Art History Survey- Chapter 10

Varada mudra

is a gesture of charity, symbolizing the fulfillment of all wishes. Alone, the mudra is made with the right hand; but when combined with abhaya mudra in standing Buddha figures (as is most common), the left hand is occasionally shown in varada mudra.

Dhyana mudra

is a gesture of meditation and balance, symbolizing the path toward enlightenment. Hands are in the lap, the lower representing maya, the physical world of illusion, the upper representing nirvana, enlightenment and release from the world.

Abhaya mudra

is a gesture of reassurance, blessing, and protection that means "have no fear." The right hand is at shoulder level, with the palm outward.

Vitarka mudra

is a variant of dharmachakra mudra tat stands for intellectual debate. The right and/or left hand is held at shoulder level with thumb and forefinger touching. The gesture resembles counting on the fingers with one hand.

Vihara

a rock-cut wall functioned as the monk's living quarters

Chaitya

a rock-cut wall that usually enshrined a stupa

The Vedic Period

About 2000 BCE nomadic herdsmen, the Aryans, entered India from Central Asia and the Russian steppes. Gradually they blended with the indigenous populations and introduced the horse and chariot, the Sanskrit language, a hierarchical social order, and religious practices that centered on the propitiation of gods through fire sacrifice. The earliest of their sacred writings, known as the Vedas, contain hymns to various gods including the divine king Indra. The importance of the fire sacrifice, overseen by a powerful priesthood—the Brahmins—and religiously sanctioned social classes, persisted through the Vedic period. At some point, the class structure became hereditary and immutable, with lasting consequences for Indian society.

Angkor Wat

Angkor, Cambodia. 12th century CE. Among the grandest and most unusual of these structures is Suryavarman II's temple mountain. Having come to power after a period of turmoil, Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), unlike most of his predecessors, chose to devote himself to the god Vishnu rather than to Shiva. He further broke with tradition by having his temple face west to the setting sun, a direction which had funerary associations. The temple is a massive structure, comprised of three concentric galleries that frame a stepped pyramid crowned by five delicately tapered towers. This entire structure is surrounded by lakelike moats over 820 feet wide and crossed by walkways adorned with balustrades shaped like multi-headed serpents. The inner walls of the three outer galleries contain elaborate bas-relief sculptures, many of which depict scenes from the great Hindu epics or glorified depictions of the king.

Dharmachakra mudra

Appears as if the subject is counting on his fingers. The gesture of teaching, setting the chakra (wheel) of the dharma (law or doctrine) in motion. Hands are at chest level.

Kailasha Temple, Cave 16, Ellora

Aurangabad District, Maharashtra, India. Mid 8th century CE. Occupied and expanded from the fifth to the tenth century, the rock-cut site of Ellora has 34 caves in all, variously dedicated to Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. Among the most spectacular of these is "Cave" 16, the KAILASHA TEMPLE, which was most likely started in the reign of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (ruled 757-83 CE) and completed under his successors. In many ways, this structure marks the apex of the South Asian rock-cut tradition, as the skilled architects and artists successfully sculpted an entire two-story, highly ornamented Shiva temple out of a single mass of stone. The structure is set back in the mountainside, which required cutting straight down 107 feet so that the rock would be high enough to accommodate the stepped, southern-style tower. Passing the outer gateway, devotees can circumambulate at ground level and admire the narrative sculptural scenes and large elephants that adorn the lower plinth. Alternately, visitors can climb an internal staircase to a second level where a relatively small shrine dedicated to Shiva's bull-mount, Nandi, faces the main temple across a bridge. The interior of the main temple hall (mandapa) was originally painted with additional narrative imagery. The garbhagriha can be circumambulated from the second story by coming out onto a balcony from which a number of subsidiary shrines radiate. The narrative sculpture throughout the site depicts a wide range of deities and events from Hindu literature, many of which feature Shiva.

Ananda Temple

Bagan, Mandalay Division, Myanmar. 12th century CE. Height approx. 35′ (10.5 m). built in 1105 by King Kyanzittha, Anawrahta's adopted son and eventual successor. According to the legends, the head monk at Bagan, Shin Arahan, introduced the king to eight monks from India who were seeking support abroad. The ensuing discussions inspired the king to undertake a major act of patronage, which culminated in the construction of the Ananda Temple. The unique architectural plan of this temple is rather complex, but it can be envisioned as four temples placed up against the sides of a massive square-based stupa, which rises to almost 175 feet. The temples each face a cardinal direction and house large Buddha images covered in gold leaf, most of which have been renovated or replaced over the centuries. The walls of these temples have openings that make way for two covered circumambulation pathways. While most of the sculpture in niches along these pathways remains, almost none of the painting does. The exterior is embellished with rising spires and flamelike decoration over the windows and doors. The central roof rises to the main tower in five tiers. These are decorated with horizontal bands of inset glazed ceramic plaques, many of which display scenes from the Buddha's past lives.

Standing Buddha

Bamiyan, Afghanistan. c. 5th century CE. Sandstone coated in stucco, 165′ (50 m). This photograph pre-dates the destruction of the Buddhas in 2001. Their recesses now stand empty. There, two enormous Buddhas were carved from the rock of a cliff, one some 115 feet in height, the other about 165 feet tall. Recorded by a Chinese pilgrim who came to Bamiyan in the seventh century, these Buddhas must date from before his visit. Buddhist travelers may have offered gifts of thanks or prayers for safety, depending on their destinations. On the right side of the smaller figure, pilgrims could walk within the cliff up a staircase that ended at the Buddha's shoulder. There they could look into the vault of the niche and see a painted image of the sun god, suggesting a metaphoric pilgrimage to the heavens. They could then circumambulate the figure at the level of the head and return to ground level by a staircase on the figure's left side. These huge figures likely served as the model for those at rock-cut sanctuaries in China, for example, at Yungang. Despite the historical and religious importance of these figures, and ignoring the pleas of world leaders, the Taliban demolished the Bamiyan Buddhas in 2001.

