Astronomy 101 Exam 3

Which pair of photos below shows Earth correctly scaled in comparison to Jupiter?

*Jupiter's diameter is about 11 times that of Earth, so about 11 Earth's could fit across Jupiter's equator.*

The oldest fossil evidence of life dates to about __________ ago. -100 million years -1 to 2 billion years -3.5 to 4 billion years -4.5 billion years

-3.5 to 4 billion years *The oldest intact fossils of microorganisms date to about 3.5 billion years ago, but carbon isotope evidence suggests that life may have been flourishing before about 3.85 billion years ago. If any life existed before 4 billion years ago, we are unlikely to be able to learn of it, because no rocks that old have yet been found.*

Suppose you find a rock that contains 10 micrograms of radioactive potassium-40, which has a half-life of 1.25 billion years. By measuring the amount of its decay product (argon-40) present in the rock, you conclude that there must have been 80 micrograms of potassium-40 when the rock solidified. How old is the rock? -3.75 billion years -2.5 billion years -5.0 billion years -1.25 billion years

-3.75 billion years *The current 10 micrograms of potassium-40 is 1/8 of the original 80 grams, which means the amount of potassium-40 has declined by a factor of 8. Therefore, three half-lives have passed (since 23 = 8) and the rock is 3(1.25 = 3.75 billion years old.*

About how old is the solar system? -4.5 million years -4.5 billion years -4.5 trillion years

-4.5 billion years

According to modern scientific dating techniques, approximately how old is the solar system? -4.5 billion years -14 billion years -10,000 years -4.6 million years

-4.5 billion years

Dinosaurs went extinct, probably because of an impact, about __________ ago. -5 million years -65 million years -200 million years -1 billion years

-65 million years

Which jovian planet does NOT have rings? -Jupiter -Uranus -Neptune -All the jovian planets have rings.

-All the jovian planets have rings.

Suppose you view the solar system from high above Earth's North Pole. Which of the following statements about planetary orbits will be true? -The inner planets orbit the Sun counterclockwise while the outer planets orbit the Sun clockwise. -All the planets except Uranus orbit the Sun counterclockwise; Uranus orbits in the opposite direction. -The inner planets orbit the Sun clockwise while the outer planets orbit the Sun counterclockwise. -All the planets orbit counterclockwise around the Sun.

-All the planets orbit counterclockwise around the Sun.

As you've seen, the nebular theory predicts that a cloud that gives birth to planets should have the shape of a spinning disk. Which observable property of our solar system supports this prediction? -There are two basic types of planets: terrestrial and jovian. -All the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction and in nearly the same plane. -The orbit of Earth's Moon lies very close to the ecliptic plane. -The four largest planets all have disk-shaped ring systems around them.

-All the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction and in nearly the same plane. *The orbits of the planets thereby reflect the rotation pattern of the flat, rotating disk in which they formed*

Which of the following is not a real difference between asteroids and comets? -Asteroids are made mostly of rock and comets are made mostly of ice. -Asteroids orbit the Sun while comets just float randomly around in the Oort cloud. -Most asteroids are located much nearer to the Sun than most comets. -It is thought that comets are far more numerous than asteroids.

-Asteroids orbit the Sun while comets just float randomly around in the Oort cloud. *Comets also orbit the Sun, although their orbital periods can be many thousands or millions of years. Indeed, just "floating randomly" is not possible for an object under the influence of the Sun's gravity - any such object must follow one of the orbits allowed by the law of gravity (see Chapter 4).*

Venus has a higher average surface temperature than Mercury. Why? -Because it is closer to the Sun. -Because its surface is heated by an extreme greenhouse effect. -Because its surface is covered with hot lava from numerous active volcanoes. -Because its slow rotation gives it more time to heat up in sunlight.

-Because its surface is heated by an extreme greenhouse effect. *It is the same type of greenhouse effect that warms Earth, but Venus has so much carbon dioxide in its atmosphere that the greenhouse effect is far stronger than on Earth.*

The dwarf planet Eris was discovered in 2005, orbiting the Sun at an average distance about twice that of Pluto. In which of the following ways do Pluto and Eris differ from the terrestrial and jovian planets in our solar system? Check all that apply. -Both Pluto and Eris are smaller than any of the terrestrial planets. -Both Pluto and Eris travel in more elliptical orbits than any of the terrestrial or jovian planets. -Both Pluto and Eris are denser than any of the terrestrial planets. -Both Pluto and Eris are less massive than any of the terrestrial or jovian planets. -Both Pluto and Eris have more hydrogen gas than any of the jovian planets.

-Both Pluto and Eris are smaller than any of the terrestrial planets. -Both Pluto and Eris travel in more elliptical orbits than any of the terrestrial or jovian planets. -Both Pluto and Eris are less massive than any of the terrestrial or jovian planets.

In what way is Venus most similar to Earth? -Both planets are nearly the same size. -Both planets have similar surface geology. -Both planets have warm days and cool nights. -Both planets have very similar atmospheres.

-Both planets are nearly the same size. *This similarity in size means the two planets are probably quite similar in their interior structures and fundamental properties, though they have obvious and important differences on their surfaces.*

The nebular theory also predicts that the cloud will flatten into a disk as it shrinks in size. Which of the following best explains why the collapsing cloud should form a disk? -As a star forms near the cloud center, its wind blows away material that is not aligned with its equator, thereby leaving an equatorial disk of material. -All collapsing objects tend to flatten into a disk, regardless of their rotation. -Gravity pulls more strongly on material along the rotation axis than perpendicular to it, bringing this material downward into a disk. -Colliding cloud particles exchange angular momentum and, on average, end up with the rotation pattern for the cloud as a whole.

-Colliding cloud particles exchange angular momentum and, on average, end up with the rotation pattern for the cloud as a whole. *Particles in the collapsing cloud inevitably collide with one another. These collisions allow particles to exchange angular momentum, but their total angular momentum must be conserved. Therefore, many collisions result in an averaging out of the angular momentums of individual cloud particles, a process that brings their orbits into approximately the same plane.*

Leftover ice-rich planetesimals are called: -comets. -asteroids. -meteorites

-Comets

Suppose you are using the Doppler technique to look for planets around another star. What must you do? -Compare many spectra of the star taken over a period of many months or years. -Carefully examine a single spectrum of an orbiting planet. -Compare many spectra of an orbiting planet taken over a period of many months or years. -Compare the brightness of the star over a period of many months or years. -Carefully examine a single spectrum of the star.

-Compare many spectra of the star taken over a period of many months or years. *We look for Doppler shifts in the star's spectrum that, over time, shift back and forth to indicate the influence of an orbiting planet.*

Which of the following will allow you to learn something about a transiting planet's atmospheric composition? -Compare spectra obtained before and during an eclipse. -Calculate the planet's size, and then use size to infer what its atmospheric composition must be. -Look for slight variations in the time between transits. -Use the Doppler method to study the planet throughout a cycle from one transit to the next.

-Compare spectra obtained before and during an eclipse. *The spectrum before the eclipse is that of the star and planet combined. The spectrum during eclipse, when the planet is behind its star, is that of the star alone. The difference between the two spectra therefore represents the planet's spectrum, from which we learn about atmospheric composition.*

Today, the leading hypothesis for the existence of hot Jupiters is that they formed in their outer solar systems and then migrated inward. Why did this hypothesis gain favor over alternative ideas? -Computer models that simulate planetary formation show that interactions between young planets and other material in the surrounding disk can cause planetary migration. -Telescopic observations have revealed several star systems in which planets can be seen migrating rapidly inward. -Scientists did not find any reason to favor any of the alternate explanations, so by process of elimination they settled on the migration hypothesis. -The migration hypothesis requires the least modification to the nebular theory and therefore was preferred over any alternatives.

-Computer models that simulate planetary formation show that interactions between young planets and other material in the surrounding disk can cause planetary migration. *A scientific model uses equations and/or physical laws to make precise, testable predictions about observable phenomena. The agreement between computer models that predict migration and observations of hot Jupiters that have apparently migrated inward from their birthplaces is the reason that the migration hypothesis is now favored.*

Why was it advantageous for the Voyager mission to consist of flybys rather than orbiters? -Flyby spacecraft can get closer to a planet than an orbiting spacecraft. -It was easier for data to be radioed back to Earth with flybys than orbiters. -Each individual spacecraft was able to visit more than one planet. -Spacecraft making flybys can return to Earth more quickly than orbiters.

-Each individual spacecraft was able to visit more than one planet. *Voyager 1 visited Jupiter and Saturn, and Voyager 2 visited all four jovian planets.*

According to our modern science, which of the following best explains why the vast majority of the mass of our solar system consists of hydrogen and helium gas? -All the other elements escaped from the solar nebula before the Sun and planets formed. -All the other elements were swept out of the solar system by the solar wind. -Hydrogen and helium are the most common elements throughout the universe, because they were the only elements present when the universe was young. -Hydrogen and helium are produced in stars by nuclear fusion.

-Hydrogen and helium are the most common elements throughout the universe, because they were the only elements present when the universe was young. *In other words, the chemical composition of the solar system is fairly close to that of the universe as a whole.*

The solar system has two types of planets, terrestrial and jovian. According to the nebular theory, why did terrestrial planets form in the inner solar system and jovian planets in the outer solar system? -All the planets started out large, but the Sun's heat evaporated so much material that the inner planets ended up much smaller. -Denser particles of rock and metal sank into the inner solar system, leaving only gases in the outer solar system. -After the planets formed, the Sun's gravity pulled the dense terrestrial planets inward, leaving only jovian planets in the outer solar system. -Ices condensed only in the outer solar system, where some icy planetesimals grew large enough to attract gas from the nebula, while only metal and rock condensed in the inner solar system, making terrestrial planets

-Ices condensed only in the outer solar system, where some icy planetesimals grew large enough to attract gas from the nebula, while only metal and rock condensed in the inner solar system, making terrestrial planets. *Only metal and rock could condense at the high temperature of the inner solar system, so the inner planets were built by the accretion of metal and rock. Farther out, ices could also condense, leading to the accretion of ice-rich planetesimals. Some of these grew large enough for their gravity to attract gas from the solar nebula and become jovian planets.*

When is the soonest we are likely to have moderate-resolution images and spectra of Earth-like planets around other stars? -In just a few years, through analysis of observations by the James Webb Space Telescope -In just a few years, through analysis of observations by the GAIA mission -In a decade or two, through space observatories now in the early planning stages -Any day now, thanks to our largest ground-based telescopes

-In a decade or two, through space observatories now in the early planning stages *Scientists have numerous ideas about how they might obtain such images and spectra, but budgetary limitations mean that little work is being done in these areas right now.*

From the viewpoint of an alien astronomer, how does Jupiter affect observations of our Sun? -It makes the Sun appear dimmer when viewed with infrared light. -It causes the Sun to move in a small ellipse with an orbital period of about 12 years. -It causes the Sun to move in a small ellipse in the sky, with the same ellipse repeated every night. -It makes the Sun periodically appear to get dimmer and brighter

-It causes the Sun to move in a small ellipse with an orbital period of about 12 years. *Jupiter exerts a gravitational tug on the Sun, causing the Sun to move around their mutual center of mass with the same orbital period as Jupiter.*

How is Einstein's famous equation, E=mc 2, important in understanding the Sun? -It explains why the Sun has a magnetic field strong enough influence the atmospheres of the planets. -It explains why the Sun is so massive. -It explains the fact that the Sun generates energy to shine by losing some 4 million tons of mass each second. -It explains why the Sun's surface temperature is about 6,000°C.

