---architectural figure--- -Wall paintings organized seasonally often -Scenes of the hunt and of agriculture were common because both were ways to sustain life -Here, Ti is with his servants -On river -Papyrus plants in background (also visible under water-see swiggles) -Hunting hippos -Success of hunt was a metaphor for triumph over evil -Jungle like, an abundance of nature -*Hierarchy of scale* -He is ---static--- -He does nothing, just watching, like the *ka* would -Depicted in typical Egyptian canon style -His servants are animated -*Conceptual* -Perspective is weird-you can see underwater - *Ashlar masonry* -Stones laid on top of eachother -Carved *relief* -Plaster -Paint -*Fresco secco* - Ti was high court official, approval from Ti required - wall painting from inside his *elaborate mastaba tomb* - Male tombs: organized by seasons , show manly activities that are agriculturally oriented or hunting scenes - supplying food > symbolizes giving sustenance for ka - papyrus thicket teaming with small mammals and birds > *vertical grooves* - fanciful, abundance of nature, convey paradise - Ti shown on much ---grander scale--- - Ti doesn't hunt, his status conveyed because he is only watching - standing/*mixed profile* - figures that are hunting are more active and naturalistic (show us the info conceptually rather than using realistic features) - squiggled lines to embody moving water - ashlar masonry (stone fits tightly) - fresco secco > plastered, dried, and painted

Middle aisle of the hall of pillars, valley temple of the Pyramid of Khafre, Gizeh, 2520-2494 BCE

-Valley temple (*post and lintel* architecture) -Pink stone -huge/*dressed* single blocks of stone -Originally enclosed -Had statues of Khafre -Family would arrive here before *causeway* -Outside of this would be the sphinx -Canals cut from Nile, Nile was at a distance - valley temple is *post and lintel architecture* - pink stone - huge/dressed single blocks of stone, originally enclosed - had statues of Khafre - family would arrive here before causeway

View of Persepolis, Royal Audience Hall and Stairway, 520-465 BCE

-View of Persepolis, Royal Audience Hall and Stairway, 520-465 BCE -COMPARE: palaces, funeral, and royal objects -Built on hillside for protection -Elevated 40 ft -Limited entryways for protection -Had one large gate -*Apadana*-king's audience hall ---Comparision: LIKE Assyrian structure, important rooms accessible via interior for protection -Stairways added security -Apadana: older, two sets of stairs to enter, enclosed walls, porch, guard towers to maintain safety -6 rows of 6 columns -*Post and lintel* -Used to support roof, but also for decoration -Really impressive structure-political -Architecture to show power -*Ceiling beams* were wood in the audience hall -Walls: mudbrick -*Alexander the Great* sacked the palace - *relief* decor -*Xerxes* added the throne room after his father -100 columns, but columns are smaller -Porch -2 doorways -*Hypostyle halls*: hallways defined by regularly spaced columns - Ornate capitals with bulls - *Fluted columns* - for safety reasons > palace is against mountain side - for protection > palace is elevated 40ft, has limited entryways, put military forces on weaker points, only one gate - *apadana* > king's audience hall - *conference hall* > public space for visitors - *throne room* > 2nd meeting hall - tight corridors - square spaces characterized by vertical supports (columns) inside

NEOLITHIC AGE

-boats, farming, weather is stable with glaciers receding; this age first developed in the near east -Jericho was earliest city, 7,000 BCE -Agricultural developments -Their wealth grew, so they needed protection - more reliable weather, food supplies grown, animals contained, knowledge of animal reproduction (breeding), boats (transportation/fishing), crafts (developed domestic objects like cloth and pottery) > things do NOT have to be portable anymore ----harness world around him---- - formation of cities - development of crafts not just used for survival - communities start in the east

PALEOLITHIC AGE

-nomadic lifestyle, people moved with the season, weather, and people were at nature's mercy -This period includes the ice age -Stone Age (weapons, tools, household objects, figurines made in stone) 1.Old Stone Age - nomads, hunter gatherers, follow food source 2.New Stone Age - farmer, living in communities, control rivers, keep animals -Moved west for food, -Shelter temporary, lived in huts/caves, depends what the season and weather -Because of Ice Age, life didn't stabilize until glaciers subsided

Section of the Pyramid of Khufu, Gizeh

-transitional building - subterranean tomb chamber (false tomb chamber because of interior tomb chambers) - thieves go into tombs after burial - *relieving blocks* (relieved pressure from hollow areas)

PREHISTORIC ART

Three sub periods 1. Paleolithic 2. Mesolithic 3. Neolithic -No written language - the art tells the stories of this age -How much is lost that could change the narrative? What has decayed or deteriorated? -Art was not created by "artists," was not meant to be decorative. Art created as functioning objects. Often used in rituals related to religion, funerary practice, promote/grandize power) -Little is known, no written history, so art must take on explanatory significance -Much was created from non-permanent material -These are all functioning objects to religion, death, power, ritual, none were simply decorative