Scene of Drunkenness And Moderation

Borobudur, east side. Central Java, Indonesia. c. 800 CE. This scene depicts a lesson from the Karmavibhanga on the rewards for moderation in food and drink. The figures on the upper right turn away from the scene of debauchery played out in front of them. In reward for this good judgment they are reborn as individuals with few diseases, indicated by the hearty couple surrounded by supplicants on the right side of the panel. The tree divides the cause from the effect. The lowest gallery, which had been covered by the foot, depicts instructive scenes of karmic reward and punishment. As one circumambulates to the next set of terraces, scenes of the Buddha's past lives and other moral tales share space with the life story of Shakyamuni Buddha. Moving upward, terraces four and five visually recount the story of Sudhana, an ordinary man who seeks personal enlightenment, eventually achieving it with the guidance of a bodhisattva. At this point visitors exit to the upper three circular terraces, whose rows of stupas and wide vista may be a metaphor for the enlightened state. Each of these perforated stupas holds a seated Buddha except for the large, central stupa, whose surface is solid. The placement of Buddha images on the monument and their differing mudras corresponds to the arrangement found in some Buddhist mandalas and points to another layer of meaning in this exceptionally complex architectural plan.

Borobudur

Central Java, Magelang District, Indonesia. c. 800 CE. Aerial view. was built in its central Java location by the Shailendra dynasty about the year 800. It appears to have been the endpoint of a processional road that linked this site with the Buddhist sacred structures at Mendut and Pawon. Borobudur has characteristics typical of a stupa as well as those suggestive of a three-dimensional mandala, or cosmic diagram, but many aspects of the structure's use are still poorly understood. The monument itself rises more than 100 feet from ground level. This stepped pyramid of volcanic-stone blocks has five lower quadrilateral terraces that support three roughly circular terraces topped with a large, bell-shaped stupa, itself ringed by 72 smaller openwork stupas. Each of the squared terraces is enclosed by a high wall bearing extensive relief sculpture and adorned with Buddha images in niches and small, bell-shaped projections. The decoration on the lowest level was hidden for centuries because shortly after the monument was built, it was bolstered by a heavy architectural foot in order to stop the structure from spreading as the dirt in its core settled under the weight of the stone. During the restoration of the monument that began in 1975, these bas-reliefs were exposed and carefully photographed. As with all sculpture at the site, the figures are elegant, with full, rounded bodies whose smooth forms are sporadically accentuated by delicately carved adornments.

Cat in Yogic Posture

Detail from rock-cut relief, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Mid 7th century CE. this pious scene is mimicked by a cat who does his best to imitate Bhagiratha's pose. The reference is to the story of an aging cat who pretends to be an ascetic who has renounced meat, so as to lure the local mice into complacency, much to their misfortune. This cautionary tale about false ascetics serves as an apt and humorous foil to the upper scene of consummate penance and faith. Both tales are set on the banks of the Ganges.

Bodhisattva wall painting

Detail of a wall painting in Cave I, Ajanta, Maharashtra, India. Vakataka dynasty, c. 475 CE. flank the entrance to the shrine chamber. Cave I, a large vihara hall with monks' chambers around the sides and a Buddha shrine chamber in the back, houses some of the finest. Murals painted in mineral pigments on a prepared plaster surface cover the walls of the central court. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who postpone nirvana and buddhahood to help others achieve enlightenment. They are distinguished from buddhas in art by their princely garments.This bodhisattva is lavishly adorned with delicate ornaments: a bejeweled crown, large earrings, a pearl necklace, armbands, and bracelets. A striped cloth covers his lower body. The graceful bending posture and serene gaze impart a sympathetic attitude. The naturalistic style balances outline and softly graded color tones. Outline drawing, always a major ingredient of Indian painting, clearly defines shapes; tonal gradations impart the illusion of three-dimensional form, with lighter tones used for protruding parts such as the nose, brows, shoulders, and chest muscles. Together with the details of the jewels, these highlighted areas resonate against the subdued tonality of the figure.

Vishnu Churning The Ocean of Milk

Detail of relief sculpture, Angkor Wat. 12th century CE. One relief on the east side of the outer gallery portrays a Hindu story known as the "Churning of the Ocean of Milk". In this tale, set in a time before the world was fully formed, Vishnu orchestrates the production of the elixir of immortality. He achieves this by wrapping the cosmic serpent around a great mountain emerging from the sea. Then by pulling on the serpent, the gods, working with their enemies, the asura, manage to churn up the elixir of immortality from the ocean's depths. This relief may hold a clue to understanding the monument as a whole. With its mountainlike towers, broad moat, and serpent balustrades, the entire complex at Angkor Wat parallels the setting of the legend and may speak to Suryavarman II's hopes for gaining a sort of immortality through his own special union with Vishnu.

Erotic Sculptures, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

Detail of reliefs. Height of registers approx. 3′3″ (1 m). Sandstone, c. 1000 CE. These carvings are not placed haphazardly, but rather in a single vertical line at the juncture of the walls enclosing the garbhagriha and the last mandapa. Their significance is uncertain; perhaps they derive from the amorous couples (mithuna) found at the entrances of many temples and chaityas. It is also possible that they relate to two growing traditions within Hinduism: tantra and bhakti.