-It explains the fact that the Sun generates energy to shine by losing some 4 million tons of mass each second. *The "lost" 4 million tons is converted to an amount of energy equal to this mass times the speed of light squared. Note that although 4 million tons per second sounds like a lot, it is quite small compared to the Sun's total mass.*

According to our present theory of solar system formation, which of the following best explains why the solar nebula ended up with a disk shape as it collapsed? -The force of gravity pulled the material downward into a flat disk. -The law of conservation of energy. -It was fairly flat to begin with, and retained this flat shape as it collapsed. -It flattened as a natural consequence of collisions between particles in the nebula.

-It flattened as a natural consequence of collisions between particles in the nebula.

What's the leading theory for the origin of the Moon? -It formed along with Earth. -It formed from the material ejected from Earth in a giant impact. -It split out of a rapidly rotating Earth

-It formed from the material ejected from Earth in a giant impact

According to our theory of solar system formation, what three major changes occurred in the solar nebula as it shrank in size? -Its mass, temperature, and density all increased. -It got hotter, its rate of rotation increased, and it flattened into a disk.

-It got hotter, its rate of rotation increased, and it flattened into a disk.

Which of the following statements about Pluto is true? -It is the largest known object that is considered to be a dwarf planet. -It has more in common with comets in the Kuiper belt than it does with terrestrial planets like Earth. -It is orbited by only one moon. -Its mass is a little less than Earth's mass.

-It has more in common with comets in the Kuiper belt than it does with terrestrial planets like Earth.

What do we mean by the frost line when we discuss the formation of planets in the solar nebula? -It marks the special distance from the Sun at which hydrogen compounds become abundant; closer to the Sun, there are no hydrogen compounds. -It is another way of stating the temperature at which water freezes into ice. -It is the altitude in a planet's atmosphere at which snow can form. -It is a circle at a particular distance from the Sun, beyond which the temperature was low enough for ices to condense.

-It is a circle at a particular distance from the Sun, beyond which the temperature was low enough for ices to condense.

According to present understanding, which of the following statements about the solar wind is not true? -It swept vast amounts of gas from the solar nebula into interstellar space. -It helped in the transfer of angular momentum from the young Sun to particles that blew into interstellar space, which explains why the Sun rotates so slowly today. -It consists of charged particles blown off the surface of the Sun. -It is even stronger today than it was when the Sun was young.

-It is even stronger today than it was when the Sun was young.

In what way is Pluto more like a comet than a planet? -It has a long tail. -It has moons. -It is made mostly of rock and ice. -It sometimes enters the inner solar system.

-It is made mostly of rock and ice. *In other words, Pluto's composition is nearly identical to the composition of most comets.*

Which of the following statements about the object called Eris is not true? -It is thought to be the first example of a new class of object. -It lies well beyond Pluto and Neptune. -It orbits the Sun in the same general direction as the planets. -It is slightly larger in mass than Pluto.

-It is thought to be the first example of a new class of object.

Imagine that an alien spaceship crashed onto Earth. Which statement would most likely be true? -The crash would create a noticeable crater. -All the evidence of the crash would be quickly whisked off by the U.S. military to Area 51 in Nevada. -It would crash in the ocean. -The aliens' home world is another planet in our own solar system.

-It would crash in the ocean. *This is very likely, because Earth's surface is about 3/4 covered by oceans.*

What is the Oort cloud? -It is a great cloud of gas that resides far beyond the orbit of Pluto. -It is another name for the cloud of gas from which our solar system was born. -It is a giant storm in the atmosphere of Saturn. -It's not really a cloud at all, but rather refers to the trillion or so comets thought to orbit the Sun at great distances.

-It's not really a cloud at all, but rather refers to the trillion or so comets thought to orbit the Sun at great distances.

What's unusual about our Moon? -It's the only moon that orbits a terrestrial planet. -It's by far the largest moon in the solar system. -It's surprisingly large relative to the planet it orbits.

-It's surprisingly large relative to the planet it orbits.

Which new idea has been added into our theory of solar system formation as a result of the discoveries of extrasolar planets? -In addition to the categories of terrestrial and jovian, there must be an "in-between" category of planet that has the mass of a jovian planet but the composition of a terrestrial planet. -Jovian planets can migrate from the orbits in which they are born. -In some star systems, it is possible for jovian planets to form in the inner solar system and terrestrial planets to form in the outer solar system. -Some of the "exceptions to the rules" in our own solar system are likely to have been the result of giant impacts.

-Jovian planets can migrate from the orbits in which they are born.

Now consider the second major characteristic (two types of planets). Which of the following statements are true? Check all that apply. -Jovian planets have more moons than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets are higher in average density than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets are larger in size than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets are larger in mass than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets orbit farther from the Sun than terrestrial planets.

-Jovian planets have more moons than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets are larger in size than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets are larger in mass than terrestrial planets. -Jovian planets orbit farther from the Sun than terrestrial planets.

Why didn't a terrestrial planet form at the location of the asteroid belt? -There was never enough material in that part of the solar nebula. -The solar wind cleared away nebular material there. -Jupiter's gravity kept planetesimals from accreting.

-Jupiter's gravity kept planetesimals from accreting.

Which of the following is not a major pattern of motion in the solar system? -The Sun and most of the planets rotate in the same direction in which the planets orbit the Sun. -Nearly all comets orbit the Sun in same direction and roughly the same plane. -All of the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction - counterclockwise as viewed from above Earth's north pole. -Most of the solar system's large moons orbit in their planet's equatorial plane.

-Nearly all comets orbit the Sun in same direction and roughly the same plane. *This statement is untrue because comets of the Oort cloud, which are the most numerous of all comets, have randomly oriented orbits going in all directions around the Sun*

Suppose that our Sun was cool enough to include Mercury in its habitable zone. Which of the following would be true in that case? -Only Mercury would be in the Sun's habitable zone. -Mercury and Venus would be in the Sun's habitable zone, but Earth and Mars would not. -Mercury, Venus, and Earth would be in the Sun's habitable zone, but Mars would not. -All the terrestrial planets would be in the Sun's habitable zone.

-Only Mercury would be in the Sun's habitable zone. *You can see this fact in the interactive figure by showing the solar system orbits and then moving the sliders until the habitable zone includes Mercury's orbit. You'll then notice that the habitable zone has become so small that none of the other planets of our solar system lie within it.*

Based on everything you have learned about the formation of our solar system, which of the following statements is probably not true? -Planets are common, and many or most stars have them. -Only a tiny percentage of stars are surrounded by spinning disks of gas during their formation. -Planets always tend to orbit their star in the same direction and approximately the same plane. -Other planetary systems will have far more numerous asteroids and comets than actual planets.

-Only a tiny percentage of stars are surrounded by spinning disks of gas during their formation. *Spinning disks are a natural consequence of how we think stars form, which is one reason we expect planets to be quite common; the fact that we have now discovered hundreds of extrasolar planets lends further support to the idea that disks and planets should both be common.*

Why are terrestrial planets denser than jovian planets? -Actually, the jovian planets are denser than the terrestrial planets. -Gravity compresses terrestrial planets to a higher degree, making them denser. -Only dense materials could condense in the inner solar nebula. -The Sun's gravity gathered dense materials into the inner solar system.

-Only dense materials could condense in the inner solar nebula. *It was hotter in the inner regions, so only metal and rock could condense - and these materials are denser than the icy material that condensed farther out in the solar system.*

All the following statements are true. Which of them are considered to be "exceptions" to the general trends described by the first three major characteristics of the solar system? Check all that apply. -Our Moon has a diameter more than 1/4 the diameter of Earth. -Venus rotates in a direction opposite to the rotation of the other terrestrial planets. -Pluto is in the outer solar system but is ice-rich in composition. -Jupiter's largest moon, Ganymede, is even larger than Earth's moon. -Uranus rotates with an axis tilt that lies nearly in the ecliptic plane.

-Our Moon has a diameter more than 1/4 the diameter of Earth. -Venus rotates in a direction opposite to the rotation of the other terrestrial planets. -Uranus rotates with an axis tilt that lies nearly in the ecliptic plane.

Assuming that our ideas about how "hot Jupiters" ended up on their current orbits are correct, why didn't our own solar system end up with any hot Jupiters? -The existence of Earth and the other terrestrial planets prevented the jovian planets from migrating inward. -Our solar nebula must have been blown into space shortly after the formation of the jovian planets. -Our jovian planets must have migrated outward from inside the orbit of Mercury. -Our solar nebula must have stuck around for an unusually long time after the formation of jovian planets.

-Our solar nebula must have been blown into space shortly after the formation of the jovian planets. *This would prevent much inward migration from occurring.*

Based on the nebular theory as it explains our own solar system, which of the following should we expect to be true for other star systems? Check all that apply. -Planetary systems should generally have all planets orbiting in nearly the same plane. -Planetary systems will always have four terrestrial planets and four jovian planets. -Planetary systems should be common. -Jovian planets always form farther from their star than terrestrial planets. -Some planetary systems will have terrestrial planets that orbit their star in a direction opposite to the orbital direction of the jovian planets. -Other planetary systems should have the same two types of planets: terrestrial and jovian.

