Biological Bases of Behavior

_______ involves deficits in the production of language while comprehension remains relatively intact; includes anomia and difficulty repeating phrases spoken by another person

Broca's Aphasia

Damage to a specific area of the premotor cortex of the frontal lobe can produce ________, which is characterized by a severe deficiency in expressive language (e.g., speech is slow and poorly articulated, very few words are used).

Broca's aphasia (aka expressive aphasia)

Other anti-anxiety agents

BuSpar (buspirone), Neurontin (gabapentin), and the beta-blocker Inderol (propanolol)

Electroencephalography (EEG)

measures the electrical field that is naturally generated by the brain; provides high temporal information about brain activity on the order of milliseconds, but relatively poor spatial resolution/localization.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

measures the magnetic field of the brain just as an electroencephalogram measures the electrical properties of the brain. The magnetic field runs perpendicular to the electrical field.

The Parietal Lobe

Contains primary sensory areas that process Somatosensory information. Parietal lobe enables us to integrate sensations of touch such as shape, size, weight, and texture, merging these into three dimensional experience of objects around us. Also process sensations of pain, heat, proprioception (ability to sense position, location, and movement of the body). - Right parietal lobe plays a key role in directing attention, as well as visual and spatial skills. Left parietal lobe is involved over-learned motor routines and linguistic skills such as reading, writing, and naming objects. - Damage often causes by stroke, and may result in inability to name objects (anomia), inability to write (agraphia), problems with reading (alexia), difficulty doing math (acalculia), difficulty drawing objects, difficulty distinguishing right from left, lack of awareness of certain body parts that lead to difficulty with self-care, problems with eye-hand coordination, and problems with attending to more than one object at a time.

Central Nervous System

Consists of the spinal cord and brain, with sensory (afferent) neurons carrying information into the CNS, and motor (efferent) neurons carrying information away from the CNS muscles and glands.

Temporal Lobes

Contains primary auditory cortex. Rests on top, and are connected to the limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus), which means that it is also involved in emotional behavior and memory. - Left temporal lobe is involved in verbal memory and language comprehension (Wernicke's area). The right temporal lobe is involved in visual memory. - Damage may result in increased aggressive behavior, increase or decrease in sexual behavior, interference with memory, and problems understanding speech (Wernicke's aphasia).

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Measures metabolic brain activity. Small amounts of radioactive materials are either injected or inhaled; then, positrons i.e., positively charged particles are emitted from the unstable radioactive substance. Positrons collide with nearby electrons to release high energy gamma rays that are detected by the PET scanner. The PET scanner obtains numerous images of these emissions as the substance flows through the brain vasculature.

TRUE or FALSE: Symptoms caused by an open head injury (e.g., gun shot wound) tend to resolve more rapidly than problems caused by a closed head injury (e.g., severe car accident).

TRUE: Open head injuries are usually focal, affecting a specific part of the brain, while closed head injuries are more diffuse and lead to widespread damage

The ________ is responsible for maintaining the body's homeostasis (temperature, fluid levels, metabolism, etc.) and also plays a role in intentional behaviors such as feeding, sex, aggression, and maternal behavior.

Hypothalamus (remember 4 F's: Fight, Flight, Feed, Fornicate)

________ involves slowed metabolism, reduced appetite, weight gain, decreased heart rate and body temp, low libido, depression, and impaired cognitive processes (e.g., concentration, memory); symptoms of ________ include high body temp, increased metabolism, increased appetite, weight loss, nervousness, agitation, fatigue, insomnia, mania, and decreased capacity for attention.

Hypothyroidism; Hyperthyroidism (Grave's Disease)

A person with ________ apraxia cannot respond to commands requiring particular movement (e.g., pick up a fork) but may be able to do so spontaneously, while those with ________ apraxia cannot draw or copy simple figures or arrange blocks in a pattern.

Ideomotor; constructional

Myelin Sheath

Insulating wrap around neurons which increase speed of signal transmission

The pancreas releases ________, which functions to help the body absorb and make use of glucose and amino acids; the body's inability to produce it causes ________, while over-production leads to ________.

Insulin; diabetes mellitus; hypoglycemia

Serotonin

Involved with mood, Aggression, appetite, Sexual activity and Pain perception. Serotonin is produced by dietary modification of tryptophan. Deficiency implicated in mood disorder. Levels of Norepinephrine determines whether mood disorder is expressed as mania (too much NE) or depression (too little NE).

Hypothalamus

Regulates secretion of hormones

TRUE or FALSE: Depressive disorders and alcohol dependence are more common in the first-degree relatives of people with chronic pain.

TRUE: This suggests an environmental or genetic predisposition for developing pain

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Measures changes in the oxygen concentration of the blood in response to its utilization at various brain locations; is funtional

fMRI

Measures functional differences in oxygen levels in the brain without injecting anything

Homunculus

Representation of body parts in the brain are directly proportional to level of movement, not size of body part (e.g. hands have a larger representation than torso because hands have more movement potential)

caudate nucleus

Research has linked OCD to overactivity in the _____.

What sense is considered the most primitive (phylogenetically lowest) due to the fact that information received by it is not relayed from the thalamus to the cortex, but runs directly to the limbic system?

Smell (olfaction)

TRUE or FALSE: Stronger electrical stimulation generates more action potentials in a neuron and causes them to occur in a greater number of neurons.

TRUE: Though size and speed of an action potential are NOT related to stimulation intensity

TRUE or FALSE: Research has suggested that RNA may play a role in memory.

TRUE: Untrained organisms injected with RNA from trained organisms learned conditioned responses more quickly than control organisms (*controversial issue)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Takes a series of images at different levels of the brain using a magnetic field to create a 3-D brain image; more precise than CT & Does Not use x-rays

What occurs when blood flow to the brain experiences a severe, sudden interference, such as by a blood clot (embolism) or hemorrhage, which leads to the onset of neurological symptoms?

Stroke (aka cerebrovascular accident, or CVA)

________ brain imaging techniques include Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT scan) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), which take a series of images at different levels of the brain providing direct visualization of structures and features.

Structural

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan)

Takes a series of images at different levels of the brain using x-ray measuring the density of brain tissue

One of the most serious side effects of traditional antipsychotics, this condition is characterized by repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements, including lip smacking, grimacing, puckering lips, and rapid eye blinking.

Tardive dyskinesia

TRUE OR FALSE: Basal ganglia are inhibitory and keep us still

TRUE

non-REM Sleep Stage 1

alpha waves replaced by theta waves

the _____ integrates, coordinates, and directs motivational and emotional activities and attaches emotion to memories

amygdala

the ______ mediates the subjective experience of emotion and the attachment of emotions to memory

amygdala

components of the limbic system

amygdala, hippocampus

akathisia

an inability to sit or stand motionless along with a feeling of restlessness.

Polygraph

an instrument that graphs several different biological measures simultaneously; e.g., it may simultaneously measure brain activity using an electroencephalogram, muscle activity using an electromyogram (EMG), eye-movement activity using an electrooculogram (EOG), and temperature using a thermometer.

damage to the parietal lobe results in:

anomia, agraphia, alexia, acalculia, difficulty drawing objects, difficulty distinguishing right/left, lack of awareness of certain body parts

_____ produce no activity on their own but reduce or block the effects of a neurotransmitter or agonist

antagonists

in TBI, ______ is referred to as post-traumatic amnesia and is a good predictor of recovery

anterograde amnesia

side effects of TCAs

anticholinergic symptoms, drowsiness, termor, memory problems, sexual dysfunction

What are side effects of antipsychotics

anticholinergic: dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia, gastric Extrapyramidal: parkinsonism, akathisia, dystonia, tardive dyskinesia

motor/efferent neurons

carry information away from the CNS to muscles/ glands

sensory/afferent neurons

carry information into the CNS from the muscles/glands

Tourette's syndrome has been linked to excessive activity of dopamine receptors in the ______.

caudate nucleus

striatum

part of the basal ganglia; involved in movement and certain cognitive processes

tectum

part of the midbrain; involved in auditory and visual processing

reticular activating system

projects to the thalamus as a filter for incoming sensory information and is involved the sleep-wake cycle

Bradycardia and depression are side effects of ______.

propanolol

Lesions at the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes can produce _______.

prosopagnosia

Cerebellum

provides excitatory inputs that are responsible for maintaining smooth movement and coordinating motor activity

Pain is an interaction between...

psychological & physiological mechanisms.

Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

radiological technique that integrates computed tomography (CT); a gamma-emitting radioisotope (called radionuclide) is injected into the bloodstream to visualize blood flow to tissues and organs--permits accurate localization in 3D space

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

rare, degenerative, fatal brain disorder though to result from an infectious misfoldd protein that triggers other proteins to malfunction. Rapldly progressive NCD with muscular coordination probelms, personality changes, impairend cognition, and vision problems. People usually die within 4-6 months. A variant of the disease is believed to be caused by consuming meat of cows with mad cow disease

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome

rare. severe muscle rigidity, alerted consciousness, autonomic instability, and high fever. can be fatal

dendrites

receive information from other neurons by capturing neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft at their receptor sites

Brain Imaging Techniques

refers to a series of techniques that utilize the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties to provide measures of brain structure and/or function. Often divided into 2 types: Structural & Functional

athetosis

refers to slow, uncoordinated, and involuntary movements of the extremities.

medulla

regulates automatic responses such as breaking and heart rate

suprachiasmic nucleus

regulates the sleep-wake cycle

Confabulation

replacement of a gap in memory with false information the person believes to be true.

auditory cortex

responsible for auditory sensation and perception damage may cause auditory agnosia, auditory hallucinations, or cortical deafness

hypothalamus

responsible for maintaining the body's homeostasis via influence on ANS and endocrine glands

right hemisphere of the brain

responsible for perceptual, visuospatial, artistic, intuitive activities and emotion activities

Somatic Nervous System

sends and receives sensory messages that control voluntary motor movement of the skeletal (striated or lined) muscles.