Heavenly Maidens

Detail of wall painting, Sigiriya. 5th century CE. As visitors climbed higher, they were greeted by painted murals depicting elegant HEAVENLY MAIDENS moving among clouds before emerging at the top of the plateau. Only the foundations of the palace buildings, cisterns, and a few sculptures remain, but they are sufficient to convey a sense of the site's imposing splendor and spectacular elevation. Kassapa did not have long to enjoy his luxurious and well-fortified home, however, because within approximately 11 years the rightful heir, his brother Moggallana, returned with an army and took back the kingdom. After his victory, Moggallana gave Sigiriya to the Buddhists as a monastery.

Devi (Hinduism)

Devi, the Great Goddess, controls material riches and fertility. She has forms indicative of beauty, wealth, and auspiciousness, but also forms of wrath, pestilence, and power. As the embodiment of cosmic energy, she provides the vital force to all the male gods. When armed and riding a lion (as the goddess Durga), she personifies righteous fury. As the goddess Lakshmi, she is the goddess of wealth and the auspicious.

The Great Departure

East Torana (exterior middle architrave) of Stupa 1 (the great Stupa) at Sanchi. 1st century BCE. Sandstone. Three-tiered array of architraves in which posts and crossbars are elaborately carved with symbols and scenes drawn mostly from the Buddha's life and the Jataka tales, stories of the Buddha's past lives. These relief sculptures employ two distinctive features of early South Asian visual narrative. The visual narrative technique is used in the portrayal of the Great departure covering the outer surface of a curving architrave of the eastern Torana.

Yakshi Bracket Figure

East Torana of the Great Stupa at Sanchi. 1st century BCE. Sandstone, height approx. 60". These Yakshis are some of the finest female figures in Indian art, and they make an instructive comparison with the Didarganj image of the Maurya period. The earlier figure was distinguished by a formal, somewhat rigid pose, an emphasis on realistic details, and a clear distinction between clothed and nude parts of the body. In contrast, the Sanchi Yakshi leans daringly into space with casual abandon, supported by one leg as the other charmingly cross behind. Her diaphanous garment is noticeable only by its hems, and so she appears almost nude, which emphasizes her form. The mango tree on which she hangs is heavy with fruit, reasserting the fecundity and bounty associated with these mercurial deities. The figures presence on a Buddhist gateway implies her role as a guardian or devotee, which, in turn, speaks to Buddhism's inclusiveness.

Female Figure Holding a Fly-Whisk

From Didarganj, Patna, Bihar, India. Probably Maurya period. 250 BCE. Polished sandstone, height 5'4 1/4". This sculpture has become one of the most famous works of Indian art. Holding a flywhisk in her right hand, the figure wears only a long shawl and a skirt like cloth. The nubbled tubes about her ankles probably represent anklets made of beaten gold. Her hair is bound behind in a large bun, and a small bun sits on her forehead. This hairstyle appears again in Indian sculpture of the later Kushan period. Possibly represents yakshi- a spirit associated with the productive and reproductive forces of nature. figure embodies female associations with procreative abundance, bounty, and auspiciousness. linear patterning of her ornaments and dress. Hierarchical formality are her soft, youthful face, the precise definition of prominent features such as the stomach muscles, and the polished sheen of her exposed flesh.

Standing Buddha

From Gandhara, Pakistan. Kushan period. 2nd-3rd century CE. Gray schist, height 47 1/2". Carved from gray schist (a fine-grained stone). Gandhara style. The Buddha's body, whose contours are revealed through the folds of his garment, is broad and massive, with heavy shoulders and limbs and powerful legs. His left knee bends gently, suggesting a slightly relaxed posture. The robe also a characteristic of the Gandhara manner. Naturalistic folds alternate with clinging cloth, setting up a clear, rhythmic pattern of heavy creases and shallow depressions. On the upper part of the figure, the folds break irregularly along the Buddha's left arm; below his waist they drape in a symmetric U shape. The strong tension of the complex fold pattern brings life and power to the figure. It resembles the treatment of togas on certain Roman statues.

Budda and Attendants

From Katra Keshavdev, Mathura, Madhya Pradesh, India. Kushan period. late 1st century- early 2nd century CE. Red sandstone. Height 27 1/4". A stele that is one of the finest of the early Mathura images. The sculptors worked in a distinctive red sandstone flecked with cream-colored spots. Carved in high relief, that depicts a seated Buddha with two attendants. His right hand is raised in a symbolic gesture meaning "have no fear." the Buddha communicates gestures called mudras, that represents ideas such as teaching, meditation, or the attaining of enlightenment. The Buddha's urna, his ushnisha, and the impressions of wheels on his palms and soles are clearly visible in this figure. Behind his head is a large circular halo; the scallop points of its border represent radiating light. Behind the halo are branches of the pipal tree, the tree under which the Buddha was seated when he achieved enlightenment.

Harihara

From Phnom Da, Angkor Barei, Cambodia. Pre-Angkorian Khmer, 7th century CE. Sandstone, 68″. Such images are only rarely encountered in South Asia, but in Southeast Asia, in the absence of a long history of sectarian differences between devotees of the two gods, this unified expression of Hindu divinity became extremely popular. Iconographically, the right side of the image depicts Shiva with his trident, matted hair, third eye, and animal skins. The left half, correspondingly, represents Vishnu, whose cylindrical crown, chakra (throwing disk), and fine garments indicate his identity. The artist has rendered this complex subject with great skill, but in this early period the Khmer still did not fully trust the strength of the stone, so the sculptor cautiously linked the hands to the head with a supporting arch of stone. This pre-Angkorian Khmer work depicts a merged form of the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu.