-Planetary systems should generally have all planets orbiting in nearly the same plane. -Planetary systems should be common. -Jovian planets always form farther from their star than terrestrial planets. -Other planetary systems should have the same two types of planets: terrestrial and jovian. *We expect all solar systems to form in similar ways and therefore to share the basic features, such as planets all orbiting in the same direction and nearly the same plane and having two basic types of planets that form in different regions. However, we do not expect particulars that are probably coincidental, such as the precise numbers of planets, to be the same in different solar systems.*

Study the features relating to the first characteristic (orderly motions); click on the inner or outer solar system to see the planets in motion, then scroll over the planets to see diagrams of their axis tilts. Which of the following correctly describe patterns of motion in the solar system? Check all that apply. -The inner planets all rotate in the same direction (west to east) as Earth. -Planets closer to the Sun move around their orbits at higher speed than planets farther from the Sun. -All the planets (not counting Pluto) orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. -All the planets (not counting Pluto) have nearly circular orbits. -Inner planets orbit the Sun in the opposite direction from the outer planets. -The outer planets are so large that they nearly collide with each other on each orbit.

-Planets closer to the Sun move around their orbits at higher speed than planets farther from the Sun. -All the planets (not counting Pluto) orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. -All the planets (not counting Pluto) have nearly circular orbits.

How do scientists determine the age of the solar system? -Theoretical calculations tell us how long it has taken the planets to evolve to their present forms -Radiometric dating of Moon rocks. -Radiometric dating of meteorites -Radiometric dating of the oldest Earth rocks.

-Radiometric dating of meteorites *The oldest meteorites are presumed to be material that condensed early in the history of the solar system and therefore represent the time at which the planets began to form.*

What is the primary reason that astronomers suspect that some jovian moons were captured into their current orbits? -Some moons are surprisingly large in size. -Astronomers have observed moons being captured. -Some moons have orbits that are "backwards" (compared to their planet's rotation) or highly inclined to their planet's equator. -Some moons have a composition that differs from the composition of the planets

-Some moons have orbits that are "backwards" (compared to their planet's rotation) or highly inclined to their planet's equator.

Which of the following best explains why we can rule out the idea that planets are usually formed by near-collisions between stars? -A near collision might have created planets, but it could not have created moons, asteroids, or comets. -A near collision should have left a trail of gas extending out behind the Sun, and we see no evidence of such a trail. -Studies of the trajectories of nearby stars relative to the Sun show that the Sun is not in danger of a near-collision with any of them. -Stellar near-collisions are far too rare to explain all the planets now known to orbit nearby stars.

-Stellar near-collisions are far too rare to explain all the planets now known to orbit nearby stars. *The near-collisions (close encounter) idea seemed unlikely even before we knew of extrasolar planets, but the existence of many other planetary systems makes it completely implausible.*

Assume that the migration hypothesis is the correct explanation for the hot Jupiters. In that case, the revised nebular theory looks just like the old theory, except that it now allows for the possibility of migration. Which of the following statements are consistent with this revised theory? Check all that apply. -Terrestrial planets always form in the warm, inner regions of their star system. -Hot Jupiters can orbit their star in a direction opposite that of other jovian planets in the same system. -Jovian planets can migrate inward and disrupt the orbits of terrestrial planets. -Our solar system must be unusual because the jovian planets did not migrate inward. -Jovian planets always form in the cold, outer regions of their star system.

-Terrestrial planets always form in the warm, inner regions of their star system. -Jovian planets always form in the cold, outer regions of their star system. -Jovian planets can migrate inward and disrupt the orbits of terrestrial planets. *Migration can move orbits inward, but it cannot change their direction, which is why we still expect all planets to orbit in the same direction and nearly the same plane. We do not yet know how common systems like ours are, but we have no reason to think our solar system is particularly unusual.*

Which of the following is not a major difference between the terrestrial and jovian planets in our solar system? -Terrestrial planets contain large quantities of ice and jovian planets do not. -Terrestrial planets orbit much closer to the Sun than jovian planets. -Jovian planets have rings and terrestrial planets do not. -Terrestrial planets are higher in average density than jovian planets.

-Terrestrial planets contain large quantities of ice and jovian planets do not. *Terrestrial planets actually contain very little ice, because they are made mostly of metal and rock.*

Assuming that other planetary systems form in the same way as our solar system formed, where would you expect to find terrestrial planets? -Terrestrial planets will likely be located farther from the planetary system's star than any jovian planets. -Terrestrial planets will likely be located nearer the planetary system's star than any jovian planets. -There is no way to know where terrestrial planets are likely to be.

-Terrestrial planets will likely be located nearer the planetary system's star than any jovian planets. *Based on what we find in our own solar system, we expect terrestrial planets to form close to a star and jovian planets to form farther out.*

Consider the following statement: "Rocky asteroids are found primarily in the asteroid belt and Kuiper belt while icy comets are found primarily in the Oort cloud." What's wrong with this statement? -The Oort cloud has nothing to do with comets. -Comets are not really icy. -The Kuiper belt contains icy comets, not rocky asteroids. -Asteroids are not really made of rock. -The statement is accurate as written.

-The Kuiper belt contains icy comets, not rocky asteroids. *The Kuiper belt consists of material that accreted far beyond the frost line, and hence its objects are icy in composition - making them comets.*

What is the giant impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon? -The Moon originally was about the same size as Earth, but a giant impact blasted most of it away so that it ended up much smaller than Earth. -The Moon formed from material blasted out of Earth's mantle and crust by the impact of a Mars-size object. -The Moon formed when two gigantic asteroids collided with one another. -The Moon formed just like Earth, from accretion in the solar nebula.

-The Moon formed from material blasted out of Earth's mantle and crust by the impact of a Mars-size object.

Which of the following is not a line of evidence supporting the hypothesis that our Moon formed as a result of a giant impact? -Computer simulations show that the Moon could really have formed in this way. -The Moon has a much smaller proportion of easily vaporized materials than Earth. -The Moon's average density suggests it is made of rock much more like that of the Earth's outer layers than that of the Earth as a whole. -The Pacific Ocean appears to be a large crater - probably the one made by the giant impact.

-The Pacific Ocean appears to be a large crater - probably the one made by the giant impact. *The Pacific Ocean is not an impact crater. Moreover, since the continents are rearranged with time, we can be sure that the giant impact occurred long, long before there was a Pacific Ocean*

Which of the following statements about our Sun is NOT true? -The Sun is a star. -The Sun's diameter is about five times that of Earth. -The Sun contains more than 99 percent of all the mass in our solar system. -The Sun is made mostly of hydrogen and helium.

-The Sun's diameter is about five times that of Earth.

The following statements are all true. Which one counts as an "exception to the rule" in being unusual for our solar system? -Venus does not have a moon. -Saturn has no solid surface. -The diameter of Earth's Moon is about 1/4 that of Earth. -Jupiter has a very small axis tilt.

-The diameter of Earth's Moon is about 1/4 that of Earth.

Scientists think it is very unlikely that complex and large forms of life could evolve on planets that orbit stars that are much more massive than the Sun. Why? -The expected lifetime of a massive star is too short to allow for the evolution of complex life -The habitable zone of a massive star covers too wide a range of distances from the star to allow for the evolution of complex life -The habitable zone of a massive star is too far from the star to allow for the evolution of complex life

-The expected lifetime of a massive star is too short to allow for the evolution of complex life *Recall that higher-mass stars have shorter lives. On Earth, fossil evidence indicates that life remained microscopic for hundreds of millions to billions of years after the origin of life, which itself was hundreds of millions of years after Earth's birth some 4 1/2 billion years ago. Because any star with mass more than about 6 times that of the Sun has a lifetime less than 100 million years, it does not seem that such stars would live long enough for complex life to evolve, and perhaps not long enough for life of any kind to arise.*

According to our present theory of solar system formation, which of the following statements about the growth of terrestrial and jovian planets is not true? -The terrestrial planets formed inside the frost line of the solar nebula and the jovian planets formed beyond it. -Both types of planet begun with planetesimals growing through the process of accretion, but only the jovian planets were able to capture hydrogen and helium gas from the solar nebula. -Swirling disks of gas, like the solar nebula in miniature, formed around the growing jovian planets but not around the growing terrestrial planets. -The jovian planets began from planetesimals made only of ice, while the terrestrial planets began from planetesimals made only of rock and metal.

-The jovian planets began from planetesimals made only of ice, while the terrestrial planets began from planetesimals made only of rock and metal. *The planetesimals in the outer solar system were not made only of ice: they also contained rock and metal. Remember, if it's cold enough for ices to condense from hydrogen compounds, it's certainly cold enough for rock and metal to condense as well.*

According to our theory of solar system formation, which law best explains why the solar nebula spun faster as it shrank in size? -The law of conservation of angular momentum -Einstein's law E=mc2 -The law of conservation of energy -The law of universal gravitation

-The law of conservation of angular momentum *To conserve angular momentum, the cloud particles had to move faster around the cloud center as their distance from the center decreased*

According to our theory of solar system formation, which law best explains why the central regions of the solar nebula got hotter as the nebula shrank in size? -The two laws of thermal radiation -The law of conservation of energy -Newton's third law -The law of conservation of angular momentum

-The law of conservation of energy *As it shrank in size, gas particles lost gravitational potential energy. Since energy must be conserved, this energy became thermal energy.*

Why don't we expect to find life on planets orbiting high-mass stars? -The lifetime of a high-mass star is too short. -The stars are too hot to allow for life. -Planets cannot have stable orbits around high-mass stars. -The high-mass stars emit too much ultraviolet radiation.

-The lifetime of a high-mass star is too short.

Many meteorites appear to have formed very early in the solar system's history. How do these meteorites support our theory about how the terrestrial planets formed? -Their appearance and composition matches what we observe in comets today, suggesting that they were once pieces of icy planetesimals. -The meteorites appearance and composition is just what we'd expect if metal and rock condensed and accreted as our theory suggests. -Their overall composition is just what we believe the composition of the solar nebula to have been: mostly hydrogen and helium. -The meteorites sizes are just what we'd expect if metal and rock condensed and accreted as our theory suggests.

