BA 302 Final

Bases of power

1. Legitimate: Power that comes from a role or position 2. reward power: the ability to grant a reward 3. Coercive power: The ability to take something away or punish someone for noncompliance 4. expert power: knowledge and skills 5. information power: Special access to specific information 6: referent power: Stems from personal characteristics of the person (e.g., charisma)

Reponses to Influence Tactics

1. Resistance: Occurs then the influence target does not wish to comply with the request and either passively or actively repels the influence attempt 2. Compliance: Occurs when the target does not necessarily want to obey, but they do 3. commitment: Occurs when the target not only agrees to the request but also actively supports it as well

five phases of negotiation

1. investigation 2. determine your BATNA 3. Presentation 4. Bargaining 5. Closure

Pugh

2001

Tsai

2001).[11][12][13] However, as previously mentioned, research generally has found surface acting to be more consistently problematic for employee well-being than deep acting

Resistance Stage

After the body has responded to the stressor, it is more likely that the stress level has been eradicated, or simply reduced. What happens next to the fight or flight response is that you body's defences become weaker, as it needs to allocate energy to the repair of damaged muscle tissues and lower the production of the stress hormones. Although the body has shifted to this second phase of stress response, it remains on-guard, particularly when the stressors persist and the body is required to fight them continuously, although not as stronger as it could during the initial response.

Presentation

Assemble information you have gathered to best support your position. Why should the other party accept your offer? For instance, what are you bringing to the table?

Job Demands-Resources Model

At the heart of the JD-R model lies the assumption that whereas every occupation may have its own causes of employee well-being, these factors can be classified in two general categories (i.e., job demands and job resources) High job demands exhaust employees� mental and physical resources and therefore lead to the depletion of energy and to health problems. This is the health impairment process. In contrast, job resources foster employee engagement and extra-role performance. This is the motivational process.

determining your BATNA

Best Alternative to Negotiated Agreement What are your criteria for accepting an offer? What are your alternatives? What does the other party want?

Lewin's Change model

Change occurs when forces operating to keep things stable give way: unfreezing -->changing-->refreezing

Politics

Definition: "informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind the scenes efforts to sell ideas, influence an organization, increase power, or achieve other targeted objectives" Political Tactics • Attacking or blaming others • Using information as a political tool • Creating a favorable image (impression management) • Developing a base of support • Praising others (ingratiation) • Forming power coalitions with strong allies • Associating with influential people • Creating obligations (reciprocity)

Transactional Leadership

Definition: "those who ensure that employees demonstrate the right behaviors and provide resources in exchange" (Bauer & Erdogan, 2010) Leaders provide clarity and support. Four dimensions: 1. Contingent reward (rewards for accomplishment) 2. Active management by exception (proactive) 3. Passive management by exception (reactive) 4. Laissez-faire leadership (non-leadership)

Transformational Leadership

Definition: "those who lead employees by aligning employee goals with the leader's goals" (Bauer & Erdogan, 2010) A transformational leader increases subordinates' awareness of work problems/issues, provides support and encouragement to empower employees, and is charismatic Four dimensions: 1. Idealized influence (aka charisma/role model) 2. Inspirational motivation (vision) 3. Intellectual stimulation (challenge) 4. Individualized consideration (personal concern)

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Definition: quality of dyadic relationships between leader and followers is important—includes trust, respect, and support Refutes the idea of "average leadership style" Followers fall into two groups: - In-group membershigh-quality LMX • have high-quality relationships with leader and higher latitude in negotiating work roles

Dependency & Power

Dependency: "the more that a person or unit is dependent on you, the more power you have" (Bauer & Erdogan, 2010) • Scarcity: uniqueness of a resource • Importance: value of a resource • Substitutability: whether option can be substituted by another option

Exhaustion Stage

During this phase, the stress has been persistent for a longer period. The body starts to lose its ability to combat the stressors and reduce their harmful impact because the adaptive energy is all drained out. The exhaustion stage can be referred to as the gate towards burnout or stress overload, which can lead to health problems if not resolved immediately.