Buddha Preaching His First Sermon

From Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India. Gupta period, c. 465-485 CE. Sandstone, height 5′3″. A seated Buddha embodies the fully developed Sarnath Gupta style. Carved from fine-grained sandstone, the figure sits in a yogic posture making the teaching gesture indicative of the First Sermon. This event is further indicated by the devotees/listeners represented on the pedestal along with a wheel whose tread faces toward the viewer. The devotees, who may also represent the donors of this image, are joined in their devotion by two divine beings flying in from above. The Buddha's plain robe, portrayed with none of the creases and folds so prominent in the Kushan-period images, is typical of the Sarnath style. The body, clearly visible through the clinging robe, is graceful and slight, with broad shoulders and a well-proportioned torso. Only a few lines of the garment at the neck, waist, and hems interrupt the purity of its subtly shaped surfaces; the face, smooth and ovoid, has the same refined elegance. The downcast eyes suggest otherworldly introspection, yet the gentle, open posture maintains a human quality. Behind the head is a large, circular halo. Carved in concentric circles of pearls and foliage, the ornate halo contrasts dramatically with the plain surfaces of the figure.

Parinirvana of the Buddha

Gal Vihara, near Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka. 11th-12th century CE. Granite. is one of three colossal Buddhas at the site. This serene and dignified image restates one of the early themes of Buddhist art, that of the Buddha's final death and transcendence, with a sophistication of modeling and proportion that updates and localizes the classical Buddhist tradition. Postholes in the rock face reveal that this sculpture was originally housed in a wooden superstructure that has since decayed. Fortunately granite is more durable, and this fine example of Sri Lankan colossal sculpture has been preserved. This monastery, located north of the capital in Polonnaruwa, was occupied until the capital fell in the late 1200s.

Abduction of Sita

Illustration of the Ramayana, relief 13, scene 2, Chandi Shiva, Prambanan, central Java, Indonesia. 9th century CE. portraying the moment the wicked demon king Ravana (Rawana) abducts Sita, the wife of the hero Rama. Ravana, disguised as a Brahmin, seizes Sita in the midst of a Javanese village and in the process overturns a number of objects as the witnesses to the event react in horror and surprise. The wildlife in this panel exploit the distraction—a dog in the foreground grabs at food fallen from an overturned pot, a rat can be seen sneaking into the storehouse, and a monkey reaches for food held by a seated man. The addition of these details not mentioned in the text reinforces the shamefully animalistic nature of Ravana's actions, which ultimately lead to his own destruction. Typical for the art of Java in this period, the panel is full of activity; each event is accompanied by a host of attendants, onlookers, and references to the natural world. A portion of these reliefs depicts scenes from the Ramayana. This Hindu epic was known in Indonesia from an early date, and aspects of the story were adjusted to better suit the needs and expectations of its Southeast Asian audience.

ushnisha

In Asian art, a round cranial bump or bun of hair symbolizing royalty and, when worn by a buddha, enlightenment.

urna

In Buddhist art, the curl of hair on the forehead that is a characteristic mark of a buddha. The urna is a symbol of divine wisdom.

The Maurya Period

In about 700 BCE, hundreds of years after their decline along the Indus, cities began to reappear on the subcontinent, particularly in the north, where numerous kingdoms arose. For most of its subsequent history, India was a shifting mosaic of regional kingdoms. From time to time, however, a particularly powerful dynasty formed an empire. The first of these was the Maurya dynasty (c. 322-185 BCE), which claimed to rule over all but the southernmost portion of the subcontinent.

Seal Impressions

Indus Valley Civilization. South Asia. 2500-1500 BCE. Steatite, each seal approx. 1 1/4 x 1 1/4". A,D: horned animal; B: Bull, C: sacrificial rite to a goddess; E: yogi; F: three-headed animal. The more than 2,000 small seals and impressions that have been found offer an intriguing window on the indus Valley Civilization. Usually carved from Steatite stone the seals were coated with alkali and then fired to produce a lustrous, white surface. A perforated knob on the back of each may have been for suspending them. The most popular subjects are animals, most commonly a one horned bovine standing before an altarlike object (A,D). The function of the seals may relate to trade, but this remains uncertain since the script that is so prominent in the impressions has yet to be deciphered. E, depicts a man in a meditative posture that resembles later forms of yoga, traditional physical and mental exercises usually undertaken for spiritual purposes. C, people with elaborate headgear stand in a row or procession observing a figure standing in a tree possibly a goddess- and a kneeling worshipper.

King Kanishka

Kushan Period. From Uttar Pradesh, India. 2nd-3rd century CE. Sandstone, height 5'3". An image of King Kanishka, whose reign is thought to have begun in 127 CE, represents one of the Kushans most illustrious rulers. This work stands over 5 feet tall even with the head missing. The fact that his hands rest on his sword and massive club makes his martial authority clear even before reading the inscription, which identifies him as "The great king, king of kings." Attired in a coat and heavy felt riding boots, he is ill-suited for the warm Soth Asian climate; his garments reflect his Central Asian heritage. Hundreds of pearls line the hem of his outfit are indicative of his great wealth and were particularly rare in the inland territories from which the Kushan migrated.

