Bio1009H Final
four summary points of genetic drift
1) genetic drift is significant in small populations 2) genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at random 3) genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation 4) genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
what must a satisfactory "origin of life theory" address?
1) initiation 2) monomer formation 3) self-assembly of macromolecules 4) protobionts 5) self-replicating molecules
what are the five conditions in order for hardy-weinberg to occur
1) no mutations 2) random mating 3) no natural selection 4) extremely large population size 5) no gene flow
what are the levels of ecology?
1) organismal 2) population 3) community 4) ecosystem 5) landscape 6) global
what are the three ways in which sympatric speciation can occur?
1) polyploidy 2) sexual selection 3) habitat differentiation
how long ago did the Big Bang happen?
13.7 bya
frequency of a heterozygous allele
2pq
how long ago was evidence of the first species found
3.5 bya
how long ago did the earth form
4.6 bya
how long ago did the supernova explosion happen
5 bya
viewed species as fixed and unchanging, placed them in a ladder of complexity, consistent with old testament
Aristotle
A paleontologist has recovered a bit of tissue from the 400-year-old preserved skin of an extinct dodo (a bird). To compare a specific region of the DNA from the sample with DNA from living birds, which of the following would be most useful for increasing the amount of dodo DNA available for testing? a. RFLP analysis b. Southern blotting c. polymerase chain reaction (PCR) d. gel electrophoresis
C. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
the sudden appearance in the fossil record of complex animals with mineralized skeletal remains
Cambrian explosion
era that began about 66 million years ago, known as the "Age of Mammals", recent life
Cenozoic era
theory of catastrophism (extinction occurs due to a catastrophic event), was a paleontologist
Cuvier
"ancient life", 543-245 mya the oldest era - immediately after Precambrian; organisms developed hard parts
Paleozoic era
An oligotrophic lake has which of the following characteristics? Select one: a. low amounts of decomposable organic matter in the bottom sediments of the lake b. nutrient-rich c. depleted of oxygen d. all of the above
a
In a Hardy-Weinberg population with two alleles, "A" and "a", that are in equilibrium, the frequency of allele "a" is 0.1. What is the frequency of individuals with AA genotype? Select one: a. 0.81 b. 0.32 c. 0.20 d. 0.42
a
Sympatric speciation I. is common in animals but rare in plants. II. initially involves a physical geographic separation of individuals from a single population into two separate populations. III. can result in the formation of a new species within a few generations. Select one: a. III only b. II only c. II and III d. I only
a
Uniform spacing patterns in birds such as the albatross are often associated with _____. Select one: a. competitive interaction between individuals of the same population b. patterns of high humidity c. the concentration of nutrients within the population's range d. the random distribution of seeds
a
Which of the following is NOT a biotic component of a burrow community? Select one: a. the air quality of the burrow b. the different species living in the burrow c. the population of each species in the burrow d. the food sources in the burrow
a
nonliving factors (temperature, water, sunlight, wind, rock and soil, climate)
abiotic
deepest, very cold region of the open ocean
abyssal zone
the part of the ocean 2000-6000 meters below the surface
abyssal zone
common ancestor spreads to several new environments and gives rise to new species
adaptive radiation
gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided geographically into subpopulations
allopatric speciation
hybrid that is fertile with more than two sets of chromosomes
allopolyploid
one is harmed and the other is not affected (0/-)
ammensalism
species formation without branching of the evolutionary line of descent
anagenesis
region in aquatic biomes where little light penetrates
aphotic zone
warning coloration
aposematic
what are the limitations to the biological species concept?
asexually reproducing organisms and fossils
an individual that has more than two sets of chromosomes that are all derived from a single species
autopolyploid
Among known plant species, which of these have been the two most commonly occurring phenomena that have led to the origin of new species? 1: allopatric speciation 2: sympatric speciation 3: sexual selection 4: polyploidy Select one: a. 2 and 3 b. 2 and 4 c. 1 and 4 d. 1 and 3
b
Besides sunlight, which are the next most important climatic factors influencing the distributions of terrestrial biomes? Select one: a. moisture and wind b. temperature and moisture c. wind and fire d. temperature and wind
b
If you were to climb a mountain, you could observe changes in the biological communities that are similar to the changes you might observe Select one: a. at different depths in the ocean. b. in biomes at different latitudes. c. in an ecosystem as it evolves over time. d. in a community through different seasons.