Somatic nervous system

sends and receives sensory messages that control voluntary motor movement of the skeletal muscles

basal ganglia

sends information to the cortical areas involved in movement (premotor, motor cortexes) to properly direct movement

Gate control theory

sensations of pain are not directly related to activation of pain receptors, but they are mediated my neural gates in the spinal cord that allow these signals to go to the brain. pressue can close the gait which is why rubbing an injury can relieve pain. mood and attitudes also affect gates. Depression and berevement may open neural gates and increase pain experiences

Centralization pain theory

sensitization to pain occurs when the brain is exposed to repeated pain signals or nerve stimulation. as a result of neural plasticity, neurons develop a memory for responding to pain signals. repeated or frequent stimulation results in stronger and quicker brain memory. So a lower threshold and stronger pain response. More doses of meds to lower pain too, so pain should be treated early and aggressively.

________ mediates temperature, hunger and thirst, sexual behavior, aggression, arousal, and sleep

serotonin

Quadraplegia

serve ring the spinal cord anywhere between C1 and C5 results in paralysis in all four limbs.

limbic system

set of brain structures that forms the inner border of the cortex; considered our primitive brain; involved in emotions, basic drives, learning, olfaction, and memory

reticular formation

set of interconnected nuclei int he brainstem, esp important in awareness, attention, and sleep. part of the rf, the Reticular activating system, projects to the thalamus. its involved in the sleep-wake cycle, serves as a filter for incoming sensory info, and mediates alertness.

Side effects of Tricylic ADs

severe anticholonngergic effects, sedation, orthostatic hypotension, weight gain, nausea, and secual dysfuction. also linked to increased risk of heart disease

quadriplegia

severing the spinal cord anywhere between C1 and C5 results in paralysis in all four limbs

parapalegia

severing the spinal cord on T1 or below; paralysis in legs only

Sulci

shallow grooves that separate the lobes

non-REM Sleep Stage 2

slightly deeper stage of sleep, dominated by theta waves

arousal of the parasympathetic nervous system leads to:

slowing down heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration increases digestion and elimination

dystonia

"a syndrome of sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures." Differences in the extent & severity of muscle and frequency of symptom involvement range from intermittent contraction limited to a single body region to generalized dystonia involving the limbs & axial muscles. Features such as age of onset and presumed etiology play a tremendous role in prognosis & treatment. A younger age of onset associated with a more generalized and severe course in primary dystonias.

Parasympathetic nervous system

"energy conserving system." dominant when a person is relaxed. The main function is maintenance, which is accomplished by slowing heart rate, bp, and respiration while increasing digestion and elimination.

Norepinephrine

(Noradrenaline) involved with mood. Depression is associated with a relative deficiency while mania is involved with excess. Also plays a role in pain perception and sleep. also released as a hormone into the bloodstream which can cause heart rate increase

side effects of benzos

drowsiness and dizziness. mild cog imapirment, impaired coordiantion, nightmares, headache, stomach probs, and memory problems. Beta blockers can cause sexual dysfuncitin, fatigue, dizziness, cold hands a,d feet, sleep problems, angina, and shortness of breath

side effects of tricyclics

dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, blurred vision, and nasal congestion

anticholinergic side effects

dry mouth, urinary retention, constipation, and blurred vision.

Hyperthyroidism

excessive secretion of thyroxine, results in weight loss despite increased appetite, heat sensitivity, sweating, diarrhea, tremor and palpitations, fatigue, agitated depression, insomnia, impaired memory and judgement, and can even involve hallucinations and delusions. - The most common form of hyperthyroidism is Grave's Disease.

Side effects of lithium

gastric distress, weight gain, tremor, fatigue, confusion 35% will have tremor in fingers. It can be toxic or deadly.

reticular formation

important in awareness, attention, and sleep

motor area

in charge of instigating voluntary movement

prefrontal cortex

in charge of personality, EF (cognitive flexibility), and emotionality

premotor area

in charge of planning movement

Atonic seizures

involve a sudden loss of muscle tone that may cause the individual to fall down

EEG

measures electrical activity in the cortex. Shows changes in brain activity that aid in diagosin condictions like epilepsy. Preffered method of localizing the source of a seizure

When necessary body fluids are low, this hormone inhibits urination; diabetes insipidus (excessive water loss) is the result of under-secretion of this hormone.

Antidiuretic hormone (or Vasopressin)

A person with this type of visual agnosia is unable to recognize objects by sight but can identify them by touch.

Aperceptive agnosia

Regarding focal brain syndromes, ________ refers to impaired ability to produce or comprehend written or spoken language, ________ refers to impaired reading abilities, ________ involves impaired ability to execute learned purposeful movements, ________ is the inability to recognize familiar objects in the absence of a primary sensory system disturbance, and ________ is the inability (or unwillingness) to acknowledge one's own functional impairment.

Aphasia; alexia; apraxia; agnosia; anosognosia

Wernicke's Area

Area of the language dominant temporal lobe responsible for understanding and meaningful expression of language

examples of Tricyclic Antidepressants

doxepin, imipramine, clomipriamine

What are the 6 "basic emotions" accepted as being universally experienced by all humans?

Fear, anger, joy, sadness, surprise, and disgust

Sleep stages

1) Stage 1: transitional stage btw sleep and wakefulness, lighest sleep. Theta waves 2) Stage 2: brain produces bursts of rapid, rythmic brain wave activity known as sleep spindles. body temp and heart rate decreases 3) Stages 3 and 4: Delta waves. Stage 3 is transition btw light and deep sleep. 4 is deep sleep. Heart rate and breathing is slowed, but muscles maintain tone. 4) REM (stage 5): rapid eye movement, increased respiration, and brain acitvity. Also considered paradoxiacal sleep, the brain and body systems become more active but the muscles are more relaxed. This is when most dreaming happens Stages alter throughout the night. deeper stages become less frequent and REM more prominant as the night progresses. AS people age, percentage of REM sleep decreases. newborn sleep:50% REM. 5 years: 20-25%. Adults: 18% Dream deprivation (waking a bunch during REM) causes REM rebound

3 stages of alzheimer's

1) pre-clinical (biomarkers indicate disease but no symptoms) 2)mild cognitive impairment (mild but noticible changes) 3) dementia Now thought to begin 20 years before the development of symptoms

four regions of the spinal cord

1. Cervical (C1-C7) 2. Thoracic (T1-T12) 3. Lumbar (L1-L5) 4. Sacral (S1)

How do CT & MRI differ?

1. Resolution: A CT scan produces a relatively low-resolution image when compared with more recently developed brain imaging techniques such as MRI. 2. MRI Does Not use x-rays

Clinical applications of EEG

1. To study sleep patterns. During sleep, it can be used to monitor brain waves in order to delineate REM from non-REM sleep. 2. Monitoring anesthesia during surgical procedures 3. Studying cognitive functions of the brain. 4. Used in the diagnosis of epilepsy.

Purposes of Pharmacokinetics (PK)

1. study the course of a drug over time, in relation to its absorption by the body, distribution, metabolism and excretion. 2. study how these four processes relate to the time course and the intensity of both therapeutic and side effects of the drug.

pain threshold of loudness-amplitude

120 decibels

risk for a DZ twin of a schizophrenic proband to be diagnosed with schizophrenia

17%

1. Rods and cones synapse with...

2. Bipolar Cells

1. Vibrations enter through...

2. the auditory canal and ear drum.

range of audible frequencies

20-20,000 cycles per second (CPS)

genotype

23 pairs of chromosomes an individual inherits from his/her parents

2. Bipolar cells synapse with...

3. Ganglion cells

2. Vibrations on the eardrum are amplified by...

3. Three ossicle bones

3. Ganglion cells form bundles called...

4. optic nerves

Vibrations are transmitted to...

4. the oval window.

risk for a MZ twin of a schizophrenic proband to be diagnosed with schizophrenia

46%

Serotonin

5-HT, mood, sleep, appetite, aggression, sexual activity, and pain perception. Produced by a dietary modification of tryptophan. Dysregulation has been associated with suicide and impulsivity. Deficiencies Implicated in mood disorders.

4. The oval window puts pressure on...

5. liquid of the inner ear, cochlea.

percentage of left-handed people who are left-hemisphere dominant for language

50-60

5. Pressure on liquid of the inner ear causes...

6. movement of the hair cells.

By age 2, the brain has reached _____% of its adult weight.

80

Aneurysm

A bulging, weak area of an artery in the brain

Achromatopsia

A congenital deficit in the perception of color.

Concussion

A form of mild TBI resulting in altered consciousness, posttrauma amnesia, or focal cognitive deficit

Pick's Disease

A frontotemporal dementia (FTD) caused by a decay of neurons in the frontal and temporal cortex; results in changes in personality, executive dysfunction, and language difficulties

2. What is the Eardrum?

A membrane that vibrates as a function of sound waves.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A model of response to long term stress. 1) Alarm-body mobilizes resources to cope with stress by activating sympathetic nervous system and releasing cortisol and adrenaline 2) Resistance- the alarm reaction subsides and the body adapts to the stressor 3) Exhaustion- occurs in response to chronic stress, the body's resources are exhausted and immunity is greatly lowered. can lead to significant loss of health and death

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Korsakoff's Syndrome

A neurological disease resulting in loss of declarative memory, caused by depletion of thiamine, usually due to long-term alcohol abuse

All or None Principle

A neuron, if sufficiently stimulated, will fire to it's full extent. If not sufficiently stimulated, it will not fire.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in mood, arousal, pain, and sleep

aperceptive agnosia

A person cannot identify a familiar object visually but can identify it kinesthetically when it is placed in his hand. It is believed to be caused by lesions in the visual association cortex, which is located in the occipital lobe.

Limbic System

A set of brain structures that forms inner border of the cortex, is considered our primitive brain and plays a key role in our survival. Limbic system largely involved in emotions (fear, anger, pleasure), basic drives (sex, hunger), learning, olfaction, and memory. The limbic system also influences our autonomic nervous system and endocrine system. - Key limbic system structures include: 1. Thalamas 2. Hypothalamas 3. Hippocampus 4. amygdala 5. Septum

Wada Test

A type of neuroangiography procedure used to identify language abilities in the cerebral cortex

Anticholinergic effects and extrapyramidal symptoms

A: dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention/hesistance, bluerred visiion, dry eyes, sensitivity to light, conegstion, confusion, and decreased memory. Side effects typically diminish in 1st month, but dont toally disappear. Deal with drying out or holidng in EP: movement related symptoms. may be managed through the use of anticholinergic agents such as cogentin and artane. 2nds gens are far less likley to cause this. Symptoms imclude dystonia (painful muscle spasms), parkinsoniasm, and akathisia (unpleasant, restelss feeling esp in the legs).