Ashokan Pillar

Kutagarasala Vihara near Vaishali, Bihar, India. Maurya period. 279-232 BCE. Inscriptions on a monolithic pillar. Scholars realized that the designation "Beloved of the Gods" was one of king Ashoka's personal epithets. Which made the Pillars date to the time of king Ashoka (273-232 BCE). The top of the pillar sits lion. Mostly some placed in Buddhist communities.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho

Madhya Pradesh, India. Chandella dynasty, c. 1000 CE. a temple dedicated to Shiva at Khajuraho, was probably built by a ruler of the Chandella dynasty in the late tenth or early eleventh century. In the northern style, a curvilinear shikhara rises over the garbhagriha of the temple. Extensively ornamented with additional halls on the front and porches to the sides and back, the temple rests on a stone terrace that sets off a sacred space from the mundane world. A steep flight of stairs at the front (to the right in the illustration) leads to a series of three mandapas (distinguished on the outside by pyramidal roofs), preceding the garbhagriha. The mandapas serve as spaces for ritual, such as dances performed for the deity, and for the presentation of offerings. The temple is built of stone blocks using only post-and-lintel construction. Despite this architectural challenge, the shikhara rises more than 100 feet over the garbhagriha and is crowned by a small amalaka, or bulbous ornament. The shikhara is bolstered by the many smaller subsidiary towers bundled around it. This decorative scheme adds a complex richness to the surface, but it also obscures the shape of the main shikhara, which is slender, with a swift and impetuous upward movement. The roofs of the mandapas contribute to the impression of rapid ascent by growing progressively taller as they near the shikhara.

Stupa 1 (The Great Stupa) At Sanchi

Madhya Pradesh, India. Founded 3rd century BCE; enlarged BCE; enlarged 150-50 BCE. Famous Buddhist structure. Most likely dating to the time of Ashoka, the Great Stupa originally formed part of a large monastery complex crowning a hill. During the mid-second century BCE, it was enlarged to its present size, and the surrounding stone railing was constructed. About 100 years later, elaborately carved stone gateways were added to the railing. Was built from rubble and dirt, faced with dressed stone, and covered with a shining white plaster made from lime and powdered seashells. 10-foot-tall stone railing makes a path at ground level. Another walkway on the south size has a staircase that leads to another level. On top of the mound a square enclosure designated by another railing contains the top of a mast bearing three stone disks, or "umbrellas". These disks were derived from the parasols used to shade kings and indicate people of importance. They may also correspond to the "Three Jewels of Buddhism"- the Buddha, the law, and the Monastic Order.

Exterior of Chaitya Hall, Karle

Maharashtra, India. 1st century BCE- 1st century CE. One of the largest and most fully developed examples of these early Buddhist works. At the entrance, columns once supported a wooden facade, in front of which stands a pillar, inspired by Ashokan precedents. The walls of the vestibule are carved in relief with rows of small balcony railings and arch windows, simulating the appearance of a great multi-storied palace. The base of the side walls, enormous statues of elephants seem to support the entire structure on their backs. Dominating the upper portion of the main facade is a large, horseshoe-shaped opening that provides the hall's main source of light.

Interior of Chaitya Hall, Karle

Maharashtra, India. 1st century BCE- 1st century CE. Three entrances allow us to enter the interior. Flanking the doorways are sculpted panels of mithuna couples, amorous male and female figures that evoke the auspicious qualities of harmony and fertility in life. 123 feet long, has a 46-foot-high ceiling carved in the form of a barrel vault ornamented with arching wooden ribs. Both interior and exterior was once painted. Pillars demarcate a pathway for circumambulation around the stupa in the apse at the far end. Side aisles separated from the main aisle by columns. Base of columns resemble a large pot set on a stepped pyramid of planks. Statues stand on the upper capitals of the columns depict pairs of kneeling elephants, each bearing a mithuna couple. Thes figures, only sculpture in this austere hall, may represent the nobility coming to pay homage. Pillars are plain and the stupa is simple. Railing of motifs ornaments it's base. Stupa is topped with wooden umbrellas. the stupa is carved from a cliff rock.

Cave-Temple of Shiva, Elephanta

Maharashtra, India. Post-Gupta period, mid 6th century CE. View along the east-west axis to the linga shrine. Along the east-west axis, large pillars cut from the rock appear to support the low ceiling and its beams, although, as with all architectural elements in a cave-temple, they are not structural. The pillars form orderly rows, but the rows are hard to discern within the framework of the cave shape, which is neither square nor longitudinal, but formed of overlapping mandalas that create a symmetric yet irregular space. The pillars each have an unadorned, square base rising to nearly half the pillar's total height. Above is a circular column, which has a curved contour and a billowing "cushion" capital. Both column and capital are delicately fluted, adding a surprising refinement to these otherwise sturdy forms. The focus of the east-west axis is a square linga shrine (SEE FIG. 10-23, center, left). A pair of colossal standing guardian figures flank each of its four entrances. In the center of the shrine is the linga, the abstracted symbol of Shiva that represents his presence as the unmanifest Formless One, or Brahman. Synonymous with Shiva, the linga is seen in nearly every Shiva temple and shrine.

Sigiriya

Matale District, Central Province, Sri Lanka. 5th century CE. Aerial view. was built on a dramatic plateau that rises abruptly above the forest canopy in north-central Sri Lanka. According to the royal chronicles, this structure was built by King Kassapa in the late 400s CE after he usurped the throne from his father and drove off his brother. Visitors to the palace first passed through a broad moat and elaborate terraced gardens before beginning their ascent. At its base, the staircase passed through the chest of a massive sculptural lion, of which only the naturalistically rendered feet still exist.