-The meteorites appearance and composition is just what we'd expect if metal and rock condensed and accreted as our theory suggests.

You observe a star very similar to our own Sun in size and mass. This star moves very slightly back and forth in the sky once every 4 months, and you attribute this motion to the effect of an orbiting planet. What can you conclude about the orbiting planet? -The planet must have a mass about the same as the mass of Jupiter. -You do not have enough information to say anything at all about the planet. -The planet must be closer to the star than Earth is to the Sun. -The planet must be farther from the star than Neptune is from the Sun.

-The planet must be closer to the star than Earth is to the Sun *According to Kepler's third law, a planet with a shorter orbital period must be closer to the star, assuming the star has the same mass as the Sun.*

Consider the planet that causes the stellar motion shown in Plot 2 (be sure you have clicked the "Plot 2" button in the lower window of the animation). What can be said about a different planet orbiting the same star with an orbital period of 500 days? -The planet must be more massive. -The planet must be farther from the star. -The planet must be less massive. -The planet must be closer to the star.

-The planet must be closer to the star. *Notice that 500 days is a shorter period than the period shown for Plot 2 (about 1200 days). According to Kepler's third law, a shorter orbital period means that the planet must be closer to its star.*

Consider only the observed patterns of motion in the solar system. Scientifically, which of the following possible conclusions is justified from the patterns of motion alone? -The planets were born from a giant cloud of gas that rotated in the same direction that the Milky Way Galaxy rotates. -The planets started out quite small and grew to their current sizes as they gradually accreted more material. -The planets were not each born in a separate, random event. -The planets were not born within the past million years, but instead they must have been born billions of years ago.

-The planets were not each born in a separate, random event.

Why do we say that the Doppler technique gives the planet's "minimum mass"? -The size of the Doppler shift that we detect depends on knowing the star's mass, which can be very uncertain. -Extrasolar planets are always increasing in mass. -The size of the Doppler shift that we detect depends on whether the planet's orbit is tilted. -Doppler measurements are very difficult, producing noisy data that often cause astronomers to underestimate a planet's mass.

-The size of the Doppler shift that we detect depends on whether the planet's orbit is tilted.

Based on your study of the Interactive Figure, which of the following is not one of the four major features of the solar system? -Several exceptions to the general trends stand out. -Planets fall into two major categories (terrestrial and jovian). -The solar system contains eight planets plus dwarf planets (including Ceres, Pluto, and Eris). -Swarms of asteroids and comets populate the solar system. -Large bodies in the solar system have orderly motions.

-The solar system contains eight planets plus dwarf planets (including Ceres, Pluto, and Eris). *The precise number of planets is not thought to be of any particular significance, and the division between "planets" and "dwarf planets" is a recent classification scheme that does not affect the basic ideas in the four major features. That is, for the purposes of the four major features, the dwarf planets are considered to be equivalent to large asteroids or comets.*

What is the primary basis upon which we divide the ingredients of the solar nebula into four categories (hydrogen/helium; hydrogen compound; rock; metal)? -The amounts of energy required to ionize various materials. -The atomic mass numbers of various materials. -The locations of various materials in the solar nebula. -The temperatures at which various materials will condense from gaseous form to solid form.

-The temperatures at which various materials will condense from gaseous form to solid form.

How do we use velocity curves (obtained from spectroscopy) to show that some extrasolar planets are close to their host stars? -The velocity curve of the extrasolar planet shows periods much shorter than a year. -The velocity curve of the host star shows periods much shorter than a year. -The velocity curve of the extrasolar planet shows periods much longer than a year. -The velocity curve of the host star shows periods much longer than a year.

-The velocity curve of the host star shows periods much shorter than a year.

According to our present theory of solar system formation, how did Earth end up with enough water to make oceans? -The water was mixed in the other materials in the planetesimals that accreted at our distance from the Sun. -The water was formed by chemical reactions among the minerals in the Earth's core. -The water was brought to the forming Earth by planetesimals that accreted beyond the orbit of Mars. -Earth formed in the relatively narrow region of the solar nebular in which liquid water was plentiful.

-The water was brought to the forming Earth by planetesimals that accreted beyond the orbit of Mars. *Water ice could condense from the solar nebula gas only beyond the frost line, which lay beyond the orbit of Mars.*

Why is it so difficult to take pictures of extrasolar planets? -Extrasolar planets give off light at different wavelengths than planets in our solar system. -Their light is overwhelmed by the light from their star. -Telescopes are too busy with other projects. -No telescope is powerful enough to detect the faint light from a distant planet.

-Their light is overwhelmed by the light from their star. *A Sun-like star is about a billion times brighter than the light from a Jupiter-size planet orbiting it.*

The discovery of hot Jupiters led scientists to reconsider the nebuar theory. Which of the following best explains why the nebular theory(as it stood before the discoveries of extrasolar planets) had not predicted the existence of hot Jupiters? -The nebular theory was designed to apply only to our solar system, so there was no reason to think it would apply to others. -There are no hot Jupiters in our solar system. -The nebular theory was fundamentally flawed and was incorrect about how planets form. -Scientists had no evidence that other stars could have disks of gas in which planets could form around.

-There are no hot Jupiters in our solar system *In science, we seek models (theories) to explain observed phenomena; in this case, the lack of hot Jupiters in our own solar system meant there was nothing to explain when the nebular theory was developed. Once the hot Jupiters were discovered, it was natural that the nebular theory would need to be extended to accommodate them.*

About 2% of our solar nebula consisted of elements besides hydrogen and helium. However, the very first generation of star systems in the universe probably consisted only of hydrogen and helium. Which of the following statements is most likely to have been true about these first-generation star systems? -Jovian planets in these first-generation star systems had clouds made of water and other hydrogen compounds. -Like the jovian planets in our solar system, the jovian planets in these first-generation systems were orbited by rings. -There were no comets or asteroids in these first-generation star systems. -These first-generation star systems typically had several terrestrial planets in addition to jovian planets.

-There were no comets or asteroids in these first-generation star systems. *Asteroids are made from metal and rock, and comets are made mostly of frozen hydrogen compounds - and all these materials require elements besides hydrogen and helium.*

The region of our solar system between Mercury and Mars has very few asteroids, while the region between Mars and Jupiter has many asteroids. Based on what you have learned, what is the most likely explanation for the lack of asteroids between Mercury and Mars? -Gravity was too weak to allow asteroids to form in this part of the solar system. -There were very few planetary leftovers in this region, because most of the solid material was accreted by the terrestrial planets as the planets formed. -It was too hot for asteroids to form in this part of the solar system. -All the asteroids that formed between Mercury and Mars later migrated to the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

-There were very few planetary leftovers in this region, because most of the solid material was accreted by the terrestrial planets as the planets formed.

Current evidence suggests that some massive jovian planets orbit at very close orbital distances to their stars. How do we think these planets ended up on these close orbits? -These planets were able to form close to their stars because their solar nebulas were very cold in temperature. -These planets migrated inward after being born on orbits much farther from their stars. -Despite their large masses, these planets are made of rock and metal and therefore could form in their inner solar systems. -These planets were captured from other solar systems.

-These planets migrated inward after being born on orbits much farther from their stars. *We still think that jovian planets must form in cold, outer regions of their star systems, which is why the idea of migration was first proposed. Although work is still preliminary, models suggest that this type of migration is indeed likely.*

Two hypothetical discoveries in Part A deal with moons that, like Earth's moon, are relatively large compared to their planets. Which of the following best explains why finding 1 planet with such a moon is consistent with the nebular theory, while finding 6 planets with such moons is not consistent? -The nebular theory holds that moons of any size should be rare, so finding 1 is not too surprising but finding 6 would be very surprising. -The nebular theory says that only planets at least as large as Earth can have large Moons, and 6 Earth-size planets would not be likely to form in one solar system. -Unusually large moons form in giant impacts, which are relatively rare events.

-Unusually large moons form in giant impacts, which are relatively rare events. *Our Moon is thought to have formed as a result of a giant impact in which a Mars-size object slammed into the young Earth. The fact that this happened to 1 of the 4 terrestrial planets in our solar system suggests that it is reasonable to find the same thing on a similar fraction of the terrestrial planets in another system. But it would be very surprising to find it happening to 6 out of 6 terrestrial planets.*

Which planet listed below has the most extreme seasons? -Mars -Jupiter -Earth -Uranus

-Uranus *Remember that seasons are caused primarily by axis tilt. Uranus essentially rotates on its side compared to its orbit, giving it very extreme seasons.*

Which planet is approximately halfway between Pluto's orbit and the Sun? -Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun -Jupiter, the fifth planet from the Sun -Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun -Uranus, the seventh planet from the Sun

-Uranus, the seventh planet from the Sun *Notice that Uranus is located at an average distance of 19.2 AU, which is close to half of Pluto's average distance of 39.5 AU. Many people are surprised to realize that Uranus, the seventh planet from the Sun, is only half as far as Pluto. As you can see in the figure, this surprising fact arises because the outer planets are much more widely spaced than the inner planets.*

The planet in our solar system with the highest average surface temperature is __________. -Neptune -Earth -Venus -Mercury

-Venus

Which statement explains the observations that make it seem possible that Mars could have life underground? -We have detected subsurface wells of liquid water in equatorial regions of Mars. -We have found surface liquid water on Mars, so it should also have water underground. -We have detected water ice on Mars, and Mars still has some volcanic heat. -Mars is located within the Sun's habitable zone.

-We have detected water ice on Mars, and Mars still has some volcanic heat. *The combination of water ice and volcanic heat suggests that there could be liquid water underground.*

To date, we've found very few planets orbiting their stars at distances comparable to the distances of the jovian planets in our solar system. Why do astronomers think this is the case? -We have not yet been searching for planets at such distances for a long enough time. -Planets at such distances are probably very low in mass. -Planets at such distances are extremely rare. -No known technique can detect planets at such large distances.

-We have not yet been searching for planets at such distances for a long enough time. *Remember that we must observe at least something close to one complete orbit - and preferably more - before we can be confident of an extrasolar planet discovery. Jupiter takes 12 years to orbit the Sun, and Neptune takes 165 years - so we would need observations over similarly long period to detect planets in these types of orbits around other stars.*

In Part A you found that the terrestrial planet 10 AU from a 0.5MSun star is unlikely to be habitable. Could this planet be habitable if it were in a different orbit around its star? -Yes, if it had an eccentric orbit that sometimes brought it within 0.01 AU of its star. -No, because its star is too small to have a habitable planet. -Yes, if it were 1 AU from its star. -Yes, but it would have to be less than 0.5 AU from its star.