Acetylcholine

ACh - muscle activation

Neurobiological factors associated with _______ include neurotransmitter abnormalities, lower than normal activity in the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia and smaller than normal cerebellum

ADHD

Working Memory

Ability to manipulate mental information

Seizure

Abnormal neuronal firing resulting in abnormal behavior or experiencing

Superior

Above

Negative Symptoms

Absence of a normal behavior

According to psychophysics, the level of intensity of a stimulus at which a subject is able to detect the presence of the stimulus some proportion (usually 50%) of the time (e.g., the softest a sound can be and still be heard) is referred to as what?

Absolute threshold (aka detection threshold)

Hydrocephalus

Accumulation of cerebro spinal fluid in the brain's ventricles, causing cranial pressure. It can be caused by overproduction or malabsorption of CSF. IT can cause neuro problems, unrinary incontinece, unsteady gait. It can sometimes be corrected with surgery (shunt)

This neurotransmitter causes muscles to contract and is associated with impairments in voluntary movement; in the brain it is involved in learning/memory, with depletion of its receptors in the cortex and hippocampus occurring in Alzheimer's disease.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Apraxia

Acquired difficulty in producing skilled, purposeful movement

Agraphia

Acquired difficulty in writing

Alexia

Acquired inability to read

Procedural Memory

Action-based information: processes, working memory, etc

Delerium

Acute state of confusion that is abrupt and is usually reversible

Under-secretion of ACTH causes ________, which is characterized by fatigue, appetite loss, depression, and fainting spells; over-secretion leads to ________, which is characterized by obesity, memory loss, depression, mood swings, and somatic delusions.

Addison's Disease; Cushing's Disease

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Frontal; Parietal; Occipital; Temporal

The pituitary gland releases ________ hormone, influencing the release of ________, which stimulates the liver to convert energy stores into glucose.

Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH); cortisol

Parietal lobe damage can lead to ________, or the inability to identify objects by touch, _______, or the inability to make intentional movement despite normal motor function, and/or ________, or the inability to read/write.

Agnosia; apraxia; agraphia

Agraphia Alexia

Agraphia: loss of ability to write. left hemisphere in any variety of areas including the frontal, temporal, or parietal lobes Alexia: word blindness, loss of ability to read and/or comprehend the meaning of written/printed words and sentences. Most common cause is stroke in left (dominant) hemisphere

Presumed mechanism of Antipsychotics

All are to some extent dopamine D2 antagonists, which menas they lower the levels of DT in the brain by blocking postsynaptic domaine receptors

Use of an SSRI causes some people to experience unpleasant sensations of inner restlessness that manifests itself as an inability to remain still. This is referred to as what?

Akathesia

Neurons

All behavior results from neuronal activity. Neurons release neurotransmitters to communicate.

The fact that, in any given neuron, the action potential is the same magnitude every time it occurs is referred to as the ________; basically, once the minimal threshold of electrical stimulation is reached, a neuron fires.

All-Or-None Law

During periods of relaxed wakefulness, ________ waves are typically found on an EEG, while ________ waves are more predominant during active, alert states.

Alpha; beta

Symptoms of Korsakoff's

Anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, confabulation, apathy, limited content in conversations, lack of insight

disorder related to deficits in acetylcholine

Alzheimer's & dementia

Therapeutic Window

Amount of drug required to produce clinical efficacy without dangerous side effects

This limbic system structure plays a role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions and mediates defensive/aggressive behavior; lesions in it produce Kluver-Bucy Syndrome.

Amygdala

Hallmark abnormalities of alzheimers

Amyloid Plaque(depostis of protein fragment beta-amyloid) and neurofibrillary tangles (twistes strands of the protein tau). also evidence of damage and death throughout the brain, esp the hippocampus and amygdala. Significant decrease in acetylcholine, involved in learning and memory.

BENZODIAZEPINES

Anti anxiety drugs which include Diazepam (Valium), alprozolam (Xanax), Clonozepam (Klonopin), Lorazepam (Ativan) they are used to treat GAD, panic, insomnia, alcohol withdrawal, epilepsy

Research has shown that low desire for sex in women seems to be correlated more with a lack of ________ rather than ________.

Androgens; estrogens

Of the hormones produced by the gonads, ________, which include testosterone, are involved in sexual interest and cause the development of secondary sex characteristics in males; _______ and ________ are found primarily in women and are necessary for healthy reproductive function.

Androgens; estrogens; progesterone

Anomic aphasia transcortical aphasia

Anomic: problems recalling words/names. the person may speak in a roundabout way and resort to descriptions to express things they cant remember. Damage to parietal or temporal lobes. Transcortical: damage outside of the main language regions. 3 types: motor, sensory, ad mixed. Similar to brocas, wernincke's, and global. EXCEPT they can repeat words/phrases

This condition occurs with damage to the cerebellum and is characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors, and loss of balance.

Ataxia

Amygdala

Attaches emotional significance to sensory input.; it is strongly implicated in fear (e.g.., startle response), aggression, and emotional memory. - The amygdala essentially controls the fear response, receiving and integrating sensory input determine the level of threat. - The amygdala is also involved in the memory of fear, thus linked to PTSD. - Stimulating the amygdala increases aggression. When the amygdala is removed or destroyed, aggression is diminished. - KLUVER-BUCY SYNDRONE: results when the amygdala is removed or destroyed, causing one resulting: placidity, apathy, hyper sexuality, hyperplasia (excessive eating), and agnosia (problems with recognition). - Amygdala, A for increased aggression.

In terms of sexual function, a man who is paralyzed from the waist down would most likely be able to what?

Attain an erection but not ejaculate

Pain sensitivity is affected by subjective variables which include...

Attention, motivation, and suggestion

The ability to orient oneself toward the direction of a sound, indicated by the turning of one's head toward the sound, is referred to as what?

Auditory localization

_____ is linked to abnormalities in the cerebellum, amygdala, and hippocampus

Autism Spectrum Disorder

______ is associated with abnormal level of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine

Autism Spectrum Disorder

This drug is commonly used to treat anxiety and works by interrupting impulses to the reticular activating system; it is rarely prescribed anymore due to its addictiveness and the effectiveness of safer benzodiazepines.

Barbiturates (e.g., thiopental [Pentothal], amobarbital [Amytal])

The ________ code and relay information related to control of voluntary movement, sensorimotor learning, and motoric expressions of emotion; abnormalities in it are linked with Tourette's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease, depression, mania, OCD, and psychosis.

Basal Ganglia

the _____ include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra

Basal Ganglia

simple partial seizure

Begins on one side of the brain and at least initially only effects one side of the body. Causes changes in movement and sensation but does not produce loss of consciousness.

A person who begins experiencing dull headaches, seizures, nausea and projectile vomiting, changes in vision and hearing, and/or other focal neurological signs (e.g., localized sensory loss, paresthesias, ataxia) is exhibiting symptoms of what?

Brain tumor

Ventral

Belly

Inferior

Below

Thalamus

Below the corpus callosum. Serves as the major sensory relay center for the brain, receiving input from all our senses except olfaction (smell). The thalamus then integrates and processes this information before projecting it to the appropriate cortical areas. - The thalamus is critical in the perception of pain. - Abnormalities of the thalamus have been liked to schizophrenia (misperception of sensory input).

What class of drugs are the most commonly prescribed to treat anxiety and panic disorders, are addictive when improperly used, and work by enhancing the activity of GABA, a neurotransmitter that has an inhibitory effect on the central nervous system?

Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam [Valium], alprazolam [Xanax], clonazepam [Klonopin])

A person presenting with symptoms of severe anxiety about public speaking might be prescribed what type of drug, which is good at treating the physical symptoms of anxiety and traditionally used to treat hypertension, migraine, essential tremor, and cardiac arrhythmias?

Beta Blocker (e.g., propranolol [Inderal])

______ block or diminish the cariovascular excitatory reponses to epinephrine and norepinephrine

Beta-Blockers

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

Glia

Brain cells which provide support, structure, and nutrients

Neurons

Brain cells which transmit and interpret signals

Posterior

Bottom

Corpus Callosum

Bundle of fiber nerves that serves as a bridge between the left and right hemispheres, making it possible for two hemispheres to communicate. - Right hemisphere controls left side of the body and sensory experiences on the left side of the body. And the left hemisphere control the right side of the body. This is true whether the corpus callosum is intact or not. - Example, touching something hot with left hand is processed in the right hemisphere. With an intact corpus callosum, the right hemisphere shares information with the left hemisphere. The left hemisphere can express that information in language (e.g., saying "it's hot").

Typically used to treat anxiety disorders, ________ differs from benzodiazepines and other anxiolytics in that it does not produce sedative, anticonvulsant, or muscle relaxant side effects, nor does it appear to be addictive.

Buspirone (BuSpar)

Regarding structural brain imaging techniques, ________ measures density of brain tissue and is helpful in identifying tumors, blood clots, tissue damage, and multiple sclerosis, while ________ provides 3D images with more precise detail, does not require the use of x-rays, and is useful in examining the central nervous system.

CT scan; MRI

The ________ theory of emotion suggests emotions and physiological changes (e.g., muscle tension, sweating) are experienced simultaneously; it is predicted that the thalamus and cortex are stimulated at the same time, producing simultaneous arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and emotional feeling.

Cannon-Bard

According to the _________, depression is due to a deficiency of norepinephrine.

Catecholamine Hypothesis

SSRIs

Category of drug replacing benzodiazepines to treat anxiety disorders

MAOIs

Category of drug used as final alternative to treat depression due to serious drug and food interactions

Barbiturates

Category of drug used to be used as a relaxation medication; replaced by benzodiazepines due to this category's dangerous side effects

Psychostimulants

Category of drugs which increase NE and DA in the prefrontal cortex; used to treat ADHD

Transcortical Aphasia

Caused by damage outside of the main language regions. Similar to Broca's Wernicke's, and global aphasia, except the person can repeat words, phrases, and sentences. However, the person cannot spontaneous say the word or phrase, can only repeat.