Loro Jonggrang

Prambanan, central Java, Indonesia. 9th century CE. Although not a stepped pyramid, this Hindu monument employs a concentric plan and shares Borobudur's repetition of bell-shaped forms. This temple complex was begun in the mid ninth century by the Sanjaya dynasty, regional rivals to the Shailendra, under the reign of Rakai Pikatan. It was then further expanded by later kings. The buildings in the complex are arranged around the central temple dedicated to Shiva. The central sacred area, housing the biggest temples, is enclosed in an outer wall, beyond which the remains of 224 shrines are arrayed in four concentric squares. Most of these shrines are now badly damaged and their function is not clear, but some have speculated that their locations may reflect the social status of their donors. The towering central structure stands almost 155 feet high and is flanked by two somewhat smaller structures dedicated to Vishnu and Brahma, each just over 108 feet in height. The primary image of Shiva is an anthropomorphic representation rather than a linga. Its east-facing chamber is surrounded by subsidiary shrines aligned to the other cardinal directions and housing images of deities associated with Shiva. The flanking temples have only one chamber each, which contain beautifully carved images of Vishnu and Brahma respectively. A row of three smaller chambers is located just across from the entrances to the main temples. It is believed that these buildings were dedicated to the mounts (vahana) of the three gods, but only the image of Shiva's mount, the bull Nandi, has survived. All the temples are raised on high plinths decorated with narrative scenes in relief.

Vishnu Lying on the Cosmic Waters

Relief panel in the Vishnu Temple, Deogarh. c. 530 CE. Sandstone, height approx. 5′. He sleeps on the serpent of infinity, Ananta, whose body coils endlessly into space. Stirred by his female aspect (shakti, or female energy), personified here by the goddess Lakshmi, seen holding his foot, Vishnu dreams the universe into existence. From his navel springs a lotus (shown in this relief behind Vishnu), from which emerges the god Brahma (not to be confused with Brahman), who appears here as the central, four-headed figure in the row of gods portrayed above the reclining Vishnu. Brahma subsequently turns himself into the universe of space and time by thinking, "May I become many." The sculptor has depicted Vishnu as a large, resplendent figure with four arms. His size and his multiple arms denote his omnipotence. He is lightly garbed but richly ornamented. The ideal of the Gupta style is evident in the smooth, perfected shape of the body and in the lavishly detailed jewelry, including Vishnu's characteristic cylindrical crown. The four figures on the right in the frieze below Vishnu personify his four attributes. They stand ready to fight the appearance of evil, represented at the left of the frieze by two demons who threaten to kill Brahma and jeopardize all creation.

Pallava Period

Rising to power in the late sixth century, the Pallava dynasty spread from its heartland in southeastern India, drawing wealth from overseas trade. The kingdom grew to its peak during the reigns of King Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 CE) and his successor Narasimhavarman I (c. 630-668 CE), who was also referred to by his nickname "Mamalla" (which alludes to his skill at wrestling). Both men sponsored rock-cut shrines and sculpture at the coastal city of Mamallapuram, near Chennai. Often religious in subject matter, the carving is at times infused with a whimsical humor. This good-natured irreverence emerges most clearly in the Pallava literary tradition. One well-known farcical drama attributed to Mahendravarman himself pokes fun at Tantric ascetics, Buddhist monks, and Brahmin priests.

Eternal Shiva

Rock-cut relief in the cave-temple of Shiva, Elephanta. Mid 6th century CE. Height approx. 11′. The focus of the north-south axis, in contrast, is a relief on the south wall with a huge bust of Shiva representing his Sadashiva, or ETERNAL SHIVA, aspect (FIG. 10-24). Three heads rest upon the broad shoulders of the upper body, but five heads are implied: the fourth behind and the fifth, never depicted, on top. The head in the front depicts Shiva deep in introspection. The massiveness of the broad head, the large, barely delineated eyes, and the mouth with its heavy lower lip all suggest the god's serious depths. Lordly and majestic, he easily supports his huge crown, intricately carved with designs and jewels, and the matted, piled-up hair of a yogi. On his left shoulder, his creative nature is depicted as female, with curled hair and a pearl-festooned crown. On his right shoulder, his wrathful, destroyer nature wears a fierce expression, and snakes adorn his ear and hand.

Descent Of The Ganges

Rock-cut relief, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Mid 7th century CE. Granite, approx. 20'. an enormous relief. In Sanskrit poetry, the use of overlapping meaning is called slesha, and it was appreciated for its sophistication. The most prominent interpretation of this scene is that it depicts the penance of a king, Bhagiratha, who sought to purify the bones of his deceased relatives by subjecting himself to terrible austerities. In response to his penance, the god Shiva sent the sacred Ganges River, represented by the natural cleft in the rock, to earth, thereby allowing the holy man to ensure his relatives some peace in their next lives. Bhagiratha is shown staring directly at the sun through his parted fingers, standing for interminable periods on one foot, and in deep prayer before a temple. In the upper left part of the relief, Shiva, shown four-armed, appears before Bhagiratha to grant his wish. Elsewhere in the relief animal families are depicted, generally in mutually protective roles. This richly carved relief was executed under the Pallava dynasty, which continued to flourish in southeastern India until the ninth century CE. The relief must have been visible to anyone heading inland from the sea and likely served as an allegory for benevolent kingship.