Bargaining

Each party discusses goals and tries to make an agreement. May need to make concessions (i.e., giving up something for something different in return)

closure

Either both parties agree or one party determines that the offer is unacceptable

Organizational strategies for managing stress

Encouraging more of organizational communication with the employees so that there is no role ambiguity/conflict. Effective communication can also change employee views. Managers can use better signs and symbols which are not misinterpreted by the employees. Encourage employees' participation in decision-making. This will reduce role stress. Grant the employees greater independence, meaningful and timely feedback, and greater responsibility. The organizational goals should be realistic, stimulating and particular. The employees must be given feedback on how well they are heading towards these goals. Encourage decentralization. Have a fair and just distribution of incentives and salary structure. Promote job rotation and job enrichment. Create a just and safe working environment. Have effective hiring and orientation procedure. Appreciate the employees on accomplishing and over-exceeding their targets.

Tuckman's Five Stages of Group Development

Forming: Orientation members come together for the first time and get to know each other. Storming: Conflict members question each other and conflicts may arise. Norming: Structure group develops norms and members begin to express their personal opinions. Performing:Work members complete their tasks with competence and address any dissent constructively. Adjourning: Dissolution group disbands and members move on to new tasks and/or groups

Intelligence & Leadership

Implicit leadership theories suggest that people generally view intelligence as an important characteristic of an ideal leader More objectively, intelligent leaders make sense of greater amounts of information, make better decisions, and more effectively lead teams to success Judge, Colbert, & Ilies (2004) found in their meta-analysis that followers' perceptions matter - Follower's perceptions of a person's intelligence is a stronger predictor whether that person is viewed as a leader - Measured intelligence scores is a comparatively weaker predictor Leader intelligence matters most when the leader uses a directive style (as opposed to a participative style)

GAS

In 1936 Hans Selye created the stress model "General Adaptation Syndrome", which thoroughly explains the stress response and how aging and disease are caused by chronic exposure to stress.

The Observations by Selye

In his studies, Selye noticed that the body has been adapting to external stressors in terms of a biological pattern that is actually predictable, so that the internal balance, or homeostasis, would be restored and maintained. In its attempt to retain homeostasis, the body makes use of its hormonal system, also known as the fight or flight response. With this response, you would notice how the body wants things to be resolved fast and easy, that's why it already resorts to releasing hormones that would enable you to combat stress in the most immediate way possible. This struggle of the body against stress is the main theme of the General Adaptation Syndrome. Another observation that Selye discovered was that even if one's body wants to control or reduce the stress, it still has its limits. The limited supply of body's energy to adapt to the stressful environment is even more compromised when the body is exposed to the stressor continuously

Alarm Stage

In this phase, the initial reaction of the body to stress is that it labels the stressor as a threat or danger to balance,that is why it immediately activates its fight or flight response system, and releases the "stress" hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol. These hormones enable you to perform activities that you don't usually do. For instance, when one's house is on fire, his body shifts to the alarm stage, his stress hormones released (particularly adrenaline) and then he lifts a very heavy appliance outside the burning house. But there's a catch - your blood pressure starts to rise after a minute or less, which can predispose you to damage of the brain and heart's blood vessels, putting you at risk to stroke or heart attack. The muscles you've utilized might also become painful due to tissue damage.