CLASSIFICATION BY CLINICAL EFFECTS

Classification system that clinicians may find most practical and useful. It groups the drugs under the effects they appear to exert on the symptoms of certain disorders; however, most often, more than one category of disorders are targeted by the same class of medications. For example, antidepressants are widely used in the treatment of several conditions, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, & OCD.

The nervous system consists of the ________, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the ________, which includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Central nervous system (CNS); peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Two main divisions of the nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS, brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral nervous system (PNS, nerves that go to and from the brain and spinal cord).

What brain structure, sitting on top of the medulla and pons, is responsible for maintaining balance, coordinating movements, and controlling posture?

Cerebellum

This is the last part of the brain to stop growing and undergoes more structural change following birth than any other part of the central nervous system.

Cerebral cortex

Neurotransmitter

Chemical released into a synapse to activate another neuron

What are neurons that secrete acetylcholine called?

Cholinergic neurons

This theory of emotion, based on research by Schachter and Singer, posits that most emotional states produce similar physical sensations, while the specific emotion experienced is a product of one's attribution for the cause of those sensations.

Cognitive-Arousal Theory (aka Two-Factor Theory)

Cortex

Collection of neurons in the cerebrum; made up of six layers of cells

Chunking

Combining items into groups

Synapse

Communicating junction between two neurons

akinesia

Complete or almost complete loss of movement; associated with several disorders including stroke and Parkinson's disease

Structural Techniques

Computerized Tomography (CT) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan)

CT Scan

Computerized Tomography - uses x-rays to look at slices of brain; used in the emergency room after serious head trauma

The electrochemical process by which information is received and processed within a neuron, whereby a cell becomes electrically excited, "fires," and creates a nerve impulse called an action potential is referred to as what?

Conduction

Conduction Aphasia Global Aphasia

Conduction: relatively rare, lesion in the connect pathway btw receptive and expressive language. can understand and speak, but cannot repeat phrases. They speak fluently, but it makes no sense. However, they can execute verbal commands bc they can comprehend language Global: widespread damage and pros with everything (comprehenion, speech, repetition, naming)

What term refers to the fact that the left hemisphere of the brain controls functions on the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere controls functions on the left side of the body?

Contralateral representation

Central Nervous System

Controlling part of the nervous system; made up of the brain and spinal cord

The ________ is a bundle of fibers that enables communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Corpus callosum

Confabulation

Creating false memories or distorting real memories

Criteria for a neurocognitive disorder

Decline in one or more of 6 cognitive domains: complex attention, executive function, learning and memory, expressive and receptive language, perceptual-motor, and social cognition

Dementia

Decline in two or more cognitive functions that result in impairment in activities of daily living; now known as "neurocognitive disorder" in the DSM-V

Antagonist

Decreases the effect of a neurotransmitter caused by agonists by blocking open transmitter sites

As people age, the total amount of sleep time ________ and the proportion of non-REM to REM sleep ________.

Decreases; increases

Multiple Sclerosis

Degradation of myelin sheaths; particularly affects the cerebellum

Parts of a neuron

Dendrites, cell body (soma), and axon

________ are short fibers at the end of a cell body that respond to stimulation from other neurons and carry this information toward the cell body, while the ________ is a single fiber that carries information away from the cell body.

Dendrites; axon

What 2 factors have an effect on the speed of conduction?

Diameter of the axon and myelin sheath

Electroencephalography

EEG - measures electrical energy of the brain to measure global brain activity

What psychophysics term refers to the magnitude of the difference between 2 stimuli of differing intensities that a subject is able to detect some proportion (usually 50%) of the time (e.g., differences in small changes in weight of an item)?

Difference threshold (aka just noticeable difference)

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Difficulty maintaining attention, managing impulsivity, and involuntary body movements; diagnosed prior to age 12

Extrapyramidal Symptoms

Drug-induced movement disorders

Anxiolytics

Drugs used to treat anxiety

Cerebrovascular Disease

Diseases of vasculature of the brain; can result in strokes, infarctions, and lesions

Schizophrenia

Distorted experience of reality resulting abnormal social interactions and self-expression, including behaviors

Delirium

Disturbance in attention and awareness. The onset is rapid and the course tends to be fluctuating. Cognitive distrubances (memoy, disorientation, etc) and is only diagnosed when there is evidence that the symptoms have a physiological cause like infection, substances, withdrawal, etc). usually reversable (unlike NCD). more common in older adults

Neurotransmitters

Dived into two categories: Classical neurotransmitters and Peptide neurotransmitters. The term AGONIST is applied to any substance that enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter, while ANTAGONIST refers to an substance that inhibits the neurotransmitter effect. - Action Potential categories: Excitatory: Acetylcholine, norepinephrine increase likelihood of action potential. Inhibitory: GABA, endorphins decrease likelihood of action potential.

Spinal Cord

Divided into four regions. - Cervical or neck region includes vertebrae C1 through C7. - The thoracic or chest region includes vertebrae T1 through T12. - The Lumbar or back region includes vertebrae L1 through L5. - The Sacral region includes the S1 vertebra. When the spinal cord is damaged, muscles served by sections of the spinal cord below the damaged area do not function normally, and paralysis may result.

Catecholamines (Dopamine and Norepinephrine)

Dopamine • Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: excess dopamine caueses schizophrenia • Less dopamine because of Substantia Nigra damage!Parkinson's • Antipsychotics are dopamine antagonists Norepinephrine • Involved in mood • Pain perception • Sleep • Deficiency cause Depression •Excess cause Mania

Catecholamines

Dopamine and Norepinephrine

What is the best overall predictor of prognosis following a closed head injury?

Duration of anterograde (posttraumatic) amnesia

Often mistaken for aphasia, what condition involves problems in articulation due to lesions or disease that disrupt the control of speech (e.g., Parkinson's disease, Huntington's chorea, and multiple sclerosis)?

Dysarthria

True of False: Symptoms of tardive dyskinesia can be expected to immediately diminish as a person is gradually withdrawn from taking the drug.

False- usually symptoms temporarily increase before decreasing

These neuromodulators bind to opiate receptor sites, reducing activity in the thalamus and cerebral cortex, thereby inhibiting feelings of pain and increasing feelings of pleasure.

Endorphins (endogenous morphine)

Benzodiazepines

Enhance GABA to produce a relaxation response; used to treat most anxiety disorders

The breaking down of unused neurotransmitters into inactive metabolites that are eventually removed as waste is called what?

Enzymatic degradation

Neurotransmitters that have an ________ effect on post-synaptic cells increase the likelihood that an action potential will occur, while those with an ________ effect decrease the chances of an action potential occurring.

Excitatory; inhibitory

Axon

Extending arm of the neuron

The ________, proposed by Schachter, Stunkard, and Rodin, suggests that obese people overeat because they are inherently more sensitive to certain external cues than internal cues (e.g., eat because food tastes good despite satiety).

Externality hypothesis

TRUE or FALSE: Information seen with the right eye travels only to the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa.

FALSE: It travels to both hemispheres, as both eyes receive info from the left and right visual field; however, information from one visual field is transmitted only to the opposite hemisphere

TRUE or FALSE: A person prescribed Ritalin to treat ADHD is encouraged to take the drug continuously for the best effects.

FALSE: Psychostimulants can lead to growth suppression in youngsters, thus many doctors recommend "drug holidays"

TRUE or FALSE: Dreaming only occurs during REM sleep.

FALSE: Research suggests that dreaming occurs in non-REM sleep, though REM dreams are more vivid, emotionally-laden, and more likely to be remembered

Semantic Memory

Facts, figures, dates, etc

Dendrite

Fibers on the cell body of neurons that receive signals from other neurons

What types of brain imaging techniques include Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT).

Functional techniques

What is one of the most common side effects of lithium?

Fine hand tremor

Typical Antipsychotics

First generation anti-psychotics which were created in the 1950s; dopamine blockers; can result in movement disorders

side effects of SSRI's

G.I. problems, sexual dysfunction, headaches, motor restlessness

Ventricle

Fluid filled space in the brain

Cones

For seeing color. They function only in light. They cluster around the center of the retina

_______ is always inhibitory

GABA

abnormal levels of _____ have been linked to Huntington's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, and Sleep disorders

GABA

benzodiazepines reduce anxiety by enhancing the effects of ________

GABA

low levels of _____ have been linked to anxiety

GABA

Amino Acids

GABA and Glycine and Glutamate

inhbitory neurotransmitters

GABA, endorphins

three types of amino acids

GABA, glycine, glutamate

Serotonin

Good feelings and happiness, and regulating sleep, appetite, and mood; used to treat depression

This area of the brain contains the hypothalamus, thalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex.

Forebrain

The most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, low levels of ________ are associated with anxiety and Parkinson's disease, while deficits in the brain's motor regions is associated with dementia and involuntary jerking of the arms and legs.

Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)

According to this theory of pain, activation of nerves that do not transmit pain signals can interfere with signals from pain fibers and inhibit one's perception of pain (e.g., massaging sore muscles = afferent, engaging in distracting mental activities = efferent).

Gate-Control Theory

______ is caused by damage to the left parietal lobe and involves right-left confusion, agraphia, acalculia, and finger agnosia

Gerstmann's syndrome

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that activates behaviors associated with fight or flight responses

What primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS is associated with learning, memory, and long-term potentiation (transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory)?

Glutamate

_____ plays a role in long-term potentiation, which is believed to be responsible for the formation of long-term memories

Glutamate

What hormone stimulates growth by acting on the epiphyseal plates at the ends of bones and, when over-secreted or under-secreted, can lead to giantism or dwarfism, respectively?

Growth hormone (aka somatotropic hormone)

Peripheral Nervous (PNS)

Has two main subdivisions, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system(ANS).

Dorsal

Head, spine

________ is when one half of a person's body is paralyzed, ________ is when a person experiences loss of use of all limbs, and ________ is when the lower extremities of a person's body is paralyzed.

