Bio Exam #3
Color blindness is an X-linked trait. If a color blind male has children with a female who is heterozygous for the color blind trait, what is the likelihood that their first child will be color blind? _______ What is the likelihood that their first child will be a female who is heterozygous for the color blind trait? _______
1/2; 1/4
The following pedigree represents the same autosomal dominant condition from the previous question.. again, let's assume those that have this condition have green hair. Assume the symbol for the dominant allele is "G", and the symbol for the recessive allele is "g". What are the chances that the male in the 3rd generation (symbolized III-4) will have a child with green hair if the mother does not have green hair? _____ What are the chances that the female in 3rd generation (symbolized III-8) will have a daughter who does not have green hair if the father does not have green hair? _____ Assume that the female in the third generation (III-8) is HETEROZYGOUS for this question!!
1/2; 1/4
What is the stroke volume of someone who has a cardiac output of 6 liters/min, and a heart rate is 60 beats/min?
100 milliliters/beat
State the 1st and 2nd Law of Thermodynamics and briefly describe these laws (1-2 sentences)
1st Law of Thermodynamics: -Energy can neither be created or destroyed -Energy can be converted from one form to another 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: -Has to do w/ Entropy=Disorder ^Entropy = ^Disorder(Randomness) -Things pretend to progress toward more and more disorder (higher entropy)
How many chambers are present in the heart of a frog (an amphibian)? ______ Is there mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood in this heart? _______ How many chambers are present in the heart of a bird? _______ Is there mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood in this heart? _______
3; yes; 4; no
How is the signal from a motor neurontransmitted to the deep interior of a muscle? What is a T-tubule? What happens to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) when the signal reaches it?
????????????????????????? T-Tubule: Where the electricty (Na+) goes through the smooth ER When a ribosome happens to be making a protein with an ER signal sequence, the signal directs the ribosome to the ER membrane. ... Therefore, only those mRNA molecules that encode proteins with an ER signal sequence bind to rough ER membranes; those mRNA molecules that encode all other proteins remain free in the cytosol.
What molecule does our body use most often to drive unfavorable chemical reactions? How is it made?
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Do all exergonic reactions proceed at the same rate? Why or why not? Be able to define and discuss the term "energy of activation" (Ea).
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Briefly discuss the "Sliding Filament Model" of skeletal muscle contraction, including the ATP binding step, the ATP hydrolysis step, and how actin and myosin behave in this process.
According to the sliding filament theory, the myosin (thick) filaments of muscle fibers slide past the actin (thin) filaments during muscle contraction, while the two groups of filaments remain at relatively constant length. ATP Binding Step: The muscle contraction cycle is triggered by calcium ions binding to the protein complex troponin, exposing the active-binding sites on the actin. ... ATP then binds to myosin, moving the myosin to its high-energy state, releasing the myosin head from the actin active site. ATP Hydrolysis Step: The catabolic reaction process by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released by splitting these bonds, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. How Actin & Myosin Behave: Each myosin thick filament is surrounded by actin thin filaments, and each thin filament is surrounded by thick filaments. Several of these filament bundles make up the functional portion of a muscle cell. It is also important to note that the thin filaments are attached to a very dense protein plate called a Z disc. We'll soon see why this is an important feature of actin structure.
Which of the following is NOT true about muscles?
Cardiac muscle is neurogenic (requires a nerve signal in order to contract).
The brain and spinal cord make up the ____________ nervous system, while sensory neurons and __________ neurons make up the ____________ nervous system.
Central; motor; Peripheral
What are coenzymes and cofactors? Provide an example of each.
Coenzymes: -big bulky, organic molecules -they are recycled -these are our essential vitamins Ex: are inorganic and organic chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalysis of reactions. Cofactors: -small metal ions -Fe12, Zn12, Mg12, Mn12 -recycled as well -Essential minerals in our diet Ex: mostly metal ions
What is bone consist of? What mineral do we need in our diets to keep our bones strong? What vitamin is required to absorb that mineral into our bloodstreams?