-Yes, but it would have to be less than 0.5 AU from its star. *Remember that a star half the mass of the Sun is much less than half as luminous as the Sun, so the star's habitable zone would be located much less than 1 AU from the star.*

Suppose you start with 1 kilogram of a radioactive substance that has a half-life of 10 years. Which of the following statements will be true after 20 years pass? -You'll have 0.5 kilogram of the radioactive substance remaining. -You'll have 0.75 kilogram of the radioactive substance remaining. -All the material will have completely decayed. -You'll have 0.25 kilogram of the radioactive substance remaining.

-You'll have 0.25 kilogram of the radioactive substance remaining.

Earth was born about 4.5 billion years ago. According to current estimates, approximately how long after Earth's formation did the Moon form? The Moon formed -a few years later. -a few tens of millions of years later. -a few hundred million years later. -more than a billion years later. -at the same time as Earth.

-a few tens of millions of years later *Evidence suggests that the giant impact that is thought to have formed the Moon occurred relatively shortly—within a few tens of millions of years—after Earth's formation*

In general, which type of planet would you expect to cause the largest Doppler shift in the spectrum of its star? -a massive planet that is far from its star -a massive planet that is close to its star -a low-mass planet that is far from its star -a low-mass planet that is close to its star

-a massive planet that is close to its star *Doppler shifts measure velocity, and the star will move faster if it experiences a greater gravitational tug from its planet. A massive, close-in planet will cause the strongest gravitational tug.*

What is an extrasolar planet? -a planet that orbits a star that is not our own Sun -a planet that is extra large compared to what we'd expect -a planet that is considered an "extra," in that it was not needed for the formation of its solar system -a planet that is larger than the Sun

-a planet that orbits a star that is not our own Sun

What is the Kuiper belt? -a region of the solar system that extends almost a fourth of the way to the nearest stars and contains a trillion comets with orbits going in all directions around the Sun -a region of the solar system beginning just beyond the orbit of Neptune that contains many icy comets -a technical name for the asteroid belt -the most prominent ring of Saturn that is visible in photographs

-a region of the solar system beginning just beyond the orbit of Neptune that contains many icy comets

What is the Kuiper belt? -a technical name for the asteroid belt -a region of the solar system beginning just beyond the orbit of Neptune that contains many icy comets -a region of the solar system that extends almost a fourth of the way to the nearest stars and contains a trillion comets with orbits going in all directions around the Sun -the most prominent ring of Saturn that is visible in photographs

-a region of the solar system beginning just beyond the orbit of Neptune that contains many icy comets

How many of the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction that Earth does? -a few -most -all

-all

Which terrestrial planets have had volcanic activity at some point in their histories? -only Earth -Earth and Mars -all of them

-all of them

Which detection techniques can find the planet's orbital distance (assuming we know the mass of the star)? -only the astrometric technique -only the Doppler technique -only the transit technique -all of these techniques

-all of these techniques

Consider the hypothetical discovery from Part A reading: "A star's 5 terrestrial planets orbit in the opposite direction of its 3 jovian planets." This discovery would be inconsistent with the nebular theory because the theory holds that __________. -star systems should have equal numbers of terrestrial and jovian planets -all the planets formed in a rotating, disk-shaped nebula -terrestrial planets should orbit in a different plane from the plane of the jovian planets

-all the planets formed in a rotating, disk-shaped nebula *The nebular theory predicts that all planets should be born on orbits going in the same direction and in nearly the same plane.*

Where would you expect terrestrial planets to form in the solar nebula? -within the inner 0.3 AU -anywhere between 0.3 AU and the frost line -anywhere outside 0.3 AU -anywhere outside the frost line

-anywhere between 0.3 AU and the frost line *Terrestrial planets are made mostly of metal and rock and therefore formed in the region in which it was cool enough for metal and rock to condense but still too warm for hydrogen compounds to condense into ices. This means the region between the rock/metal condensation line at 0.3 AU and the frost line.*

Which method could detect a planet in an orbit that is face-on to the Earth? -Doppler technique -transits -astrometric technique

-astrometric technique

Why do scientists say that evolution is a "theory"? -because they are not very confident that it really happened -because it explains a great deal about life and is supported by an enormous body of evidence -because it is supported by only a small amount of evidence -because it's really just a guess about how life developed on Earth

-because it explains a great deal about life and is supported by an enormous body of evidence

When we say that jovian planets contain significant amounts of hydrogen compounds, we mean all the following chemicals EXCEPT ______. -carbon dioxide -methane -ammonia -water

-carbon dioxide

Which lists the major steps of solar system formation in the correct order? -collapse, accretion, condensation -collapse, condensation, accretion -accretion, condensation, collapse

-collapse, condensation, accretion

Most known extrasolar planets are more massive than Jupiter because -we do not expect smaller planets to exist. -current detection methods are more sensitive to larger planets. -the Doppler method usually overestimates planet masses.

-current detection methods are more sensitive to larger planets.

What is Jupiter's main ingredient? -rock and metal -hydrogen compounds -hydrogen and helium

-hydrogen and helium

Which of the following types of material can condense into what we call ice at low temperatures? -rock -hydrogen and helium -hydrogen compounds -metal

-hydrogen compounds

As the mass of the central star increases, the distance to the habitable zone __________ and the size (width) of the habitable zone __________. Select from the choices in the format first blank / second blank. -decreases / increases -increases / decreases -decreases / decreases -increases / increases

-increases / increases *The habitable zone is both farther from the star and larger in size for a higher-mass star than for a lower-mass star*

Suppose a planet is discovered by the Doppler technique and is then discovered to have transits. In that case, we can determine all the following about the planet except ______________. -its density -its rotation period -its orbital period -its physical size (radius) -its precise mass

-its rotation period *We do not get any direct information about rotation period. (However, if the planet is very close to its star, we can sometimes conclude that it has synchronous rotation, in which case the rotation period and orbital period are the same.)*

Which one of the following can the transit method tell us about a planet? -its mass -its size -the eccentricity of its orbit

-its size

Based on available data, what kind of objects in our solar system do most of the known extrasolar planets resemble? -terrestrial planets -jovian planets -Kuiper belt objects -none of the above: most extrasolar planets apparently belong to some new category of object

-jovian planets

Our modern theory of solar system formation—the nebular theory—successfully accounts for all the major features of our own solar system. However, when the first hot Jupiters were discovered, their existence seemed inconsistent with the nebular theory because this theory predicts that __________. -any system with jovian planets should also have terrestrial planets -jovian planets located close to their stars should have evaporated by now -jovian planets can form only in the cold, outer regions of a solar system -planetary systems should be extremely rare

-jovian planets can form only in the cold, outer regions of a solar system *The nebular theory holds that jovian planets form as the gravity of very large planetesimals draws in hydrogen and helium gas, and such large planetesimals can form only in the outer solar system where ices made of hydrogen compounds (such as water, methane, and ammonia) can condense along with metal and rock.*

Most extrasolar planets discovered so far most resemble -terrestrial planets. -jovian planets. -large icy worlds.

-jovian planets.

According to our theory of solar system formation, what are asteroids and comets? -chunks of rock or ice that condensed after the planets and moons finished forming -the shattered remains of collisions between planets -chunks of rock or ice that were expelled from planets by volcanoes -leftover planetesimals that never accreted into planets

-leftover planetesimals that never accreted into planets

Today, scientists have a theory (the nebular theory) that explains all the major characteristics of the solar system. In science, we expect a theory like this not only to explain the observed characteristics of our solar system but also to __________. -predict some major change that will eventually occur in our own solar system -predict which planets have life -make testable predictions about other solar systems

-make testable predictions about other solar systems *A scientific theory must always make testable predictions, because that is the only way we can evaluate the validity of the theory.*

Compared to terrestrial planets, jovian planets are __________. -more massive and higher in average density -more massive and lower in average density -less massive and lower in average density -less massive and higher in average density

-more massive and lower in average density *Note that while jovian planets are lower in average density than terrestrial planets, the densities in their deep interiors are quite high, in some cases higher than the densities found at the centers of the terrestrial worlds.*

What fraction of the moons of the planets orbit in the same direction that their planets rotate? -some -most -all

-most

Large moons orbit their planets in the same direction the planet rotates: -half of the time. -rarely. -most of the time.

-most of the time.

How is the planet 51 Pegasi different from Jupiter? -much closer to its star -much longer year -much more massive

-much closer to its star

Compared to the distance between Earth and Mars, the distance between Jupiter and Saturn is ______. -just slightly less -much smaller -much larger -about the same

-much larger

What substances existed as solid flakes within the inner 0.3 AU of the solar system before planets began to form? -none -only rocks and metals -only hydrogen compounds -only hydrogen and helium gases

-none *Although all the materials were present in gaseous form, the inner 0.3 AU of the newly forming solar system was too warm for even rocks or metals to condense into solid flakes.*

The transit method allows us in principle to find planets around __________. -only stars of about the same mass and size as our Sun -all stars that have planets of any kind -only stars located within about 100 light-years of Earth -only a small fraction of stars that have planets

-only a small fraction of stars that have planets *We can see transits only if the planetary orbits are nearly precisely edge-on as viewed from Earth, which means that most planetary systems cannot be detected through transits. The Kepler mission overcomes this limitation by studying a large number of stars (about 150,000).*

Which of the following orbital characteristics has NOT been observed among any known extrasolar planets? Check all that apply. -orbital speeds that are so slow that we cannot explain them -orbits that are not elliptical -orbits that take the planets much closer to their star than Mercury orbits the Sun -orbits that are much more eccentric than the orbits of planets in our own solar system

-orbital speeds that are so slow that we cannot explain them -orbits that are not elliptical

In essence, the nebular theory holds that _________. -our solar system formed from the collapse of an interstellar cloud of gas and dust -nebulae are clouds of gas and dust in space -the planets each formed from the collapse of its own separate nebula -The nebular theory is a discarded idea that imagined planets forming as a result of a near-collision between our Sun and another star.