Shiva (Hinduism)

Shiva is both creative and destructive, light and dark, male and female, ascetic and family man. His symbol is the linga, originally an upright phallus, which is typically represented as a low pillar set in a low base, or yoni, which represents the feminine. As an expression of his power and creative energy, he is often depicted as Lord of the Dance, dancing the Cosmic Dance, the endless cycle of death and rebirth, destruction and creation (SEE Figure 10-33). He dances within a ring of fire, his four hands holding fire, carrying a drum, and gesturing to the worshipers. Shiva's animal vehicle is the bull. His consort is Parvati; their sons are the elephant-headed Ganesha, the remover of obstacles, and Karttikeya, often associated with war.

Male Torso

South Asia. From Harappa. Indis Valley Civilization. 2600-1900. Red sandstone. Height 3 3/4". a nude male torso is an example of a contrasting naturalistic style of ancient Indus orgin. Less than 4inchess tall. One of the most extraordinary portrayals of the human form to survive from any early civilization. Its lifelike rendering emphasizes the soft texture of the human body and the subtle nuances of muscular form. This piece forecasts the essential aesthetic attributes of later Indian sculpture.

torso Of A "Priest King"

South Asia. From Mohenjo-Daro. Indus Valley Civilization. 2600-1900 BCE. Steatite. Height 6 7/8". The male torso suggests by this name a structure of society where priests functioned as kings (no evidence of this). Low forehead, a broad nose, thick lips, and long slit eyes, are seen on other works from Mohenjo-Daro. The man's garment is patterned with trefoil (three-lobed) motif. The depressions of the pattern were originally filled with red pigment, and the eyes were inlaid with colored shell or stone. Narrow bands with circular ornaments adorn the upper arm and head. The headband falls back into two long strands, which may be an indication of rank. Formal pose and simplified, geometric form, the statue conveys a commanding human presence.

Shiva Nataraja (Shiva as Lord of the Dance)

South India. Chola dynasty, 11th century CE. Bronze, 43⅞ x 40". Shiva as the Lord of Dance, a form perfected by sculptors under the royal patronage of the south Indian Chola dynasty during the late tenth to eleventh centuries. The particularly striking Chola version of the Dancing Shiva was introduced and promoted primarily through the efforts of one woman, Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi. Donation records spanning over 60 years reveal that she was a major patron both of temple building and bronze casting, and many of her projects involved increasing the prominence of Shiva Nataraja. It was not unusual for Hindu royal families to associate themselves with a particular aspect of a deity, and her efforts were instrumental in forging such a bond between Shiva Nataraja and the Chola state. By the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the dance of Shiva came to represent a dance of cosmic proportions, signifying the universe's cycle of death and rebirth; it is also a dance for each individual, signifying the liberation of the believer through Shiva's compassion. In the iconography of the Nataraja, this sculpture shows Shiva with four arms dancing on the prostrate body of Apasmara, a dwarf figure who symbolizes "becoming" and whom Shiva controls. Shiva's extended left hand holds a ball of fire; a circle of fire rings the god. The fire is emblematic of the destruction of samsara and the physical universe as well as the destruction of maya (illusion) and our ego-centered perceptions. Shiva's back right hand holds a drum; its beat represents the irrevocable rhythms of creation and destruction, birth and death. His front right arm shows the abhaya "have no fear" mudra (see "Mudras"). The front left arm, gracefully stretched across his body with the hand pointing to his raised foot, signifies the promise of liberation.

Standing Dvaravati Buddha

Southeast Asia. Mon Dvaravati style, from Thailand. 8th century CE. Bronze, 52″. Stylistically, this image exhibits the arched brows, outlined facial features, and curled hair reminiscent of the Mathura style; however, the double robe is flattened in a distinctive manner against the body with a capelike angularity at its base. The iconography is consistent with that seen in South Asia, but Dvaravati Buddhas almost invariably display the same mudra in both hands, in this case the vitarka. The reasons for this insistence on symmetry are not known, but it suggests a local preference. The typically small size of these images may indicate that they were inspired by portable icons carried along the trade routes.

Rajarajeshvara Temple of Shiva, Thanjavur

Tamil Nadu, India. Chola dynasty, 1003-1010 CE. Temple to Shiva in his capital, Thanjavur (formerly known as Tanjore). The name Rajarajeshvara means the temple of "Rajaraja's Lord," that is, Shiva, which also has the effect of linking the name of the king with that of Shiva. His patronage of the temple was in part a reflection of the fervent Shiva bhakti movement which had reached its peak by that time. Now commonly called the Brihadeshvara temple (Temple of the Great Lord), this temple is a remarkable achievement of the southern style of Hindu architecture. It stands within a huge walled compound near the banks of the Kaveri River. Although smaller shrines dot the compound, the Rajarajeshvara dominates the area. Rising to an astonishing height of 216 feet, this temple was probably the tallest structure in India in its time. Each story is decorated with miniature shrines, window motifs, and robust dwarf figures who seem to be holding up the next story. the Rajarajeshvara has a longitudinal axis and greatly expanded dimensions, especially with regard to its superstructure, a four-sided, hollow pyramid. Typical of the southern style, the mandapa at the front of the Rajarajeshvara has a flat roof, as opposed to the pyramidal roofs of the northern style. The walls of the sanctum rise for two stories, with each story emphatically articulated by a large cornice. The interior was originally painted, and portions of this decoration have recently been uncovered as sections of the overpainting were removed. The exterior walls are ornamented with niches, each of which holds a single statue, usually depicting a form of Shiva. Because the Rajarajeshvara's superstructure is not obscured by its decorative motifs, it forcefully ascends skyward and is topped by an octagonal dome-shaped capstone. This huge capstone is exactly the same size as the garbhagriha housed 13 stories directly below. It thus evokes the shrine a final time before the eye ascends to the point separating the worldly from the cosmic sphere above.