b
Members of two different species possess a similar-looking structure that they use in a similar way to perform about the same function. Which of the following would suggest that the relationship more likely represents homology instead of convergent evolution? Select one: a. Both species are well adapted to their particular environments. b. The two species share many proteins in common, and the nucleotide sequences that code for these proteins are almost identical. c. The two species also live in similar habitats. d. The structures in adult members of both species are similar in size.
b
The upper forelimbs of humans and bats have fairly similar skeletal structures, whereas the corresponding bones in whales have very different shapes and proportions. However, genetic data suggest that all three kinds of organisms diverged from a common ancestor at about the same time. Which of the following is the most likely explanation for these data? Select one: a. Genes mutate faster in whales than in humans or bats. b. Natural selection in an aquatic environment resulted in substantial changes in whale forelimb anatomy. c. Whale forelimbs probably evolved from some other structure, different from those that gave rise to human or bat forelimbs. d. Forelimb evolution was adaptive in humans and bats, but not in whales.
b
What does the biological species concept use as the primary criterion for determining species boundaries? Select one: a. morphological similarity b. gene flow c. niche differences d. geographic isolation
b
Which of the following is most likely to produce an African butterfly species in the wild whose members have one of two strikingly different color patterns? Select one: a. directional selection b. disruptive selection c. sexual selection d. artificial selection e. stabilizing selection
b
Which of the following best describes the complete sequence of steps occurring during every cycle of PCR? 1: The primers hybridize to the target DNA. 2: The mixture is heated to a high temperature to denature the double-stranded target DNA. 3: Ligase unwinds the DNA. 4: DNA polymerase extends the primers to make a copy of the target DNA. Select one: a. 3, 2, 1, 4 b. 2, 1, 4 c. 2, 1, 3, 4 d. 3, 4, 2
b. 2,1,4
In a Hardy-Weinberg population with two alleles, "A" and "a", that are in equilibrium, the frequency of the allele "a" is 0.3. What is the percentage of the population that is homozygous for this allele? Select one: a. 0.09 b. 9.0 c. 0.49 d. 0.9
b. 9.0
Which of the following is an example of potential rather than kinetic energy? a. a hockey puck hitting the boards b. a food molecule c. water flowing in a river d. an increase in air temperature as a meteor passes through the atmosphere
b. a food molecule
Dog breeders maintain the purity of breeds by keeping dogs of different breeds apart when they are fertile. This kind of isolation is most similar to which of the following reproductive isolating mechanisms? Select one: a. hybrid breakdown b. habitat isolation c. gametic isolation d. reduced hybrid fertility
b. habitat isolation
Why might a laboratory be using dideoxy nucleotides? Select one: a. to produce cDNA from mRNA b. to sequence a DNA fragment c. to clone the breakpoints of cut DNA d. to separate DNA fragments
b. to sequence a DNA fragment
harmless species mimic a toxic species
batesian mimicry
courtship rituals to attract mates vary by species preventing mating
behavioral isolation
the bottom zone, deep or shallow
benthic zone
a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with other groups
biological species concept
living factors
biotic
size of the population is reduced due to a natural disaster
bottleneck effect
Although each of the following has a better chance of influencing gene frequencies in small populations than in large populations, which one most consistently requires a small population as a precondition for its occurrence? Select one: a. mutation b. gene flow c. genetic drift d. natural selection
c
DNA sequences in many human genes are very similar to the sequences of corresponding genes in chimpanzees. The most likely explanation for this result is that Select one: a. convergent evolution led to the DNA similarities. b. chimpanzees evolved from humans. c. humans and chimpanzees share a relatively recent common ancestor. d. humans evolved from chimpanzees.