-our solar system formed from the collapse of an interstellar cloud of gas and dust

Now consider why the observed patterns of motion lead to the conclusion that the planets were not born in separate, random events. The reason for this conclusion is that, if the planets had been born in separate, random events, we would expect that __________. -planets would orbit at much higher speeds than they actually do -planetary orbits would have many different orientations and directions, rather than all being in the same direction and in the same plane -none of the planets would have ended up with moons -there would be many different types of planets, rather than just two major types

-planetary orbits would have many different orientations and directions, rather than all being in the same direction and in the same plane *In science, we form hypotheses to explain something, then use the hypotheses to make predictions that we can test. In this case, we have two alternate hypotheses: random births or birth from a single cloud of gas. The hypothesis of random births predicts random orbits, which does not agree with reality and therefore has been discarded. The hypothesis of birth from a single cloud predicts patterns of motion that match those we observe; this match of prediction and observation provides evidence in favor of the hypothesis.*

The jovian planets are thought to have formed as gravity drew hydrogen and helium gas around planetesimals made of __________. -only rocks and metals -only ices -rocks, metals, and ices -rocks, metals, ices, and hydrogen and helium gases

-rocks, metals, and ices *Because ices could condense only beyond the frost line, we expect jovian planets to form only beyond the frost line. Note that many extrasolar planets appear to be jovian but are located close to their stars, leading scientists to suspect that these planets migrated inward after originally forming beyond the frost lines of their star systems.*

What substances were found within the inner 0.3 AU of the solar system before planets began to form? -nothing at all -only rocks and metals -only hydrogen compounds -only hydrogen and helium gases -rocks, metals, hydrogen compounds, hydrogen, and helium, all in gaseous form

-rocks, metals, hydrogen compounds, hydrogen, and helium, all in gaseous form *You will see that all the materials of the solar nebula were present in the inner region, but it was too hot for any of them to condense. As a result, they were all in gaseous form.*

Mars has two moons that are most similar in character to: -Earth's Moon -particles in the rings of Saturn -small asteroids -comets.

-small asteroids *Indeed, these moons are probably asteroids that Mars captured into orbit long ago.*

Very few of the known extrasolar planets have sizes as small as Earth. The most likely reason for this fact is that ________. -small planets are usually made of materials that cannot be detected -small planets are more difficult to detect than larger planets -small planets probably orbit too far from their stars to have been detected yet -small planets are extremely rare

-small planets are more difficult to detect than larger planets

Based on what we know about our own solar system, the discovery of hot Jupiters came as a surprise to scientists because these planets are __________. -so small -made of different materials than either the terrestrial or jovian planets in our solar system -so close to their stars -so large

-so close to their stars *Hot Jupiters are jovian planets that are very close to their stars. Their discovery came as a surprise to scientists because in our solar system jovian planets are only found far from the Sun.*

We have sent several spacecraft on trajectories that will ultimately take them into interstellar space (Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, New Horizons). How long will it take these spacecraft to travel as far as the nearest stars? -a few decades -about a thousand years -never, because they will rust and fall apart -tens of thousands of years -a few hundred years

-tens of thousands of years

The first confirmed detections of extrasolar planets occurred in ____________. -the 1990s -2011 -the mid-17th century -the mid-20th century

-the 1990s

What method has detected the most extrasolar planets so far? -the transit method -Hubble images -the Doppler technique

-the Doppler technique

The solar system contains vast numbers of small bodies, which we call asteroids when they are rocky and comets when they are icy. These small bodies are concentrated in the region(s) of the solar system that we call __________. Check all that apply. -the Kuiper belt -the comet belt -the solar corona -the asteroid belt -the Doppler belt -the Oort cloud

-the Kuiper belt -the asteroid belt -the Oort cloud

In the Drake equation (Number of Civilizations ≡ N HP × f life × f civ × f now), what do we mean by f now? -the fraction of planets with civilizations at the present time (as opposed to only in the past or future) -the fraction of planets in the galaxy on which a civilization could theoretically develop right now -the fraction of all species ever to exist that we currently are aware of -the fraction of civilizations in the universe that currently are sending messages to us

-the fraction of planets with civilizations at the present time (as opposed to only in the past or future)

Observations show that interstellar clouds can have almost any shape and, if they are rotating at all, their rotation is not perceptible. However, as shown in the animation, the nebular theory predicts that a cloud will rotate rapidly once it shrinks to a small size. What physical law explains why a cloud will rotate rapidly as it collapses? -the law of conservation of energy -Kepler's second law -the universal law of gravitation -the law of conservation of angular momentum -Newton's third law of motion

-the law of conservation of angular momentum *The law of conservation of angular momentum holds because the cloud is collapsing only due to gravity. Because angular momentum is proportional to velocity times radius, keeping this product constant requires that the velocity of rotation increase when the cloud radius decreases.*

The nebular theory also predicts that the cloud should heat up as it collapses. What physical law explains why it heats up? -Kepler's second law -Newton's third law of motion -the universal law of gravitation -the law of conservation of energy -the law of conservation of angular momentum

-the law of conservation of energy *The law of conservation of energy tells us that energy must always be conserved. Because the cloud has much more gravitational potential energy when it is large in size than when it is small, its gravitational potential energy must be transformed into other forms of energy, such as heat (thermal energy), as it shrinks in size.*

Which of the following properties can be inferred from the star's orbital period? -the planet's orbital radius -the planet's mass -both the planet's orbital radius and its mass -neither the planet's orbital radius nor its mas

-the planet's orbital radius *You can confirm this fact by moving the orbital radius slider. The orbital period of the star is the number of days between the peaks on the curve in the lower window, and changing the orbital radius of the planet changes the orbital period. This is a consequence of the fact that the star and planet must have the same orbital period, and Kepler's third law tell us that the planet's orbital period depends only on its orbital radius.*

Consider the hypothetical discovery from Part A reading: "Beyond its jovian planets, a star has two ice-rich objects as large as Mars." This discovery is consistent with the nebular theory, because this theory predicts that _________. -terrestrial planets sometimes form beyond the jovian planets -this might have happened in our own solar system if it had taken longer for the solar wind to clear the solar nebula -ice-rich objects the size of terrestrial planets should exist in all solar systems

-this might have happened in our own solar system if it had taken longer for the solar wind to clear the solar nebula *If the solar nebula had remained for a longer time, accretion could have continued for a longer period of time, forming larger ice-rich objects. In fact, we cannot yet be sure that this didn't happen in our solar system: Eris, which is slightly larger than Pluto, was discovered only in 2005, and it's possible that even larger ice-rich objects remain to be discovered.*

Which detection method can be used on a backyard telescope with a CCD system? -Doppler technique -transits -astrometric technique

-transits

Is it possible to determine the planet's mass from the star's velocity curve? -yes, by measuring both the star's orbital period and its change in velocity over the orbit -yes, by measuring the star's orbital period only -no, because the star's spectrum cannot tell us about the planet -yes, by measuring only the change in the star's orbital velocity over the orbit

-yes, by measuring both the star's orbital period and its change in velocity over the orbit *You can confirm this fact with the animation as follows. First, move only the orbital radius slider without changing the planet mass; you will find that the star's orbital period increases and its orbital velocity decreases. Now, move only the planet mass slider; you will see that this affects only the star's orbital velocity. We conclude that you must know both the star's orbital period and velocity to measure the planet's mass. You can understand why if you recall that the star's velocity depends on the strength of the gravitational tug from the planet, while the star's orbital period depends only on the planet's orbital radius (see Part A). Moving the planet farther from the star therefore increases the orbital period (in accord with Kepler's third law) and weakens the gravitational tug. Increasing the planet's mass increases the strength of gravity.*

Imagine that each of the five stars is orbited by a terrestrial planet at a distance of 1 AU (Earth's distance from the Sun). Rank the stars based on the planet's expected surface temperature (not including any greenhouse effect), from lowest to highest.

1. Bernard's Star (M4) - 0.2 Msun 2. 61 Cygni A (K5)- 0.7 Msun 3. Alpha Centauri A (G2) - 1Msun 4. Sirius (A1)- 2Msun 5. Spica (B1) 11Msun *For a planet at any particular distance, such as 1 AU, a more luminous star means more energy (per unit area) reaching the planet's surface—and more energy will tend to make the planet hotter. For example, if the Sun were more luminous, Earth would be hotter. That is why the rankings again go in order of increasing luminosity, which for main-sequence stars means increasing mass.*

Listed below are the names, spectral types (in parentheses), and approximate masses of several nearby main stars. Rank the stars based on the distances to their habitable zones (from the central star), from shortest to longest.

1. Bernard's Star (M4) - 0.2 Msun 2. 61 Cygni A (K5)- 0.7 Msun 3. Alpha Centauri A (G2) - 1Msun 4. Sirius (A1)- 2Msun 5. Spica (B1) 11Msun *Notice that the ranking is in order of mass, because lower mass main-sequence stars are less luminous than higher mass stars. Therefore a planet would have to be located closer to a lower mass star than to a higher mass star in order to have a temperature warm enough for liquid water to exist.*

Consider again the same set of five stars. This time, rank the stars based on the size (width) of their habitable zones, from smallest to largest.

1. Bernard's Star (M4) - 0.2 Msun 2. 61 Cygni A (K5)- 0.7 Msun 3. Alpha Centauri A (G2) - 1Msun 4. Sirius (A1)- 2Msun 5. Spica (B1) 11Msun *Notice that the ranking is the same as that from Part A, because lower mass main-sequence stars not only have their habitable zones located closer to them but they also have the narrowest habitable zones. Higher mass stars have wider habitable zones because they have a greater range of distances in which a planet could potentially have liquid water on its surface.*

Listed below are several geological and biological events in Earth's history. Rank the events in the order in which they occurred, from first to last.

1. Giant Impact from Moon 2. End of heavy bombardment 3. Early life (based on Fossil Evidence) 4. Oxygen build up in atmosphere 5. Animals colonize land 6. Earliest Mammals 7. Dinosaurs go extinct 8. Earliest Humans

Learning Goal: To understand how observational evidence is used to test the nebular theory. Introduction. Our modern theory of the formation of our solar system, called the nebular theory, successfully explains all the major features of our solar system. In this tutorial, you will consider how this theory should apply to other solar systems. Part A Sort the following hypothetical discoveries into the appropriate bins as follows: Consistent with theory: The statement describes a discovery that we could reasonably expect to find if the nebular theory is correct. Not consistent with theory: The statement describes a discovery that would force us to modify or discard the nebular theory.