Hemiplegia; quadriplegia; paraplegia

Gyrus

Hill of the cortex

This area of the brain consists of the brain stem and the cerebellum.

Hindbrain

This limbic system structure is involved in learning and memory, particularly transferring new information from short-term to long-term memory; damage to this area can cause anterograde amnesia.

Hippocampus

visual imagery is linked to what brain structure?

Hippocampus

Occipital Lobes

Houses primary visual cortex, and are involved in sight, reading, and visual images. - Damage may lead to difficulty recognizing drawn objects, difficulty identifying colors, hallucinations and illusions, inability to recognize words (word blindness), and problems with reading and writing.

Pharmacodynamics

How drugs impact the body

Pharmacokinetics

How drugs move throughout the body

This neurodegenerative genetic disorder is characterized by affective and personality changes, forgetfulness, and most prominently, motor symptoms such as incoordination, clumsiness, and eventually involuntary jerky movements.

Huntington's Chorea (chorea = involuntary writhing movements)

_______ produces a combination of affective, cognitive, and motor symptoms and has been linked to a degeneration of GABA-secreting cells in the basal ganglia and cortex

Huntington's Disease

atrophy of the caudate nucleus is found in patients with _____.

Huntington's Disease

Hyper and Hypothyroidism

Hyper: excess secretion of thyroxin results in weight loss despite increased appetite, heat sensitivity, sweating, diarrhea, palpitations, fatigue, depression, insomnia, impaired memory and judgement, and even hallucinations/delusions. Most common form is Grave's disease. (mimics anxiety/manic episode). Hypo: under secretion of thyroxin. weight gain, sluggishness, fatigue, impaired memory/intellectual functioning, sensitivity to cold. (mimics depression)

Paralysis

Immobility

Hemispatial Neglect

Inability to attend to stimuli on one side of the body due to damage in the parietal lobe

ataxia

Inability to coordinate muscle activity during voluntary movements, resulting in shaky/tremor-like movements

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Quadriplegia

Inability to move arms and legs

Paraplegia

Inability to move legs

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall memories prior to an event

Wernicke's Aphasia

Inability to understand language

GABA

Neurotransmitter that acts as a neuro inhibitor; used to treat anxiety

Paresis

Incomplete severing of the spinal cord may result in muscle weakness, termed paresis, rather than full paralysis. Strokes can also cause paresis.

Agonist

Increases the production of a neurotransmitter

Arachnoid mater

Inner connecting layer of the meninges

Episodic Memory

Information based in experiences

Explicit Memory

Information consciously remembered

Implicit Memory

Information unconsciously remembered

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOI)

Inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase, which breaks down monoamines and thereby increases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine levels in the brain. Effective in the treatment of atypical depression. Because they cause more side effects and have more drug and dietary interactions than SSRIs and TCAs, they are typically reserved as last-option antidepressants. MAOIs brand-names include: Nardil-phenelzine, Parnate-tranylcypromine, and Emsam-selegiline.

Declarative Memory

Intentionally recalled information

Right Hemisphere

Involved with perceptual, visuospatial, artistic, musical, and intuitive activities. The right hemisphere is also associated with the maintenance of body image, and the comprehension and expression of visual, facial, and verbal emotion. - Damage to the left hemisphere may result in cognitive abnormalities that include left side semi-neglect, prosopagnosia, visual-perceptual disturbances, and agnosia for musical sounds. - affective abnormalities may include indifference, euphoria, hysteria, depression, mania, impulsivity, and abnormal sexual behavior.

Pharmacometrics (PM)

Involves quantitative analysis and interpretation in relation to the effects of drugs in preclinical and clinical trials. Quantitative analysis and interpretation based on PK and PD

Tardive Dyskinesia

Irregular, jerky movements caused by neuroleptics

Pharmacokinetics (PK)

Is both a biochemical process and a branch of pharmacology; as a process, it can be defined as, "the change over time of the blood levels of a drug following administration." As a field of study, it is concerned with "how the body absorbs, distributes, breaks down, & eliminate drugs. PK involves the use and application of chemical & mathematical formulas.

Cerebrum

Is involved with complex thought, perception, and action. Outer layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex and the inside layer contains the subcortical areas.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Is the body's mobilizing system. Also known as the fight or flight system, it is dominant during times of stress. When this mobilizing system is activated, hormones are released into the blood stream. These hormones result in increased respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure and decreases in the process of digestion and elimination.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Is the energy conserving system, and is dominant when a person is relaxed. The two main function of the PNS is basic body maintenance, which is accomplished by slowing heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, while increasing digestion and elimination. - In general, it is better to have the parasympathetic system dominant over the sympathetic. - Interventions, such as biofeedback concentrate on helping people decrease the sympathetic system.

How does lithium work?

It may reduce post-synaptic responsivity to dopamine and norepinephrine

What theory of emotion posits that emotions occur as the result of one's perception of physiological changes occurring in response to environmental stimuli (e.g., "I am trembling so I must be afraid," "I am crying so I must be sad")?

James-Lange Theory

Apathy

Lack of emotion

What term is used to describe the fact that some higher level cortical functions are controlled more by either the left or right hemisphere of the brain?

Lateralization of function

damage to the _______ is associated with a slow-cautious behavioral style

Left Hemisphere

Left-right confusion is most likely to be caused by a lesion to what area?

Left Parietal Region

Location of Wernicke's Area

Left Temporal Lobe

Broca's Area

Left inferior lateral side of the frontal lobe and is responsible for creating fluent production of language as well as grammar and comprehending syntax

.5 seconds (Biology)

Length of time for a reflex response

Gerstmann's Syndrome

Lesions of the left parietal lobe, results in four primary symptoms that include: agraphia, acalculia, right-left disorientation, and finger agnosia (difficulty with recognition). - People suffering from finger agnosia can't recognize their own fingers as part of their body.

Broca's Aphasia

Lesions to the dominant (left)frontal lobe. Severe problem with speech production and articulation (Dysarthria), making speech slow and effortful. Comprehension mostly intact, but some comprehension problem may exist. - Other problems include: difficulty with word finding, naming objects, and repeating verbal phrases. - People with Broca's aphasia are aware of their difficulties. - Choppy/broken speech. - Considered an expressive or motor aphasia.

Anatomy of the eye

Light waves enter eye & pass through cornea, pupil, & lens, then received by the retina

This consists of a group of brain structures (amygdala, septum, hippocampus) that work together to mediate the emotional component of behavior.

Limbic System

The most popular medication used to treat Bipolar Disorder, ________ is believed to work by reducing postsynaptic responsivity to dopamine and norepinephrine.

Lithium

_____ is most effective for "classic" Bipolar Disorder that involves manic episodes with elevanted mood and without rapid cycling of moods

Lithium

side effects of ______ include gastrointestinal symptoms, fine hand tremor, weakness and fatigue, and excessive thirst and urination

Lithium

This term refers to the strengthening of the connection between 2 neurons in the hippocampus that lasts for an extended period of time; it is commonly regarded as the cellular basis of memory.

Long-term potentiation

Aphasia

Loss of ability to comprehend or formulate language; different from a developmental delay or dysfunction

Agnosia

Loss of ability to interpret sensations

Acalculia

Loss of ability to perform math calculations

Low Potency antipsychotics

Low Potency only means that a higher dosage is needed for the desired effect, and does not have to do with side effects and sedative power. Low Potency antipsychotics are known to have significant side effects and sedative power.

High Potency medications include:

Loxitane (loxapine), Stelazine (trifluoperazine), Prolixin (fluphenazine), Navane (thiothixene), Haldol (Haloperidol), Risperdal (risperidone), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Abilify (aripiprazole)

____ block the action of enzymes that break down norepinephrine and serotonin

MAOIs

side effects of ____ include anticholingergic symptoms, insomnia, headaches, confusion, termor, and sexual dysfunction

MAOIs

How do EEG & MEG differ?

MEG offers higher spatial resolution than EEG. Similar to EEG, MEG is used in the diagnosis of epilepsy and pre-surgical planning; however, it is not as popular as EEG or other measures of brain activity because of its higher cost.

How do PET & MRI differ?

MRI does not use radioactive materials like PET.

MRI, FMRI, and MR Spectroscopy

MRI: uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the strucute of the brain as well as organs and tissue. Most frequently used imaging test FMRI: examines brain activitu and functioning. how the blood flows to the brain during a specific task MR Spectroscopy: used to detect metabolic chances in the brain that may be consistent with certain disease processes

Diencephalon

Made up of the thalamic bodies

Drug Description

Mainly the listing of chemical ingredients, with their dosages and formulas, that make up a specific drug.

Central Sulcus

Major dividing sulcus in the cortex, separating the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

GABA and Glycine

Major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS, and they have a calming effect. Benzodiazepines are GABA agonists, increasing the levels of GABA and thereby reducing levels of overarousal.

Orbitofrontal Cortex

Manages emotions and rewards in decision making

Pituitary

Master endocrine gland. Releases hormones that activate other endocrine glands. Pituitary is regulated by the hypothalamus

PSYCHIATRIC DRUGS

May be classified in various ways, including chemical structure, clinical effect, and pharmacologic mechanism.

Frontal Lobe

Mediates planning and necessary functions of planning

Usually used to treat atypical symptoms of depression, ________ block the action of enzymes that break down norepinephrine and serotonin, thereby making them more available at synapses.

Monamine Oxidase Inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine [Nardil], tranylcypromine [Parnate])

The ________ contains vital centers that control digestion, blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing; damage to it often leads to death.

Medulla Oblongota

What 2 parts of the brain are contained in the brain stem?

Medulla Oblongota and Pons

Sensory memory

Memory of stimuli after stimuli is removed; lasts less than a second

What occurs in women as a result of a drop in estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone and is characterized by hot flashes, insomnia, mood swings, urinary incontinence, and vaginal changes?

Menopause

Often used to treat ADHD, ________ is a psychostimulant that decreases motor activity, diminishes impulsivity, and increases concentration and attention.