Dharmaraja Ratha, Mamallapuram

Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, c. mid 7th century CE. epitomizes the early southern-style temple. Each story of the superstructure is articulated by a cornice and carries a row of miniature shrines. Both shrines and cornices are decorated with a window motif from which faces peer. The shrines not only demarcate each story, but also provide loftiness for this palace intended to enshrine a god. The temple, square in plan, remains unfinished, and what would have been a pillared hall on the first floor was never hollowed out, suggesting that, like cave-temples, Dharmaraja Ratha was executed from the top downward. On the lower portion, only the columns and niches have been carved. The presence of a single deity in each niche forecasts the main trend in temple sculpture in the centuries ahead: The tradition of narrative reliefs declined, and the stories they told became concentrated in statues of individual deities, which conjure up entire mythological episodes through characteristic poses and a few symbolic objects. On the south side of this ratha, among the images of deities, is an unusual two-armed image identified as a representation of King Mamalla, who appears to be visually associating himself with Shiva. This practice of depicting royalty in the likeness of divinity became more common over time and was widely practiced in parts of Southeast Asia.

lakshanas

The 32 marks of the historical Buddha. Includes the Buddha's gold body, his long arms, the wheel impression on his palms and the soles of his feet, the urna between his eyes, and the ushnisha on his head.

The Chola Period

The Cholas, who succeeded the Pallavas in the mid ninth century, founded a dynasty that governed most of the far south of India well into the late thirteenth century. Their extensive trade networks and powerful navy also made them a potent cultural force in many parts of Southeast Asia over these centuries. The Chola dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Rajaraja I (ruled 985-1014).

Gupta Period

The Guptas, who founded a dynasty in the eastern region of central India, expanded their territories during the fourth century CE to form an empire that encompassed northern and much of central India. Although Gupta rule was not long-lasting (ending in 550) or the most expansive, the influence of Gupta culture was tremendous and its impact was felt long after its decline. Renowned for their flourishing artistic, mathematical, and literary culture, the Guptas and their contemporaries brought forth some of India's most widely admired works of art. While Buddhism continued to be a major religion, the earliest surviving Hindu temples also date from this time.

Large Water Tank, Mohenjo-Daro

The Indus Civilization. South Asia. Indus Valley (Harappan) civilization. 2600-1900 BCE. This was possibly a public or ritual bathing area. This water tank remains among citadel's buildings. The large watertight pool that may have been a public bath but could also have had ritual use. Cities and foundations were constructed using fired brick.

Lion Capital

The Maurya Period. From Ashokan pillar at Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India. 250 BCE. Polished sandstone, height 7'. originally crowned the pillar erected at Sarnath, the site of the Buddha's first sermon. Four addorsed, or back-to-back, Asiatic lions with open mouths standing atop a circular platform depicting a bull, horse, lion, and elephant separated by large chariot wheels. The base is an inverted lotus blossom whose bell shape formed a transition to the column. The deeply cut carving promotes an active plat of light and shadow, resulting in details that must have been readily visible even when this image was placed high atop its pillar.

Vishnu Temple

Uttar Pradesh, India. Gupta dynasty. 530 CE. One of the earliest northern-style temples, dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. The entire temple site is patterned on a mandala, or sacred diagram. Much of the central tower, or shikhara, has crumbled away, so we cannot determine its original shape with precision. Clearly a massive, solid structure built of large cut stones, it would have given the impression of a mountain, one of several metaphoric meanings of a Hindu temple. The temple has only one chamber, the garbhagriha, literally the womb chamber, which corresponds to the center of a mandala. As the deity's residence, the garbhagriha is likened to a sacred cavern within the "cosmic mountain" of the temple. Large panels sculpted in relief with images of Vishnu appear as "windows" on the temple's exterior. These elaborately framed panels do not function literally to let light into the temple; they function symbolically to let the light of the deity out of the temple to be seen by those outside.

Vishnu (Hinduism)

Vishnu is a regal god who works for the order and well-being of the world. He is often represented lying in a trance or asleep on the Cosmic Waters, where he dreams the world into existence. His attributes include the discus, conch shell, mace, and lotus. He usually has four arms and wears a crown and lavish jewelry. He rides a man-bird, Garuda. Vishnu appears in ten different incarnations (avatara), including Rama and Krishna, who have their own sects. Rama embodies virtue, and, assisted by the monkey king, he fights the demon Ravana. As Krishna, Vishnu is a supremely beautiful, blue-skinned youth who lives with the cowherds, loves the maiden Radha, and battles the demon Kansa.

Portrait of King Kyanzittha

West shrine, Ananda Temple, Bagan. 11th century CE. Gilded lacquer; height 30″. shown in elaborate attire, and his chief monk Shin Arahan, bald and in simple robes. The details of these figures have been somewhat obscured by accumulated layers of gold leaf, but this accretion may also have protected the lacquer from decay. Buddha image in the west-facing shrine.

bodhisattvas

a being who has attained enlightenment but chooses to remain in this world in order to help others advance spiritually.

Stupas

a bell-shaped or dome-like religious monument, made of piled earth, brick, or stone, and containing sacred relics.

Bhumisparsha mudra

calls upon the earth to witness Shakyamuni Buddha's enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. A seated figure's right hand reaches toward the ground, palm inward.