c
During a study session about evolution, one of your fellow students remarks, "The elephant stretched its nose while searching for hard-to-reach food; its offspring inherited longer noses, which eventually became trunks." Which statement is most likely to be helpful in correcting this student's misconception? Select one: a. Spontaneous mutations can result in the appearance of new traits. b. Disuse of an organ may lead to its eventual disappearance. c. Characteristics acquired during an organism's life are generally not passed on through genes. d. Only favorable adaptations have survival value.
c
Which gas was least abundant in Earth's early atmosphere? Select one: a. H2O b. CH4 c. O2 d. NH3
c
Which of the following is a TRUE statement regarding the first genetic material? Select one: a. One reason RNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it is single-stranded and can assume a variety of specific three-dimensional shapes. b. One reason DNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it can function as an enzyme-like catalyst. c. One reason DNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it is single-stranded and can assume a variety of specific three-dimensional shapes. d. One reason RNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it is double-stranded and takes the form of a uniform helix.
c
Which of the following statements about species, as defined by the biological species concept, is (are) correct? I. Biological species are defined by reproductive isolation. II. Biological species are the model used for grouping extinct forms of life. III. The biological species is the largest unit of population in which successful interbreeding is possible. Select one: a. I and II b. I, II, and III c. I and III d. II and III
c
Which of the following statements describes a phenomenon that would be studied by a researcher interested in community ecology? Select one: a. Decomposing salmon release nutrients that are used by other organisms in the stream. I b. Only a few salmon offspring will return to the stream of their birth to breed. c. Sea lions and humans hunt salmon in streams. d. Male salmon fight over females during the breeding season.
c
Within six months of effectively using methicillin to treat Staphylococcus aureus infections in a community, all new S. aureus infections were caused by MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). How can this best be explained? Select one: a. Novel methicillin resistance mutations arose in the S. aureus population in response to the presence of the antibiotic. b. A patient must have become infected with MRSA from another community. c. Some drug-resistant bacteria were present at the start of treatment, and natural selection increased their frequency. d. In response to the drug, S. aureus began making drug-resistant versions of the protein targeted by the drug.
c
Two species of frogs belonging to the same genus occasionally mate, but the offspring fail to develop and hatch. What is the mechanism for keeping the two frog species separate? Select one: a. gametic isolation b. the prezygotic barrier called hybrid sterility c. the postzygotic barrier called hybrid inviability d. the postzygotic barrier called hybrid breakdown
c.
Which of the following tools of recombinant DNA technology is incorrectly paired with its use? a. DNA polymerase - polymerase chain reaction to amplify sections of DNA b. electrophoresis - separation of DNA fragments c. DNA ligase - cutting DNA, creating sticky ends of restriction fragments d. restriction enzyme - analysis of RFLPs
c. DNA ligase- cutting DNA, creating stick ends of restriction fragments
Most Swiss starlings produce four to five eggs in each clutch. Starlings producing fewer, or more, than this have reduced fitness. Which of the following terms best describes this situation? Select one: a. disruptive selection b. directional selection c. stabilizing selection d. sexual selection
c. stabilizing selection
developed a two part naming system (binomial nomenclature), taxonomy & classification
carolus linnaeus
plant and animal diversity is high, plants highly adapted to fire
chaparral
species diverge morphologically
character displacement
evolution through the branching of a species or a lineage
cladogenesis
the most common pattern of dispersion, individuals are aggregated in patches
clumped
one benefits without affecting the other (+/0)
commensalism
the study of interactions between species
community ecology
the way in which organisms interact with other living things within a community
community interactions
two species that need the same limiting resource cannot coexist if niches are identical
competitive exclusion
the independant evolution of similar features in different lineages (sugar glider vs flying squirrel
convergent evolution
formed largely by calcium carbonate skeletons of coral animals
coral reefs
camouflage
crypsis
only prokaryotes to generate oxygen
cyanobacteria
A new fossil-bearing deposit, containing many species with shells but no soft-bodied species is found. What is the most logical explanation for this find? Select one: a. There was a mass extinction event among hard-bodied but not soft-bodied species at this location. b. Soft-bodied organisms are too small to fossilize. c. There were no soft-bodied organisms at this time and location. d. Conditions were not right to fossilize soft-bodied organisms.