Methylphenidate (Ritalin)

This area of the brain contains the substantia nigra and reticular formation; all information passing between the brain and the spinal cord passes through it.

Midbrain (aka mesencephalon)

Medial

Middle

Septum

Moderates or increases aggression. Damage to the septum can result in Septal rage syndrome.

Brain Stem

Most primitive part of the brain, an extension of the spinal cord. Consists of the Pons, Medulla, and reticular formation. - Pons and the Medulla: Involved in sleep (including initiation of REM), respiration, movement, and cardiovascular activity. Damage could lead to failure of bodily functions and death. - Reticular Formation: Important in awareness, attention, and sleep. Part of the reticular formation, the reticular activating system (RAS). projects to the thalamus. RAS involved in sleep-wake cycle, serves as a filter for incoming sensory.

Sense of smell

Most primitive sense

Parkinson's Disease

Motor disease characterized by shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement, and difficulty walking; caused by lack of dopamine in substantia nigra

Huntington's Disease

Movement disorder caused by cell death in the caudate nucleus; characterized by uncontrolled movements and results in dementia

Paresis

Muscle weakness

Prosody

Musical quality of speech

Wellbutrin

NDRI

Reuptake

NTs in the synaptic cleft are taken up by the pre-synaptic neurons terminal buttons and therefore never reach the adjoining neuron

Trabeculae

Network of arteries, veins, and connective tissues in the meninges

MRI

Neural imaging that uses magnetic fields to create an image of the brain; useful for identifying small details in the brain and is used in non-urgent situations

abnormal levels of acetylcholine have been linked to what diagnosis?

Neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer's Disease

These are the information processing units of the nervous system and are made of 3 primary parts: the cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon.

Neurons

Mirror Neurons

Neurons which activate when viewing someone doing something or imagining yourself doing something; believed to be primary neurological component of empathy

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter responsible for cellular metabolism, learning, and memory; implicated in many mental and physical illnesses

Norepinephrine - Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors

Newer drugs used to treat depression; Wellbutrin

Two main types of sleep

Non rapid eyemeovemnt and rapid evemonent. Brain waives differ depending on state of alertness. Beta waves characterize alertness and attention. Alpha waves are present during relaxation

What 3 neurotransmitters are grouped into the class referred to as catecholamines?

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline), and dopamine

Depleted levels of ________ and ________ at brain synapses are associated with some types of depression, while excessive levels are associated with ________.

Norepinephrine; dopamine; schizophrenia

research has linked _______ to abnormalities in the orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, thalamus, and basal ganglia

OCD

Efferent Nerves

Part of the somatic nervous system which relay signals from the brain to the body to initiate functions, actions, and behaviors

Broca's Aphasia

Partial or total loss of ability to produce language

paresis

Partial severing of the spinal cord

Frontal Lobe

Occupy largest portion of our brain, about 1/3 of the entire brain. There are three main division of the frontal lobe: 1. Prefrontal cortex, critical to personality, emotionality, inhibition, planning, initiative, abstract thinking, judgement, and higher mental functions (cognitive flexibility) that makes us unique human beings. 2. Premotor area, involved in planning movement,. 3. Motor area instigates voluntary movement . - Broca's area in located in the left frontal lobe, controls the muscles that produce speech. - Damage to the frontal lobe may result in loss of movement of various body parts (paralysis), changes in personality, emotional lability, perseveration, inattention, difficulty with problem solving, and inability to express language (Broca's Aphasia).

Pseudodementia

Older people with depression can exhibit mild cognitive dysfunction. Difference between NCD is that people with PD complain about memory loss and people with NCD tend to lack insight into their conidtion and deny memory loss. Also, symptoms go away when depression is treated. not with NCD

Acetylcholine (Ach)

One of the most common neurotransmitters. Involved on two significant functions: voluntary movement, and memory and cognition. Poison of black widow spider, which causes paralysis, directly affects acetylcholine. Ach is also particularly prevalent in the hippocampus, which is responsible for the consolidation of long term memory. Deficiency in Ach are observed in Alzheimer's disease.

Cerebrum

Outer most layer of the brain; contains the cortex and its connecting axons; also known as the telencephalon

Cerebral Cortex

Outside surface of the brain, is at birth the least developed part of the brain. It is, however, developed in humans than in other animals. - Highly convoluted with folds (Gyri). These folds allow for expansion of the cortical surface area without increasing the size of the brain. - The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves: right and left hemisphere, which are connected with a thick band of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. - Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the Frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. - The lobes are separated from each other by elongated grooves (Sulci). - Left hemisphere control rights side of the body, while rights controls left side of the body. - Each side of the brain has an important, distinct functions.

Prosopagnosia and anosognosia

P: inability to recognize a familiar face. retro and anterograde. occurs despite things like normal vision, memory attention, etc.... Thought to be due to injury in the visual association cortex A: lack of awareness of a disability/the nature of one's illness. Ex: people with Wernicke's dont realize they are speaking gibberish. stems from deficits in frontal or parietal lobes

Difference between Pharmacokinetics (PK) & Pharmacodynamics (PD)

PK entails what the body does to the drug, while PD is what the drug does to the body

Phenylketonuria

PKU - caused by poor metabolic processing of amino acid phenylalanine

_____ was proposed as a brain mechanism that mediates the experience and expression of emotion

Papez's Circuit

______ includes the hippocampusm mammillary bodies, anterior nucleui of the thalamus, and cingulated gyrus

Papez's Circuit

This term means "partial paralysis" and is characterized by muscle weakness without full paralysis; one cause is less severe damage to the spinal cord.

Paresis

damage to the ______ may cause apraxia

Parietal Lobe

location of the somatosensory cortex

Parietal Lobe

What motor disorder is characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, involuntary movements, akinesia (slowed movement, emotionless speech, blank facial expression), posture and equilibrium disturbances, and often depression?

Parkinson's Disease

______ has been linked to a degeneration of neurons that secrete dopamine in the substantia Nigra

Parkinson's Disease

______ is a progressive degenerative disorder that is characterized by prominent motor symptoms

Parkinson's Disease

_______ is caused by degeneration of the substantia nigra

Parkinson's Disease

four disorders related to dysfunction in the basal ganglia

Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Tourette's and OCD

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the ANS responsible for activation, arousal, and "fight or flight" responses

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the ANS responsible for relaxation, maintenance, and routine activities

Limbic System

Part of the brain responsible for emotions and memory processing

Cingulate Cortex

Part of the brain responsible for linking behavioral outcomes to motivation or emotional response to an outcome

Reticular Formation

Part of the brain responsible for maintaining arousal and consciousness

Cerebellum

Part of the brain responsible for motor coordination

Medulla

Part of the brain responsible for regulating breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Pons

Part of the brain responsible for regulating involuntary movement

Basal Ganglia

Part of the brain responsible for regulating voluntary movement

Parietal Lobe

Part of the brain responsible for somatosensory processing

Primary Motor Cortex

Part of the frontal lobe responsible for coordination and initiation of voluntary movement

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system responsible for sensory information and controlling voluntary movement

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions of life such as heart rate, breathing, hormone management, etc.

Dopamine

Part of the reward system in the brain; used to treat Parkinson's and ADHD

Afferent Nerves

Part of the somatic nervous system responsible for relaying sensation information from the body to the brain

Basal Ganglia

Plays a vital role in the regulation and coordination of movement and with establishing posture. The Basal Ganglia are inhibitory, and put brakes on movement. - Basil Ganglia Problems: 1. Huntington's - Degeneration of caudate nucleus & putamen, Unwanted thrusting movements, 2. Parkinson's - Loss of dopaminergic neurons, Substantia Nigra, Tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia. - Two other disorders related to the basal ganglia abnormalities include Tourette's and OCD.

Referred to as the "master gland," the ________ secretes hormones that act directly on organs (e.g., growth hormone, antidiuretic hormone) as well as hormones that influence the secretions of other glands.

Pituitary gland

Hippocampus

Primary function is memory, particularly the consolidation of conscious memories. Hippocampus stores new information and events as lasting memories.

Regarding human sexual behavior, what are the 2 primary sources of sex hormone?

Pituitary gland and gonads (ovaries/testes)

Endocrine Disorders

Pituitary is considered master endocrine gland as releases hormones that activate other endocrine glands. The Pituitary gland itself is regulated by the hypothalamus.

This term refers to the study of the relationship between the magnitude of physical stimuli and psychological sensations (subjective correlates; percepts).

Psychophysics

Lying directly above the medulla and connecting the 2 sides of the cerebellum, the ________ helps in the regulation of arousal states.

Pons

Stroke

Poor blood flow to part of the brain resulting in cell death

This functional brain imaging technique uses small amounts of injected radioactive material to measure regional cerebral blood flow, glucose metabolism, or oxygen consumption; it is useful for identifying brain dysfunction due to stroke, epilepsy, tumor, and other conditions.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Functional Techniques

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Electroencephalography (EEG) Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

PET

Positron emission tomography - uses radioactive material to measure glucose usage to measure brain activity; useful in measuring localized brain function

The Axon: Action Potential

Potassium and Sodium ions switch places which releases neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft. Plays a vital role in cell to cell communication. At rest, outside of cell contains an excessive potassium ions (K+). The neuron's axon is especially sensitive to changes in the electrical charge of its membrane. When a stimulus of sufficient charge reaches a resting neuron, sodium (Na+) outside the cell membrane rushes into the cell, creating an action potential (an electrical impulse). Potassium then moves outside the cell. The action potential travels the entire length of the axon to the boutons (terminal button), releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (synapse), the small space separating neurons. Some of the released neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor sites on dendrites of adjacent neurons, thus continuing the chain of communication. In addition to this process, reuptake occurs. neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are taken up by the pre-synaptic neurons's terminal buttons and therefore never reach adjoining neuron.

While Fechner's law of psychophysics states that changes in the magnitude of a physical stimulus are logarithmically related to changes in physical sensations, Stevens' ________ proposes there is an exponential relationship between the magnitude of physical stimuli and internal sensations, with the exponent varying for different types of stimuli.

Power law

Damage to this area of the frontal lobe usually results in decreased motivation, difficulty making decisions, deficient self-awareness, poor social control, and perseveration.