Influence

Influence Tactics - methods or tactics we deploy in order to influence others to see things our way or do what we want them to do. Types: • Rational persuasion - appeal to thoughts • Inspirational appeals - appeal to feelings • Consultation - asking for help • Ingratiation - authentic flattery • Personal appeal - appeal to relationships • Exchange - reciprocation • Coalition tactics - groups working together • Pressure - threat of undesirable outcome • Legitimating tactics - compliance with rules

Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA)

Organizations attempt to attract and select particular types of people - People are attracted to those organizations where they think they will fit into the culture - Organizations select those candidates who they believe will fit into the culture Attrition occurs naturally as candidates perceive a lack of person-organization fit and decide to leave (or are asked to leave) An organization's culture protects and sustains itself in part through the ASA process

Surface and deep acting

Original description of this emotion management process, researchers have focused on surface acting and deep acting as the primary strategies that employees use to regulate their emotions. Surface acting involves a "faking" process through which outward expressions are altered, yet internal feelings are left intact (2013).[10] Conversely, deep acting is an effortful process through which employees change their internal feelings to align with organizational expectations, producing more natural and genuine emotional displays (Grandey et al., 2013)[11] (3). Although the underlying regulatory processes involved in each approach differ, the objective of both, is typically to show positive emotions, which are presumed to impact the feelings of customers and bottom-line outcomes (e.g., sales, positive recommendations, and repeat business

Poor Listening

Rules for active Listening: 1. Listen to content of speaker's message 2. Listen to speaker's emotion 3. Acknowledge and respond to speaker's emotion 4. Take notice of speaker's cues 5. Paraphrase and restate speaker's key points

comm

Serves 3 main functions in orgs: • Coordination • Transmission of Information • Sharing emotions & feelings

Task vs. Personal Conflict

Task conflict is important, particularly in creative tasks. Task conflict is typically unrelated to cohesion. Ongoing task conflict, however, can be detrimental to complex tasks over time. Personal conflict is rarely good, as these can escalate to more severe forms of conflict

stress performance

The curve shows that as the level of stress increases, the performance level also increases, to the point of eustress, or healthy tension. Near the point of fatigue, an identified area called the Comfort Zone indicates the range of stress levels that we can absolutely manage and facilitates good performance levels. As stress begins to be perceived as overwhelming or excessive, the person reaches a fatigue point wherein the performance levels starts to decline. The ultimate end of overwhelming stress, called burnout, can be exhaustion, ill-health or breakdown.

AET cont

The model explains the linkages between employees' internal influences (e.g., cognitions, emotions, mental states) and their reactions to incidents that occur in their work environment that affect their performance, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The theory proposes that affective work behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions, while cognitive-based behaviors are the best predictors of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive-inducing (e.g., uplifts) as well as negative-inducing (e.g., hassles) emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have a significant psychological impact upon workers' job satisfaction.This results in lasting internal (e.g., cognition, emotions, mental states) and external affective reactions exhibited through job performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.

investigation

What do you need? What do you value? What are your goals? What will you concede?

info

When faced with a stressor, a person evaluates the potential threat (primary appraisal). Primary appraisal is a person's judgment about the significance of an event as stressful, positive, controllable, challenging or irrelevant. Facing a stressor, the second appraisal follows, which is an assessment of people's coping resources and options. Secondary appraisals address what one can do about the situation. Actual coping efforts aimed at regulation of the problem give rise to outcomes of the coping process

The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

a framework for evaluating the processes of coping with stressful events. Stressful experiences are construed as person-environment transactions. These transactions depend on the impact of the external stressor. This is mediated by firstly the person's appraisal of the stressor and secondly on the social and cultural resources at his or her disposal

Affective Events Theory (AET)

a psychological model designed to explain the connection between emotions and feelings in the workplace and job performance, job satisfaction and behaviours. AET is underlined by a belief that human beings are emotional and that their behaviour is guided by emotion.

learning organizations

actively seek to acquire knowledge and change behavior as a result of the newly acquired knowledge.