Collagen & Calcium, Vitamin D
Describe how enzymes can be inhibited in a competitive and non-competitive fashion. Also, describe what is meant by feedback inhibition.
Competitive: An inhibitor (a molecule) will bind to same site as the normal substrate Non-competitive (Allosteric, Allo=other/different, steric=site): The inhibitor binds 2 a different location from the normal substrate
Define tendon, ligament, proximal bone,distal bone, origin, insertion, and antagonistic muscle.
Tendon: a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone. Ligament: a short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint. Proximal Bone: the proximal end of the femur is part of the hip joint, and the shoulder is proximal to the elbow. The opposite of proximal is distal. Distal Bone: situated away from the point of attachment or origin or a central point, located away from the center of the body the distal end of a bone Origin: the place or point where a muscle, nerve, or other body part arises, in particular. Insertion: The point or mode of attachment of a skeletal muscle to the bone or other body part that it moves. Antagonistic Muscle: a muscle that opposes the action of another; a muscle that contracts while another relaxes
Define the term, energy. Describe the difference between kinetic energy and potential energy, providing a definition and an example of each.
The ability to work Kinetic Energy: Energy due to MOTION! Potential Energy: STORED ENERGY (Chemiacl Bond Energy) ->Energy due to position {Ex: On a hill}
Which of the following is not true about arteries and/or veins?
The blood in arteries always has more oxygen than the blood in veins.
In the old mafia movies, gangsters would call a dead person a "stiff".. rigor mortis is the proper name. Why does rigor mortis occur?
Without ATP, myosin cannot let go of actin and the muscles remain fixed in their last state of contraction.
When we are talking about sex-linked traits, we are talking about genes located on which chromosome? _______ Are males or females more likely to be affected by mutations on this chromosome? _________
X; males
Because we need to both extend and flex at a joint, skeletal muscles generally work in ________.
antagonistic pairs
Identify the inheritance pattern in the following picture. If the affected male in the second generation has a child with a heterozygous female, what are the chances that they will have an affected child?
autosomal recessive; 50%
A heart murmur can develop in rare instances in patients that have had untreated strep throat infections. Strep throat is caused by a ___________ infection. What part of the body does the immune system damage in individuals with this disease? _____________
bacterial; heart valves
Where are the semilunar valves located? __________________ Where are one-way valves located? _________________
between the ventricles and the vessels that exit from them; in the deep veins, particularly in the legs
In order for myosin to bind to actin, _________ must be released from the ________ endoplasmic reticulum. Once it is released, it binds to a regulatory protein that then moves another regulatory protein off of _________.
calcium; smooth; actin
Protein synthesis is performed when the ribosome travels along the mRNA three nucleotides at a time. Every three nucleotides on the mRNA is called a ____________. If the mRNA sequence is UAC, then the amino acid synthesized is _________. (you will need to look in your lab manual for the genetic code).
codon; tyr
Bones are made mainly of a protein called ____________ and the minerals phosphorus and, most importantly, calcium. However, in order to absorb calcium into the bloodstream and then into cells, the mineral ___________ and Vitamin ______ are required.
collagen; magnesium; D
What high-energy molecule can be used to make ATP in muscle cells for extra energy so you can lift more weight? ____________________ What is produced by a muscle cell if it is contracting continuously but there is not enough oxygen for aerobic respiration? _____________________
creatine phosphate; lactic acid
The receiving end of a neuron has projections sticking out of the cell body called ____________. Once all of the information is received, a decision to send a signal or not send a signal down the neuron is made at a location called the ____________.
dendrites; axon hillock
Which type of animal, an ectotherm, or an endotherm, uses the environment to heat itself? Which of the two requires more oxygen on a daily basis? (assume they are the same size). A bird is an _______________
ectotherm; endotherm; endotherm
If you are trying to run away from a serial killer, your body will release ____________ in order to cause _____________ of the arterioles leading to the digestive system. You would also want the pre-capillary sphincters leading to the capillary beds in your legs to ____________.
epinephrine; vasoconstriction; open up
The Law of Continuity states that a certain volume of liquid (e.g. blood) must go through a smaller diameter pipe (e.g. blood vessel) _____________ than it does through a larger diameter pipe. Based on this law, blood flow through capillary beds is ______________?
faster; slower than through arteries because there are more capillaries and they represent more total surface area.