Prefrontal cortex

Positive Symptoms

Presence of an abnormal behavior

Tonic-Clonic Generalized Seizure

Previously grand mal seizures; results in loss of consciousness, stiffening of the body, and jerking movements of the arms and legs

Absence Seizure

Previously petit-mal seizures; victim appears to be staring into space

Anomic Aphasia

Problems recalling names or words. The person speaks roundabout way and resort to description to express a certain word they cannot remember. Results from damage to parietal or temporal lobe.

Temporal Lobe

Processing and storing auditory information

Occipital Lobe

Processing and storing visual information

A person who is unable to recognize familiar faces, though maintains the capacity to recognize other objects, and can identify others by the sound of their voice, style of dress, or other characteristics likely has this type of agnosia.

Prosopagnosia

Meninges

Protective material around brain and spinal cord; Three layers

During this period of sleep, paradoxically, EEG activity is typical of an aroused nervous system, while the person's responsiveness to the environment is very low.

REM (rapid eye movement)

the most vivid dreams occur during _______

REM sleep

Conduction Aphasia

Rare and results from lesion to the connecting pathway between the expressive and receptive speech areas. Intact language comprehension, speak fluently, but are unable to repeat verbal phrases. They resemble people with wernicke's aphasias in that they speak fluently but make no sense. However, unlike people with Wernicke's, they are able to execute verbal command because they can still comprehend language.

Dendrites

Receive info from other neurons by capturing neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft (space btw neurons) at their receptor sites. A neuron may have hundreds or thousands of dendrites.

Peripheral Nervous System

Receiving and communicating end of the nervous system; made up of sensory and motor neurons

Theory of Mind

Recognition that others have a different perspective of same events

Synesthesia

Refers to a sensation that occurs in one sense modality when another modality has been stimulated - e.g., perceiving auditory stimuli as color.

Aphasia

Refers to loss of language ability due to damage in the brain.

Thalamus

Relay station of the brain

Dystonia

Repetitive twisting or abnormal posture

What term refers to the process whereby terminal buttons take up and store excess neurotransmitters for future use?

Reuptake

Brain Stem

Responsible for basic life functions

Prefrontal Cortex

Responsible for complex executive functions such as reasoning, judgement, decision making, and inhibition

Amygdala

Responsible for emotional memory, specifically fear based memories

Premotor Cortex

Responsible for planning voluntary movement; contains mirror neurons

Hippocampus

Responsible for storing memories from short-term to long-term and responsible for spatial memory

Traumatic Brain Injury

Results from external mechanical force; can result in disability or death; categorized based on severity, closed or penetrating, or location

Addison's Disease

Results from under secretion of corticosteroids, or adrenal insufficiency. Symptoms include: apathy, weakness, irritability, depression, and gastrointestinal disturbance.

Wernicke's Aphasia

Results in lesions in left temporal lobe. Have no language comprehension. Cannot follow verbal commands or repeat phrases. They speak fluently, but what they are saying is complete nonsense. They are unaware of their problem (anosognosia) and expect others to be able to understand them. Wernicke's considered receptive or sensory aphasia.

The ________ is crucial for maintaining a waking state, arousal, and attention; neurons from it arouse the brain and facilitate information reception by appropriate neural structures.

Reticular Activating System

the _____ is a network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

What brain structure plays a role in respiration and reflex control, pain and touch sensations, and sleep and arousal?

Reticular Formation

damage to the ______ is associated with a quick-impulsive behavioral style

Right Hemisphere

contralateral neglect is usually the result of damage to the ______

Right Parietal Lobe

In general, the ________ hemisphere is associated with creativity, understanding spatial relations, emotional expression, and facial recognition while the ________ hemisphere is involved with analytical thinking, logic, and language (written and spoken).

Right; left

Of the 2 kinds of receptors in the eye, ________ are sensitive only to brightness levels and are specifically adapted to sense stimuli in low levels of light, while ________ are responsible for seeing color and function only in brighter environments.

Rods; cones

Health Belief model

Rosenstock. Belief model that is multicasual, positing that in addition to psychosocial factors, there are 6 constructs that predict health behavior: perceived susceptibility to disease, perceived benefits of preventative action, perceived barriers to preventative action, cues to action, and self-efficacy.

Rods

Sensitive to degrees of brightness. They sense stimuli in low levels of light; are located at the periphery of the retina

How do SPECT & PET differ?

SPECT differs from a PET scan in that the tracer remains in the blood stream rather than being absorbed by surrounding tissue; especially useful to visualize blood flow through arteries and veins in the brain.

ANTIDEPRESSANTS

SSRI, SNRI, TCA, MAOI

_____ block the reuptake of serotonin at nerve synapses

SSRIs

the dopamine hypothesis was the first biochemical theory of_______.

Schizophrenia

The ________ serves to inhibit emotionality; in rats, lesions produce hyper-emotionality and rage, while electrical stimulation is extremely pleasurable.

Septum

A lack of this neurotransmitter is linked to depression, OCD, PTSD, and aggression, while high levels play a role in schizophrenia, anorexia, and autism.

Serotonin

Atypical Antipsychotics

Second generation anti-psychotics which were created in the 1990s; blocks both dopamine and serotonin; can result in metabolism disorders

Brain: Cerebellum

Second largest strangest, after cerebrum. Provides Excitatory inputs responsible for maintaining smooth movement and coordinating motor activity. Controls the automatic adjustment of posture and muscle tone that result in our ability to maintain balance and equilibrium, and is involved in motor learning. - Ataxia: lack of coordination.

Commonly used to treat depression, OCD, panic disorder, binge eating, and other anxiety disorders, ________ work by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, thereby increasing the availability at the synapse.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine [Prozac], sertraline [Zoloft], paroxetine [Paxil])

Lateral

Side

Hypothalamus

Situated below the thalamus. Through its connections to the endocrine systems (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands), and autonomic nervous system, the hypothalamus serves a major role in homeostasis, including regulating temperature, hunger, thirst, sex, cyclic sex hormone secretion (menstrual cycle), aggression, and the sleep-wake cycle. - Within the hypothalamus, the group of cells called the suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN) is considered the body's circadian clock because it regulates sleep-wake cycle. - The hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland by secreting hypothalamic releasing and hypothalamic inhibiting hormones (e.g., thyrotropin- releasing hormone, corticotropin-releasing hormone). - In response to the hypothalamic hormones, pituitary secrets its hormones (e.g., growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone) that activate the other endocrine glands (e.g., thyroid, pancreas).

Bradykinesia

Slow movement

Parts of the Peripheral Nervous system

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous system

Regarding the PNS, the ________ controls the actions of skeletal muscles, is responsible for voluntary movement, and responds to signals from the 5 senses; the ________ regulates involuntary activity (e.g., heartbeat, breathing) and has 2 subdivisions- the sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Somatic nervous system; autonomic nervous system

This part of the CNS is responsible for carrying information between the brain and the PNS.

Spinal cord

NATURAL/HERBAL MEDICATIONS

St. John's Wort: an herbal product shown to treat depression & anxiety SAM-e :shown effective for depression Omega-3: shown effective for depression & bipolar disorder

Akathisia

State of agitation, distress, and restlessness caused by antipsychotic medication

Long-term Memory

Stored memory

Parkinson's disease results from degeneration of neurons in this brain structure.

Substantia Nigra

____ block the reuptake of norepinephrine as well as serotonin and/or dopamine at nerve synapses

TCAs

Tricyclic Antidepressants

TCAs - used to treat depression but have dangerous side effects

The ________ division of the autonomic nervous system mobilizes the body's resources and prepares for "fight or flight," while the ________ system deactivates the once active organs and is active during relaxation.

Sympathetic; parasympathetic

What is the small space that separates individual neurons called?

Synapse (or synaptic cleft)

Language-Dominant Temporal Lobe

Temporal lobe most responsible for processing and storing language based sounds; usually the left side

Non-language Dominant Temporal Lobe

Temporal lobe responsible for processing and storing non-language based sounds; usually the right lobe

Short-term memory

Temporary immediate recall of information for processing; lasts less than a minute

What brain structure relays incoming sensory information to the cortex for all senses but olfaction, is involved in language, memory, and motor activity, and regulates consciousness, sleep, and alertness?

Thalamus

Describe how MRI works.

The MRI machine itself contains a large magnet. Hydrogen atoms (i.e., protons) in the brain rotate themselves to a particular orientation with respect to the magnet. The MRI machine records the radio frequencies emitted by the hydrogen atoms. MRI scanning results in high-resolution structural images of the brain.

ANTI-OBSESSIONAL

This is a useful sub-category of the main antidepressant list, emphasized because of their effects on obsessive thoughts via serotonergic action. It is mostly comprised of SSRIs and includes Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Luvox, Celexa, Lexapro, and also the TCA Anafrenil

Brain

The control center for all voluntary and most involuntary behavior. The major divisions of the brain are: 1. Cerebrum, consisting of the cerebral cortex and subcortical areas. 2. Cerebellum 3. Brain stem

The notion that schizophrenia is the result of overactivity of dopamine is referred to as what?

The dopamine hypothesis

What bodily system is made up of ductless, hormone secreting glands that travel through the blood to influence organ function?

The endocrine system

somesthesis

The faculty of bodily perception; sensory systems associated with the body; includes skin senses and proprioception and the internal organs. Includes: Touch, Body Position, Temperature, & Pain

The ________ is involved in motor behavior, executive functions, expressive language, and orientation to person, place, and time; it consists of the primary motor, premotor, and prefrontal cortex.

The frontal lobe

Pharmacotherapeutics

The general study of the therapeutic uses of drugs.

What lobe of the brain contains the primary auditory cortex and is associated with memory, emotion, and receptive language?

The temporal lobe

Alzheimer's Disease

The most common form of dementia. Patients suffer a decline in memory and at least one other form of cognitive functioning, with a progressive, steady decline and no mixed etiology

Glutamate

The most common neurotransmitters, is Mediator of fast excitatory synaptic transmission. Abnormal glutamate transmission is suspected in Schizophrenia, OCD, Autistic Disorder, and depression.