d
If two modern organisms are distantly related in an evolutionary sense, then one should expect that Select one: a. they live in very different habitats. b. their chromosomes should be very similar. c. they shared a common ancestor relatively recently. d. they should share fewer homologous structures than two more closely related organisms.
d
It is believed that the Universe was created through the force of the "Big Bang" approximately 14 billion years ago, and the planet Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. What phenomenon do scientists believe lead to the formation of the Earth? Select one: a. Cosmic drift b. Planetoidation c. Mass expansion d. Supernova
d
The fossil record is biased in favor of species that Select one: a. died in a sandy area, near or within a river bed, and were buried quickly. b. existed on Earth for a long time. c. had hard shells or skeletons. d. all of the above.
d
What is the evidence that protobionts may have formed spontaneously? Select one: a. The discovery of ribozymes, showing that prebiotic RNA molecules may have been autocatalytic. b. The fossil record found in the stromatolites. c. The production of organic compounds within a laboratory apparatus simulating conditions on early Earth. d. The ability to synthesize liposomes in the laboratory.
d
Which of the following is NOT a reason why population growth declines as population size approaches the carrying capacity? Select one: a. Disease rates increase. b. Competition for resources increases. c. Predation rates increase. d. Climate becomes unfavorable.
d
Which of the following is a TRUE statement regarding the first genetic material? Select one: a. One reason DNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it is single-stranded and can assume a variety of specific three-dimensional shapes. b. One reason DNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it can function as an enzyme-like catalyst. c. One reason RNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it is double-stranded and takes the form of a uniform helix. d. One reason RNA is believed to be the first genetic material is because it is single-stranded and can assume a variety of specific three-dimensional shapes
d
Which of the following is one of the technical reasons why gene therapy is problematic? Select one: a. Cells with transferred genes are unlikely to replicate. b. Most cells with engineered genes overwhelm other cells in a tissue. c. mRNA from transferred genes cannot be translated. d. Transferred genes may not have appropriately controlled activity.
d
Which of the following tools of recombinant DNA technology is incorrectly paired with its use? Select one: a. electrophoresis - separation of DNA fragments b. DNA polymerase - polymerase chain reaction to amplify sections of DNA c. restriction enzyme - analysis of RFLPs d. DNA ligase - cutting DNA, creating sticky ends of restriction fragment
d
Which pair of terms most accurately describes life history traits for a stable population of wolves? Select one: a. semelparous; K-selected b. iteroparous; r-selected c. semelparous; r-selected d. iteroparous; K-selected
d
Which zone is NOT found in marine environments? Select one: a. Aphotic zone b. Neritic zone c. Benthic zone d. Littoral zone
d
The mathematical expression for the change in the free energy of a system is ∆G = ∆H - T∆S. Which of the following is (are) TRUE? Select one: a. ∆G is the change in enthalpy. b. T is the temperature in degrees Celsius. c. ∆H is the change in free energy. d. ∆S is the change in entropy.
d. S is the change in entropy
The Theory of Evolution can explain Select one: a. the unity of life. b. the diversity of life. c. the complex nature of life. d. both "a" and "b".
d. both a and b
The role of restriction enzymes in DNA technology is to Select one: a. reseal sticky ends after base paring of complementary nucleotides. b. produce cDNA from mRNA. c. denature DNA into single strands that can hybridize with complementary sequences. d. produce a cut at a specific sequence on DNA.
d. produce a cut at a specific sequence on DNA
If you explore a biological concept by breaking down the complex system to its simpler components, you are using an approach called a. emergent properties. b. morphologism. c. simplificationism. d. reductionism.