Hindrance stressors

broken down into two different categories, work and nonwork. Work hindrance stressors are sorted into role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, and daily hassles. Role conflict takes place when a co-worker does not have the same expectations for yourself as you do. One of the most common forms of hindrance stressor employees' face is role ambiguity

matrix organizations

cross between a traditional functional structure with a product (divisional) structure. Employees who report to department managers also work together as project or product teams and report to a project or product manager Contrasts with traditional organizational approach (unity of command) where each employee reports to a single manager

centralization

degree to which decision making authority is concentrated at higher levels of an organization/can lead to inefficiencies in decision making in an uncertain or highly competitive market/in a stable environment can lead to more efficient operations

boundaryless organizations

eliminate traditional barriers between departments and the external environment. Modular Organization: all nonessential functions (e.g., HR, IT) outsourced Strategic Alliances: two or more companies combine their efforts to create a partnership that is beneficial for both parties

formalization

extent to which an organization's policies, procedure, job descriptions, and rules are written and explicitly articulated

Decentralized companies

give more authority to lower level employees, resulting in a sense of empowerment/decisions can be made more quickly/can provide greater levels of procedural fairness to employees

Emotional labor

is a requirement of a job that employees display required emotions toward customers or others. More specifically, emotional labor comes into play during communication between worker and citizen and between worker and worker. This includes analysis and decision making in terms of the expression of emotion, whether actually felt or not, as well as its opposite: the suppression of emotions that are felt but not expressed

Emotional contagion

is the phenomenon of having one person's emotions and related behaviors directly trigger similar emotions and behaviors in other people

organizational change

movement of an organization from one state of affairs to another. Impetus for change: - Globalization - Demographics - Technology - Market conditions - Organizational growth - Poor performance

Filtering

sender distorts or withholds information in order to manage a receiver's reaction(s)

Challenge-related stressors

stem from demands or circumstances that have associated potential gains for individual, challenge stressors are stimuli such as high workload, time pressure, and high levels of responsibility (Liu 2). These stressors are also broken down into work and nonwork categories. High workload is a burden that was placed on an employee that was too much for them to handle, and working on a large assignment under large amounts of stress takes a toll on the quality of the final product. Time pressure is defined as the perception that there is not enough time to complete a given amount of work

Cyberincivility

uncivil behaviors or comments manifested through information and communication technology - E.g., emails sent in a rude or discourteous tone - Related to negative mood, distress, reduced engagement, and performance

Information Overload

when the demands of a receiver's time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceeds the supply or capacity of time available for his/her information processing

Communication

• 50% to 90% of a manager's time is spent communicating. • Miscommunication accounts for 70% to 80% of all accidents over the last 20 years. • Communication and interpersonal skills have been ranked as one of the most important skills recruiters are looking for

Negotiation Strategies

• Distributive Approach (aka "Win-lose" or "fixed- pie" approach). Negotiators win at the others expense and the focus is on one's own position. • Most appropriate when: - The negotiator has a stronger BATNA than the other party - There is little or no chance of dealing with the other party in the future. • Integrative Approach (aka "Win-win" or "expanding pie" approach). Negotiators focus on underlying issues or goals that are important to both parties. • Most appropriate when: - When the negotiator has a weaker BATNA than the other party - It is likely that the negotiator will deal with the other party in the future.

Recap

• Issues important to power & influence are: conformity and dependency • The power to influence is dependent on one's basis of power, ability to successfully utilize influence tactics • Politics can be positive or negative, but are more often seen when situations are ambiguous or decisions are left up to many • One's position in their social network can influence the amount of power they have over others

shared barriers

• Selective perception • Emotional disconnect • Source familiarity/credibility • Grapevine (gossip) • Semantics (jargon) • Gender differences • Biased language

What is Stress?

• Stress is a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable - Biochemical changes - Physiological changes - Cognitive changes, and - Behavioral changes That are directed either toward altering the stressful event or accommodating to its effects.

What is a Stressor?

• Stressful events are called stressors - Noise - Crowding - Bad relationships - Job interviews - Commuting to work • Each of these might be stressful to some people but not to others • How the event is perceived substantially determines whether it is a stressor.

Situational Leadership Theory

• Subordinate's competence (job-related ability, skills, and knowledge) aka Job Maturity • Subordinate's commitment (self-confidence and self-respect) aka Psychological Maturity