Consistent with Theory: -A star is surrounded by a disk of gas but has no planets. -A star has 20 planets. -Of a star's 5 terrestrial planets, 1 has a moon as large as Earth's moon. -Beyond its jovian planets, star has two ice-rich objects as large as Mars. Not Consistent with Theory: -All 6 of a star's terrestrial planets have a moon as large as Earths moon. -A star's 5 terrestrial planets orbit in the opposite direction of its 3 jovian planets. -A star has 9 planets, but none orbit in close to the same plane. -A star's 4 jovian planets formed in its inner solar system and its 4 terrestrial planets formed farther out.

Each item describes a characteristic that applies to one of the three planet-detection methods shown following. Match the items to the correct planet-finding method.

Doppler Method: -Used for most of the first 200 extrasolar planet detections -Currently best suited to find Jupiter-sized extrasolar planets orbiting close to their stars Transit Method: -Looks for very slight, periodic dimming of a star -Planet-detection strategy of NASA's Kepler Mission -Can potentially detect planets in only a few percent of all planetary systems -allow's for the extrasolar planet's radius to be determined -This method was the first to identify Earth-sized extrasolar planets Astrometric Method: -Measures precise changes a star's position in the sky, in fractions of arc seconds.

Discovering planets through the ______________________ requires obtaining and studying many spectra of the same star.

Doppler technique

3. The is _____________________ designed as a way of estimating the number of intelligent civilizations in the Milky Way.

Drake equation

-Many of these planets have orbits that differ significantly from perfect circles. *Notice that the eccentricities of many of the planets are much larger than those of the planets in our solar system, telling us that their orbits are not nearly circular.*

Each dot on this graph represents an extrasolar planet; the green dots (labeled) represent planets of our own solar system. What can you conclude about the extrasolar planets shown on this graph? -The farther away a planet is from its star, the greater its eccentricity. -Many of these planets have orbits that differ significantly from perfect circles. -Nearly all of these planets orbit closer to their star than Mercury orbits to the Sun. -Most of the planets orbit in star systems that have at least three planets.

8. Most of the surface of _____________ is covered with liquid water.

Earth

Moons cannot have atmospheres, active volcanoes, or liquid water. True or False?

False

Our Moon is about the same size as moons of the other terrestrial planets. True or false?

False

Pluto orbits the Sun in the opposite direction of all the other planets. True or False?

False

Saturn is the only planet in the solar system with rings. True or False?

False

As you've learned from Part B, hydrogen and helium gas never condense under conditions found in the solar nebula. The remaining three categories of material in the solar nebula are shown again here. Rank these materials from left to right based on the distance from the Sun at which they could condense into a solid in the solar nebula, from farthest to closest.

Farthest: Hydrogen Compounds Rocks Metals :Closest *These condensation regions explain the makeup of objects at different distances from the Sun. In the inner regions of the solar nebula, where temperatures were high, only metal and rock could condense, which is why the inner planets ended up being made of metal and rock. Farther out, hydrogen compounds could condense into ices, which is why comets and outer solar system moons contain large amounts of ice. And because hydrogen compounds are more abundant than metal or rock, some of the solid objects in the outer solar system grew so large that their gravity could pull in hydrogen and helium gas, which explains how the jovian planets formed*

The following images show six objects in our solar system. Rank the objects from left to right based on their average distance from the Sun, from farthest to closest. (Not to scale.)

Farthest: Pluto Saturn Jupiter Mars Earth Mercury :Closest

Provided following are stages that occurred during the formation of our solar system. Rank these stages from left to right based on when they occurred, from first to last.

First Stage: Large Cloud of Gas and Dust Contraction of Solar Nebula Condensation of Solid Particles Accretion of Planetesimals Clearing the Solar Nebula :Last Stage *Once the solar wind helped clear away the remaining gas in the solar nebula, the era of planet formation was essentially over. Remember that all these stages occurred over a period of millions of years, ending about 4 1/2 billion years ago.*

5. The ______________________________ is being designed to measure very small changes in stellar positions, which should allow it to discover many extrasolar planets.

GAIA Astrometry Mission

The materials that made up the solar nebula can be categorized into the four general types as follows. Rank these materials from left to right based on their abundance in the solar nebula, from highest to lowest.

Highest Abundance: Hydrogen and Helium Gas Hydrogen Compounds Rock Metals :Lowest Abundance *Knowing this ranking order is useful, but even more important is to recognize the vast differences in abundance: Hydrogen and helium gas constituted about 98 percent of the mass in the solar nebula. Most of the rest was hydrogen compounds, which were nearly three times as abundant as rock and metal combined.*

The following images show six objects in our solar system. Rank these objects from left to right based on their mass, from highest to lowest. (Not to scale.)

Highest Mass: Sun Jupiter Earth Mars Mercury Pluto :Least Mass

The following images show four planets in our solar system. Rank these planets from left to right based on the number of moons that orbit them, from highest to lowest. (Not to scale.)

Highest Number: Jupiter Mars Earth Mercury :Lowest Number *Jupiter has many moons as a consequence of its formation, in which moons formed in a disk of material surrounding it and its extended atmosphere at the time allowed it to capture numerous small bodies into orbit. Mars has two very small moons that it presumably captured at a time when it, too, had an extended atmosphere. Earth's single but surprisingly large moon is thought to have formed as a result of a giant impact. Mercury (and Venus) have no moons.*

The following images show five planets in our solar system. Rank these planets from left to right based on their average surface (or cloud-top) temperature, from highest to lowest. (Not to scale.)

Highest Temperature: Mercury Earth Mars Jupiter Neptune :Lowest Temperature *Notice that, for these five planets, temperature correlates with distance from the Sun: the closer to the Sun, the hotter the planet. Remember, however, that this is not always the case, because a planet's temperature also depends on its reflectivity and on the strength of its greenhouse effect (if any). For example, the greenhouse effect gives Venus a higher average temperature than Mercury, even though Venus is nearly twice as far from the Sun.*

The materials that made up the solar nebula can be categorized into these four general types. Rank these materials from left to right based on the temperature at which each would condense into a solid, from highest to lowest. Note: For a substance that does not condense at all, rank it as very low temperature.

Highest Temperature: Metals Rock Hydrogen Compounds Hydrogen and Helium Gas :Lowest Temperature *In fact, hydrogen and helium gas never condense into solid form under the conditions that exist in interstellar clouds such as the solar nebula. Continue on to Part C to see how the condensation temperatures of the other materials explain why different materials condensed in different regions of the young solar system.*

-exaggerated about a million times

In this perspective view of the solar system, the sizes of the planets are ___________ relative to the sizes of their orbits. -exaggerated about a million times -exaggerated about ten times -exaggerated about 1,000 times -correctly scaled

-a comet

In this photograph, the large and bright object in the sky is: -a comet -the northern lights -a meteor -an asteroid

6. __________________ is the jovian planet that orbits closest to the Sun.

Jupiter

The _________________________ is currently searching for planet transits around some 100,000 stars.

Kepler mission

The images below show six objects in our solar system. Rank these objects by size (average equatorial radius), from largest to smallest. (Not to scale.)

Largest radius: Sun Jupiter Earth Mars Mercury Pluto :Smallest Radius

The items below describe worlds or selected localities on worlds. Based on our current scientific understanding, match these items to the appropriate category below.

Likely to be habitable: -Underground on Mars - Subsurface ocean on Europa -Moon with atmosphere orbiting Jovian planet 1AU from 1Msun star Unlikely to be habitable: -Surface of Mars -Surface of terrestrial planet 10AU from 0.5 Msun Star -Volcanoes on Io

The following images show five planets in our solar system. Rank these planets from left to right based on the amount of time it takes them to orbit the Sun, from longest to shortest. (Not to scale.)

Longest Time: Neptune Jupiter Mars Earth Mercury :Shortest Time *Recall that the time it takes a planet to orbit the Sun is called its orbital period, and that Kepler's third law tells us that orbital period increases with distance from the Sun. That is why the ranking order for orbital period is the same as the ranking order for distance from the Sun.*

5. The only rocky planet to have more than one moon is _______________.

Mars

4. The planet that orbits closest to the Sun is ___________________.

Mercury

1. _________________ is about 30 times as far from the Sun as our own planet.

Neptune

3. The planet with the lowest average density is ____________________.

Saturn

6. Proposed plans for the ___________________________________ would someday provide us with the first actual images and spectra of terrestrial worlds orbiting other stars.

Terrestrial Planet Finder mission

Listed following are statements that, based on our current theory of solar system formation, apply either to the formation of terrestrial planets or of jovian planets, but not both. Match these to the appropriate category.

Terrestrial Planets: -Surfaces dramatically altered during the heavy bombardment -Accreted from planetesimals of rock and metal Jovian Planets: -Large moons formed in surrounding disks of material -Formed in regions cold enough for water to freeze -Formed in a region of the solar system with lower orbital speeds -Ejected icy planetesimals that are now Oort cloud comets -Accreted from icy planetesimals

Listed following are characteristics that can identify a planet as either terrestrial or jovian. Match these to the appropriate category.