d. reductionism
proposed the first plausible theory of evolution: 1. concept of use & disuse 2. inheritance of acquired characteristics
de lamarck
the study of vital statistics (death, birth, and immigration rates) of a population and how they change over time
demography
# of individuals per unit area or volume
density
a death rate that increases with population density or a birth rate that falls with rising density (competition for resources, disease, predation, territoriality, intristic factors, toxic wastes)
density dependent
birth or death rate that does not change with population or density (temperature/rainfall)
density independant
occur in a band near 30 degrees north and south latitudes and in the interior of continents
deserts
occurs when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one phenotypic range, thereby shifting a populations frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction (ex. mice living in darker rocks)
directional selection
the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or areas of high population density
dispersal
pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of a population
dispersion
conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes (ex. mice living in dark and light rocks)
disruptive selection
species within a community that have the greatest biomass or highest abundance (by number).
dominant species
wide, meandering, increased nutrients, oxygen variant
downstream
ecological role of an organism in its community, sum total of organisms use of biotic and abiotic factors, the way in which it makes a living
ecological niche
defines a species by the set of resources it uses and its role in the biological community (ecological niche)
ecological species concept
emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and the environment
ecosystem ecology
a prokaryotic cell engulfed a small cell that eventually evolved into organelles, eventually leading to eukaryotes
endosymbiosis
area of transition between river and sea
estuaries
lakes that are shallow, nutrient rich and oxygen poor
eutrophic lakes
natural selection + random variation (mutation, gene flow, genetic drift) =
evolution
dN/dt= rN, where r= per capita change in population size that occurs at each instant in time, N is population size, and t is time
exponential growth equation
when a few individuals become isolated from a large population, this small group may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population (a storm moves some sea animals to a new part of the ocean)
founder effect
the entire niche that a species is theoretically capable of occupying in the absence of competition from other species
fundamental niche
weakening of reproductive barriers, the two species fuse
fusion
the sperm is unable to fertilize the egg
gametic isolation
transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes
gene flow
chance events that cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next (especially in small populations)
genetic drift (founder & bottleneck effect)
Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments
genetic variation
a standard time scale that divides earths history into four eons and further subdivisions
geologic record
two species occupy different habitats and cannot mate
habitat isolation
a population that is not evolving is said to be in
hardy-weinberg equilibrium
narrow, clear, cold and swift, few nutrients, oxygen rich
headwaters
herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga (+/-)
herbivory
theory of gradualism (profound geological changes took place through the cumulative effect of slow but continuous processes)
hutton
offspring that result from an interspecific mating
hybrid
Hybrid is fertile, but when they breed the next generation is sterile.
hybrid breakdown
a region in which members of a different species meet and mate, producing a least some offspring of mixed ancestry
hybrid zone
Portion of the shoreline that lies between the high and low tide lines
intertidal zone
a marine biome that is periodically submerged and exposed by tides, oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high
intertidal zones
fewer offspring considering significant parental development
k-selected species
predator or prey that has a pronounced impact on the community structure
keystone species
gene responsible for making enzymes that break down lactose gene
lac-z gene
photic zone, aphotic zone, pelagic zone, littoral zone, limnetic zone, benthic zone
lake zonation
area in a freshwater habitat away from the shore but still close to the surface
limnetic zone
the shallow zone of soil and water in lakes and ponds where most algae and emergent plants grow
littoral zone
dN/dt= rN (K-N)/K
logistic growth equation
theory of uniformitarianism (determined that earth is old & persistent; processes can cause great change)
lyell
human suffering is due to the populations tendency to grow faster than food supply; all species can produce more offspring than their environment can support
malthus
giant tube worms, receives no sunlight, very cold, high pressure
marine benthic zone
photic zone, aphotic zone, pelagic zone, intertidal zone, neritic zone, oceanic zone, abyssal zone, benthic zone
marine zonation
from 230 million to 63 million years ago, age of reptiles, age of dinosaurs, "middle life"
mesozoic era
a group of populations that are separated by space but consist of the same species
metapopulations
species attempt mating but morphological or anatomical difference prevent it
morphological isolation
distinguishes a species by body shape and other features
morphological species concept
two or more toxic species resemble each other
mullerian mimicry
both benefit (+/+)
mutualism
The region of shallow ocean water over the continental shelf.