How does calcium get into the muscle cytoplasm from the smooth ER when the muscle cell wants to contract? ____________ How does it get back into the smooth ER when the muscle cell wants to stop contracting? ____________
gated channels; active transport
The following pedigree represents an autosomal dominant condition.. let's assume those that have this condition have green hair. Assume the symbol for the dominant allele is "G", and the symbol for the recessive allele is "g". What is the genotype of the female in the first generation (symbolized I-2)? _______ What is the genotype of the male in the third generation (symbolized III-10)? _______
gg; Gg or GG
Besides monitoring blood pressure, what else do the baroreceptors help regulate?
heart rate
A individual who carries two of the same allele is said to be ____________. The physical appearance resulting from those two alleles is called their _____________.
homozygous; phenotype
Where are baroreceptors located?
in the carotid arteries and the aorta
Athletes originally performed blood doping by removing some of their own blood, isolating the important fraction of the blood, storing it on ice for a few weeks (to allow your body to replenish the lost blood), and then re-injecting the stored cells right before an athletic event. An easier method is to inject the a synthetic version of the hormone erythropoietin into the blood. This hormone is naturally produced by our ______________, and it stimulates the ______________ to ________________.
kidneys; red bone marrow; make red blood cells
The fibers that attach to the centromeres of sister chromatids and assist in chromosome separation are called ___________. The sister chromatids separate in mitosis during which phase?
microtubules; anaphase
A motor neuron and all of the muscle cells it stimulates is called a
motor unit
What is the name of the lipid insulation that covers the axon in a neuron that stimulates a skeletal muscle? ____________ This lipid becomes damaged in the Central Nervous System in those suffering from ______________. This disease is likely caused by your body attacking itself, which makes it a(n) ___________ disease. Note: if you are taking this quiz before Tuesday, we have not yet covered the last part of this question.. you can come back to it after Tuesday's lecture - maybe take a screen shot of your previous answers (or write them down) so you don't have to try to figure out the answers again. :-)
myelin; Multiple Sclerosis; autoimmune
The general name for the chemical released from the synaptic terminals of neurons is _______________. The specific chemical released from the ends of the neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles is ________________. Once these chemicals have done their job, they are removed from the synapse by either being degraded by an enzyme or __________________. Note: if you are taking this quiz before Tuesday, we have not yet covered the last part of this question.. you can come back to it after Tuesday's lecture - maybe take a screen shot of your previous answers (or write them down) so you don't have to try to figure out the answers again. :-)
neurotransmitter; acetylcholine; reuptake back into the neuron that released it
During which phase of mitosis do the chromosomes condense so that they are now visible under the microscope? Are the chromosomes duplicated or not duplicated at this point?
prophase; duplicated
When an athlete resorts to blood doping to enhance performance, they are most interested in which portion of the blood? ____________ What protein in this portion of the blood carries oxygen to the tissues? _____________ Oxygen getting to muscles is so important for performance because it's the best way to make __________ through aerobic respiration.
red blood cells; hemoglobin; ATP
The contractile units of skeletal muscle fibers are called ________, and each unit extends between two dark _____ lines.
sarcomeres; Z
Our natural pacemaker beats at about 100 beats per minute. The vagus nerve normally __________ the pacemaker by releasing the neurotransmitter ___________
slows down; acetylcholine
The "lub" sound of a heart beat represents __________, and blood smacking up against closed _________.
systole; A-V valves
For a blood pressure of 110/70, the upper number is the ______________, and it is the ________________ pressure we can measure. The lower number occurs when the heart is ____________.
systolic pressure; highest arterial; relaxing
The area of the heart that initiates contraction (the pacemaker) is located in the
upper right portion of the right atrium
Which blood vessel carries blood directly into the right atrium?
vena cava
Draw a diagram of a neuron, then label and discuss the function of each of the following parts: dendrites, nerve cell body, axon hillock, axon, myelin, synaptic vesicles, and synaptic terminal.