Terrestrial Planets: -small size -solid, rocky surface -located within the inner solar system Jovian Planets: -extensive ring systems -numerous orbiting moons -low average density -Primarily composed of Hydrogen, Helium and Hydrogen compounds

-2 *The large orbital velocity must be caused by a planet with greater mass than that shown in the other cases*

The four graphs below show Doppler data for four different stars. Assume that all four stars have planetary systems oriented the same way toward Earth, so that the data can be compared fairly. Which graph reveals the existence of a planet with the greatest mass? -Graph 1 -Graph 2 -Graph 3 -Graph 4

-Graph 4 *This graph shows the star having the longest orbital period of the 4 graphs, which means the planet also has the longest orbital period in this case.*

The four graphs below show Doppler data for four different stars. Assume that all four stars have planetary systems oriented the same way toward Earth, so that the data can be compared fairly. Which graph reveals the existence of a planet with the longest orbital period? -Graph 1 -Graph 2 -Graph 3 -Graph 4

-4 days *We can see this fact by noticing that the velocity graph has troughs at about 1.5 days and about 5.5 days, which means it took 4 days between them. This is the orbital period because the velocity data repeat each time the planet completes an orbit of the star.*

The graph above shows how a star's orbital speed varies with time due to the gravitational tug of an orbiting planet. Based on these data, the planet's orbital period is about: -6 days -2 days -4 days -50 days

-the precise wavelengths of spectral lines in the spectrum of the star *More precisely, the graph shows the Doppler shifts of these lines, which tell us the star's speed toward or away from us at different times.*

The graph above shows how a star's orbital speed varies with time due to the gravitational tug of an orbiting planet. These data were obtained by measuring __________. -the precise brightness of the star divided by the precise brightness of the planet -the precise wavelengths of spectral lines in the spectrum of the orbiting planet -the precise wavelengths of spectral lines in the spectrum of the star -the orbital period of the planet that is orbiting the star

-1 *The system is brightest at Point 1 because that is where you see the combined light from the star and the planet.*

This diagram represents a star with an orbiting planet that, as seen from Earth, periodically transits across the face of the star and disappears behind the star. If you measure the brightness of this system, at which point would it be brightest? -1 -2 -3 -4

-4 *Rock and metal could condense throughout most of the solar nebula, but ice could condense only beyond the frost line. Therefore, objects that contain all three ingredients must have formed beyond the frost line.*

This diagram represents the solar nebula early in its history, and shows the location of the <i>frost line</i>. Suppose you discover an object that is made of metal, rock, and ice. In which region of the solar system did it form? -1 -2 -3 -4

-the fact that large, icy objects orbit the Sun in the Kuiper belt *These data span only 65 years, which is not long enough to discover the existence of very low-mass objects (such as Pluto and Eris) that have orbital periods many times longer than 65 years.*

This diagram shows the orbital path of the Sun around the center of mass of our solar system as it would appear from a distance of 30 light-years for the period 1960-2025. If aliens had constructed this graph at their home star system, they could learn all of the following except: -the fact that the Sun has more than two planets -the orbital distance of Saturn -the fact that large, icy objects orbit the Sun in the Kuiper belt -the mass and orbital period of Jupiter

-Earth as viewed from the outskirts of the solar system.

This famous photograph taken by the Voyager spacecraft shows _________. -Earth as viewed from the outskirts of the solar system. -A close-up of the rings of Neptune. -The cloud of gas and dust in which our solar system was born. -The Sun as viewed from the next-nearest star.

-3 *Notice that Point 3 is a terrestrial planet but is both higher up (larger in radius) and further right (larger in mass) than Earth.*

This graph plots planetary mass on the horizontal axis and radius on the vertical axis. Notice the four locations marked by the bold numbers 1 through 4. Which location represents a planet has about the same composition as Earth but is larger in both size and mass? -1 -2 -3 -4

-2 *Notice the three density curves. Point 2 is the only point to the right of the highest density curve.*

This graph plots planetary mass on the horizontal axis and radius on the vertical axis. Notice the four locations marked by the bold numbers 1 through 4. Which location represents a planet with the greatest density? -1 -2 -3 -4

-4 *Mass increases to the right on this graph, and point 4 is the farthest to the right.*

This graph plots planetary mass on the horizontal axis and radius on the vertical axis. Notice the four locations marked by the bold numbers 1 through 4. Which location represents a planet with the greatest mass? -1 -2 -3 -4

-It blasted away debris that then accreted in Earth orbit to form the Moon. *In other words, this painting shows the giant impact thought to be responsible for the formation of our Moon.*

This painting shows an object colliding with Earth. What is thought to have happened as a result of this collision? -The impact released the heat that allowed Earth to undergo differentiation. -The impact changed Earth's orbit from one on which life would have been unlikely to our current orbit in which life flourishes. -It blasted away debris that then accreted in Earth orbit to form the Moon. -It led to the extinction of the dinosaurs.

-an asteroid

This photo shows ___________. -an asteroid -a dwarf planet -Mercury -Pluto

-It shows that stars really can be surrounded by flattened disks of dust and gas.

This photo shows a "debris disk" around a nearby star. What is the significance of this type of "debris disk"? -It shows that the disks that encircle stars are sometimes split into two pieces, with one on each side of the star. -It proves that planets form in disks of dust and gas that surround stars. -It shows that stars really can be surrounded by flattened disks of dust and gas. -It shows that stars can be encircled by disks that are enormous in size, sometimes extending halfway to other nearby stars.

-The shiny metal flakes embedded in rock are just what we expect if condensation really occurred as the nebular theory predicts.

This photo shows a slice of a meteorite. What is its significance? -The surprisingly flat face of the meteorite indicates that the solar nebula must have been very hot in the region in which this meteorite formed. -It shows that accretion really did make objects many kilometers in size during the early stages of the formation of our solar system. -The shiny metal flakes embedded in rock are just what we expect if condensation really occurred as the nebular theory predicts. -The structure and composition of the meteorite show that material that condensed beyond the frost line really did differ from material that condensed within the frost line.

-Mars

This photograph was taken on the surface of another world in our solar system. What world is it? -Venus -Triton -the Moon -Mars

-the law of conservation of angular momentum *The cloud rotates very slowly when it is large, but as it shrinks it must rotate faster to keep its angular momentum conserved, much like a skater pulling in her arms as she spins.*

This sequence of paintings shows how a large gas cloud can collapse to become a much smaller, spinning disk of gas. What law explains why cloud spins faster as it shrinks in size? -the universal law of gravitation -the law of conservation of angular momentum -Kepler's third law -the law of conservation of energy -Newton's second law of motion

-the law of conservation of energy *The cloud has a lot of gravitational potential energy when it is large, and this energy becomes thermal energy as the cloud collapses.*

This sequence of paintings shows how a large gas cloud can collapse to become a much smaller, spinning disk of gas. What law explains why the center of the cloud becomes so much hotter as the cloud shrinks in size? -Newton's second law of motion -the law of conservation of energy -the universal law of gravitation -the law of conservation of angular momentum -Kepler's third law

On average, Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system - even hotter than Mercury. True or False?

True

The mass of the Sun compared to the mass of all the planets combined is like the mass of an elephant compared to the mass of a cat. True or False?

True

The weather conditions on Mars today are much different than they were in the distant past. True or False?

True

7. _______________ has a rotational axis that is tilted so much it lies nearly in the plane of its orbit.

Uranus

2. _______________ is the planet with the highest average surface temperature.

Venus

-Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.25 billion years. *Notice that the red curve for potassium-40 showing that half of it would decay after 1.25 billion years, which is why that point is labeled 1 half-life.*

What can you conclude from studying this graph? -Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.25 billion years. -Both potassium-40 and argon-40 have half-lives of 1.25 billion years. -It takes 5 billion years to turn potassium-40 into argon-40. -Argon-40 has a half-life of 1.25 billion years.

-Neptune

What do we see in this photo? -Venus -Pluto -Neptune -Mars -Eris

-an interstellar cloud that will ultimately give birth to thousands of star systems *This particular cloud is the Orion Nebula. (This photo is a composite made from both infrared and visible light.*

What does this photo show? -a galaxy much like our Milky Way Galaxy -an interstellar cloud that will ultimately give birth to thousands of star systems -an interstellar cloud that probably looks almost identical to the way the solar nebula looked about 4.5 billion years ago -stars viewed through the atmosphere of Venus

-the formation of a jovian planet *The jovian planet forms in the center of the region shown in the box, and moons form in the disk around the forming planet.*

What is being shown in the zoom-out box of this painting? -the solar nebula -the formation of a terrestrial planet -the formation of Saturn's rings -the formation of a jovian planet

-Mars

What planet is shown in this photo? -Mars -Venus -Mercury -Ganymede

-Saturn, because of its colors and bright, wide rings.

What planet is this, and how do you know? -Neptune, because it has the brightest rings of any planet. -Saturn, because of its colors and bright, wide rings. -Jupiter, because it is the biggest planet and has the biggest rings. -Saturn, because it is the only planet with rings. -Jupiter, because of its colors and bright, wide rings.

-2 billion years *We can see this fact by recognizing that the current fraction of potassium-40 is 1/3, or 0.33. Looking at the red curve for potassium-40, we see that it reaches about 0.33 on the vertical axis when the time is about 2 billion years.*

You find a rock containing radioactive potassium-40 and its decay product argon-40. You assume that all the argon-40 was made from radioactive decay of potassium-40. The rock now has twice as much argon-40 as potassium-40; that is, 2/3 of the original potassium-40 has decayed into argon-40 while 1/3 remains in the rock. Based on this graph, about how old is the rock? -3 billion years -1.25 billion years -1 billion years -2.5 billion years -2 billion years

6. Mars was formed by the _______________ of smaller objects.

accretion

The ___________________ was used to find a Jupiter-sized planet through careful measurements of the changing position of a star.

astrometric technique

3. Ice can form from a gas through the process of ________________________.

condensation

4. Hydrogen compounds in the solar system can condense into ices only beyond the _______________________.

frost line

6. The different time periods of the __________________________ are defined by changes in fossils found from those time periods.

geological time scale

1. High-mass main-sequence stars have a more distant and wider __________________ than low-mass stars.

habitable zone

1. The first few hundred million years of the solar system 19s history were the time of the _______________________________ , during which Earth suffered many large impacts.

heavy bombardment

7. Incoming ultraviolet light from the Sun can cause a _____________ in a living organism's DNA that can affect its ability to survive and reproduce

mutation

The notion that living organisms with advantages that give them greater reproductive success (in some local environment) will survive while others perish is an example of what Darwin called _________________________.

natural selection

5. Our Moon was most likely formed by a collision between Earth and a Mars-sized _______________________.

planetesimal

8. _________________________ allows us to determine the age of a solid rock.

radiometric dating

Sky surveys looking for radio signals generated by technology are part of the ________________________________________________________.

search for extraterrestrial intelligence

7. Our solar system was created by the gravitational collapse of the _________________.

solar nebula

2. The era of planet formation ended when the remaining hydrogen and helium gas of the solar nebula was swept into interstellar space by the ________________________.

solar wind

5. One of the key premises for the ____________________________ is that living organisms are able to produce far more offspring than their environment can support.

theory of evolution

4. The ________________________ is used to find extrasolar planets by carefully monitoring changes in a star's brightness with time.

transit technique