neritic zone
is the outcome of natural selection random?
no
forest is dominated by cone-bearing trees, some trees depend on fire to regenerate
northern coniferous forest
what are the conditions early earth that made origin of life possible
o Reducing atmosphere (no oxygen) o Monomer formation: Abiotic synthesis of small organic compounds o Self-assembly of macromolecules (polymers) o Protobionts/Protocells: early cells o Self-replicating molecules
open water, high oxygen levels, low nutrient levels
oceanic pelagic zone
vast open ocean from the edge of the continental shelf outward
oceanic zone
lakes that are nutrient poor and oxygen rich
oligotrophic lakes
semelparous
one chance to reproduce in a large quantity
studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and behavior meet environmental challenges
organismal ecology
frequency of homozygotes
p^2/q^2
predator or parasite harms the host (+/-)
parasitism/predation
the zone made up of photic and aphotic zones
pelagic zone
does selection act more on genotypes or phenotypes?
phenotypes
the region in aquatic biomes where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis
photic zone
Oxygen did not become prevalent in the atmosphere until the majority of iron oxide, dissolved in aquatic environments, precipitated out, and surplus oxygen could escape to the atmosphere
photosynthesis and oxygen revolution
defines a species as a set of organisms with a unique genetic history
phylogenic species concept
a organism with an extra set of chromosomes
polyploidy
one population depends on another population, the population size fluctuates
population cycling
the study of populations in relation to their environments
population ecology
4.6 billion years ago-543 mya, no life except algae; 88% of life history
pre-cambrian era
species that reproduce quickly and offer little or no care for offspring
r-selected species
position of each individual is independent of other individuals
random
the portion of the fundamental niche to which a species is restricted as a result of competition with other species
realized niche
hybrids between the two species are sterile or are sexually unattractive to members of other species (according to Cheryl first generation of offspring are sterile [cannot reproduce])
reduced hybrid fertility
hybrids have detrimental physical characteristics that make them more susceptible to predators, parasites, or diseases and/or make them less capable of finding shelter; (according to Cheryl zygote fails to develop)
reduced hybrid viability
hybrids gradually cease to be formed, the formation of unfit hybrids is reduced
reinforcement of reproductive barriers
the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contribution of the other individuals
relative fitness
iteroparous
repeated reproduction
the existence of biological factors that impede members of two species from interbreeding and producing fertile, viable offspring
reproductive isolation
species use slightly different resources to coexist in a community
resource partitoning
rainfall is seasonal with a dry season of eight or nine months
savanna
continued formation of hybrid individuals
stability
acts against extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants (ex. mice living in intermediate colored rocks)
stabilizing selection
species that live in the same geographic area but speciation still occurs
sympatric speciation
heavily settled on all continents, heavily logged around the world, vertically layered
temperate broadleaf forest
deep fertile soils, ideal for agriculture
temperate grassland
species breed at different times of the day, season, or year
temporal isolation
defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals
territoriality
example of breakdown of reproductive barriers
the rainbow fish example, in murky waters, females cannot tell difference between fish, so they mate
obey physical laws of thermodynamics
trophic efficiency
vertically layered, large amount of plant and animal diversity
tropical forest
permanent layer of permafrost prevents water infiltration and root growth
tundra
oxygenated water from a lakes surface is sent to the bottom and brings nutrient-rich water from the bottom to the surface in both SPRING and AUTUMN
turnover
evenly spaced dispersion
uniform
remnants of features that served important functions in the organism's ancestors
vestigial structures
supports plants adapted to water saturated soil, swamps and marshes
wetlands
how long ago did colonization of plants, animals, and fungi occur
~500 mya