Dendrites: neurons next to one another are tipped by synapses (tiny transmitters and receivers for chemical messages between the cells). The word "dendrite" means "branched like a tree." It comes from the Greek "dendron" (tree). Nerve Cell Body: The largest part of a cell, the cell body holds all of the general parts of a cell as well as the nucleus, which is the control center. (The whole thing) Axon Hillock: a specialized part of the cell body (or soma) of a neuron that connects to the axon. The axon hillock is the last site in the soma where membrane potentials propagated from synaptic inputs are summated before being transmitted to the axon. Axon: or nerve fiber, is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body or soma. Axons are in effect the primary transmission lines of the nervous system, and as bundles they help make up nerves. Myelin: A substance comprised mainly of fatty material (about 80%) and proteins (about 20%), and forms the myelin sheath that surrounds the axons of some nerve cells. Supplement. Nerve cells in which the axon is covered with myelin sheath are found in the white matter of the central nervous system. (Lipid) Synaptic Vesicles: (or neurotransmitter vesicles) store various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse. The release is regulated by a voltage-dependent calcium channel. Vesicles are essential for propagating nerve impulses between neurons and are constantly recreated by the cell. Synaptic Terminal: (The end of the axon)(the presynaptic ending), an electrical impulse will trigger the migration of vesicles (the red dots in the figure to the left) containing neurotransmitters toward the presynaptic membrane. Synapse= the connection between nerve and muscle *Close but DO NOT TOUCH!
Provide definitions for endergonic and exergonic reactions. REMEMBER: HIGHER ENERGY = LESS STABLE :( LOW ENEGRY = MORE STABLE :)
ENDERGONIC Reaction: Reaction that absorbs energy. NOT SPONTANEOUS. (ender=in) *Energy is ABSORBED=>not spontaneous EXERGONIC Reaction: Action that releases energy SPONTANEOUS (will occur naturally) (Exer=out, ergonic=energy) *Energy is RELEASED=>SPONTANEOUS
Crossing over occurs during ____________.
Prophase I of Meiosis
Describe the structure of the sarcomere, the contractile unit of a skeletal muscle cell. Include a description of actin and myosin and how they are arranged in a sarcomere.
Sacromere: a segment of a myofibril containing thick and thin filaments. ... States that during contraction the thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree.a segment of a myofibril containing thick and thin filaments. ... States that during contraction the thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree. The Contractile Unit of a Skeletal Muscle Cell: The smallest contractile unit of skeletal muscle is the muscle fiber or myofiber, which is a long cylindrical cell that contains many nuclei, mitochondria, and sarcomeres Actin: filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for many types of cell movements. the protein actin form the contractile units (sarcomeres) of skeletal muscle. Myosin: A protein found in muscle tissue as a thick filament made up of an aggregate of similar proteins... is the prototype of a molecular motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement.
What type of nerve tells a skeletal muscle cell to contract?
Skeletal Muscles are Neurogenic, so they will ONLY contract when stimulated by a specific nerve => MOTOR NEURON
Compare the three types of muscle with respect to its appearance and whether it is voluntary or not.
Skeletal: Voluntary Cardiac: Voluntary Smooth: Involuntary
Discuss the many unique properties of enzymes, and discuss how they speed up chemical reactions.
Some Important Characteristics of Enzymes: 1.) Almost all are PROTEINS 2.) Molecular catalysts- that speed up reactions. 3.) They function by lowering Ea 4.) Enzymes cannot convert Endergonic rxns to Exergonic ones 5.) Call reactants substrates 6.) Substrate(s) bind to a 3D pocket of the enzyme -> Active site 7.) Enzymes are recycled! 8.) Some enzymes required temporary "helpers"