This part of the brain contains the visual cortex; damage can lead to ________, or the inability to recognize familiar objects by sight.

The occipital lobe; visual agnosia

Describe optic nerve fibers.

The optic nerve contains 2 bundles of fibers. The inner bundle goes to the opposite side of the brain as the outer bundle. The left field signals go to the right and the right field signals go to the left.

This lobe of the brain integrates sensory information from different modalities, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation.

The parietal lobe

Drug Formulation

The pharmaceutical process by which certain chemical substances, including the active agent, are synthesized to produce the final drug.

Bioavailability

The portion of a drug that reaches the blood, or the physiological availability of a given amount of a drug, versus its chemical potency. It is a main principle of pharmacokinetics.

all-or-none principle

The principle that when a neuron fires, it fires with the same potency each time; a neuron either fires or not—it cannot partially fire, although the frequency of firing can vary.

Peptide Neurotransmitters

There are dozens of them, consisting of long chains of amino acids. Enkephalins and Endorphins also known as endogenous opioids, regulate stress and pain. Another peptide, Substance P, is also involved in pain regulation.

ANTIPSYCHOTICS

These medications are mainly used to treat psychotic illness; they can also be used as adjuncts for depressive disorders when appropriate. This class can be further divided in low and high potency, as well as typical (traditional) and atypical (newer).

Split Brain Patients (Regarding corpus callosum )

These patients have had their corpus callosum severed to reduce epileptic seizures. With a severed corpus callosum, the right hemisphere still processes the experiences of the left side of the body, and vice-versa. However, information can no longer be shared with or transferred to the opposite hemisphere. - Example, in the classical study of the split-brain patients, the word HEART flashed on the left, and it was processed on the right side. With severed corpus callosum unable to share that information with left side (which responsible verbalizing it in language), patients were unable to say it out loud. On the other hand, if it were flashed in right visual field, split brain patients would be able to say the word HEART since it would be processed by the left side, hence where language in controlled.

How do antipsychotics work?

They block dopamine receptors in the brain

How do tricyclics work?

They block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine at the synapse

What is true about a person's cortisol levels throughout a single day?

They typically peak early in the day and fall in the evening

Pia Mater

Thinnest last layer of the meninges

HYPNOTICS

This class includes mostly "sleepers," such as Dalmane (flurazepam), Doral (quazepam), Restoril (temazepan), the newer Ambien (zolpidem), Sonata (zaleplan), and Lunesta (eszoplclone), as well as the antihistaminic Benadryl (diphenhydramine) for its sedative side effects.

ANTI-ANXIETY

This class of medications can be further divide into Benzodiazepines and Other Anti-Anxiety Agents. They are widely used to treat both anxiety and mood disorders, and can be adjuncts in antipsychotic regimes.

Retina

This comprises the inner lining of the eyeball

Lens

This focuses the light waves on the retina

MOOD STABILIZERS and ANTI-CONVULSANTS

This is a class of drugs commonly used to treat bipolar disorder. Anti-convulsants were traditionally manufactured for the treatment of epileptic seizures, but subsequently found useful also as mood stabilizers. Examples include: Eskalith and Lithonate (lithium carbonate), Symbiax (a synthesis of olanzapine and fluoxetine), Tegretol (carbamazepine), Trileptal (oxcarbazepine), Depakote (divalproex), Lamictal (lamotrigine), Topomax (topiramate), and Gabirtril (tiagabine).

Low Potency medications include:

Thorazine (chlorpromazine), Mellaril (thioridazine), Clozaril (Clozapine), and Seroquil (quietapine)

Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCA)

Thought to exert a general inhibitory effect on the reuptake of all monoamine neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Due to their many side effects and dietary restrictions, TCA's are typically only prescribed if SSRI's are ineffective. Commonly TCAs include Tofranil-imipramine & Anafranil-clomipramine.

What gland controls metabolism through its release of the hormone thyroxin?

Thyroid gland

Heschel's Convolutions

Tonotopic reception of auditory stimuli which corresponds to equivalent frequency in the cochlea and is located in the superior gyrus of the temporal lobe

Anterior

Top

Dura Mater

Toughest outer layer of the meninges

With respect to movement, excess dopamine or an increased sensitivity to dopamine receptors is related to ________, while degeneration of dopamine secreting neurons is linked to the ________.

Tourette's syndrome; Parkinson's disease

Serotonin Syndrome

Toxic levels of serotonin

________ antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol) are most useful at alleviating positive symptoms of psychosis, whereas ________ antipsychotics (e.g., clozapine, risperidone) effectively alleviate both positive and negative symptoms.

Traditional (typical); atypical

Cornea

Transparent covering in the front of the eye

What type of antidepressants work by blocking norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake at the synapse, and are used not only to treat depression, but panic attacks, OCD, bulimia, chronic pain, and agoraphobia?

Tricyclics (e.g., imipramine [Tofranil], clomipramine [Anafranil], amitriptyline [Elavil])

Benzodiazepines

Valium (diazepam), Librium (chlordiazepoxide), Klonopin (clonazepam), and Ativan (lorazepan)

Subcortical Brain Areas

Tucked into the center of the brain and surrounded by the cerebral cortex are the subcortical areas. It includes the corpus callosum, the limbic system, and the basal ganglia.

Benzodiazapines

Two categories: considered anxiolytics when their major function ins anxiety reductis and sedative/hypnotics when their main purpose is to induce sedation and improve sleep. busiprone is non benzo, but takes 2-4 weeks to work and cant be taken as needed. Beta blockers usually treat high BP, but propranolol can prevent physical symptoms of anxiety

Joint Attention

Two or more people paying attention to the same object

Sulcus

Valley of the cortex

Hypo and Hyperpituitarianism

Under and over secretion of pituitary growth hormones Hypo: can cause dwarfism and puberty delay in kids. can cause gonadal failure in adultes along with other things like hypothyroidism, diabeties, etc) Hyper: startling skeletal overgrowth resulting giantism or acromegaly

Hypothyroidism

Under-secretion of thyroxine, results in unexplained weight gain, sluggishness, fatigue, impaired memory and intellectual functioning, and sensitivity to cold.

Clinical applications of PET

Used primarily to study cognitive processes, although brain lesions may be detected when a lack of activity is observed in regions where activity would be otherwise expected.

Mood Stabilizers

Used to treat bipolar disorder; lithium is in this category of drug

Neuroangiography

Used to visualize lesions in blood vessels by injecting contrast material into the vasculature and radiographing the difference; invasive and requires anesthesia

Major Depressive Disorder (anti deps)

all of the ADs have been found to be effective. SSRI's have fewer distressing side effects and are safer. usually first line of treatment for Depression

Acetylcholine

Voluntary Movement and Memory/cognition Poison of black widow spider causes paralysis and directly effects acetylcholine. Prevalent in hippocampus (memory). Deficiencies linked to Alzheimer's

_____ is a major language area and damage produces deficits in the comprehension and production of speech

Wernicke's Area

Caused by damage to particular area of the temporal lobe, ________ is characterized by severe deficits in language comprehension; speech is usually normal sounding but does not make sense and familiar objects are unable to be named (dysnomia).

Wernicke's aphasia (aka fluent or receptive aphasia)

Describe the charactersitics of fMRI

When superimposed upon structural MRI images, fMRI can allow for a three-dimensional visualization of the site of activity.

Decussation

Where incoming signals cross fibers to opposite hemisphere

Handedness development

While hand preference typically emerges around age 2, it only becomes firmly established around age 7 to 8.

PSYCHOSTIMULANTS

Widely used in the treatment of attention deficit disorders, this list includes Ritalin and Concerta (methylphenidate), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine), and Adderall (d- and l- amphetamine).

Ataxia

Without coordination

suffix of first generation antipsychotics (traditional, typical) most commonly prescribed

Zine, xene, ine, ide, one Thorazine (chlorpromazine), prolixin (fluphenazine), haldol (haloperidol), trilafon (perphanazine

Computerized Tomography (CT)

a method that involves passing X-rays through the brain from several different angles, creating multiple images which are digitally integrated into a two dimensional model; provides info on the density of brain tissues based on differential absorption of x-rays

Stages in Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

alarm stage resistance stage exhaustion stage

action potentials operate on a _______

all-or-none principle

basal ganglia

a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements

Major Neurocog disorder with Lewy bodies

abnormal aggregations of the protein alpha-synuclein. similar sympomts to AZ, but also includes visual hallucinations, sleept distrubances, and parkinsonian features like muscle rigidity

Tardive Dyskenesia

abnormal movements of the lips, tongue, and jaw (lip smacking, grimacing, chewing) and may involve the arms and trunk as well. develops after long term use, more common with 1st gen, not harmful. may be reversable, 50% of patients after meds are discontinues

Ahlzheimer's disease is related to an under production of ____

acetylcholine

Drugs that interfere with the breakdown of _______ are used to treat memory problems and other cognitive problems in those with mild to moderate Alzheimer's Disease

acetylcholine

Nicotine enhances alertness and memory by mimicking _______ at nicotinic receptor sites.

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter involved in the formation of memories

acetylcholine

type of neurotransmitter prevalent in the hippocampus

acetylcholine

Classical Neurotransmitters

acetylcholine (Ach), catecholamines (dopamine and norepinephrine), serotonin, amino acids

excitatory neurotransmitters

acetylcholine, epinephrine, glutamate

mirror neurons

activated by action observation, or when an individual witnesses actions performed by others

Generalized seizures; Tonic clonic and absence

affect the entire brain and always involve a loss of consciousness Tonic clonic (grand mal): start with a sudden loss of consciousness and tonic activity (stiffening) followed by clonic activity (ryhtmic jerking muscle relaxing and contracting). After these seizures ppl usually have headache, fatigue, confusion, and amnesia for the seizure Absence (petit mal): mostly occur in kids beginning around the age of 5. seizures last from 1-30 seconds and begin with a brief change in level of consciousness followed by blinking, rollin eyes, blank state, twitching mouth. the person appears to be day dreaming and posture is retained, pre-seizure activity is returned to without difficulty

______ produce effects similar to those produced by an endogenous neurotransmitter

agnoists

Two categories of Neurotransmitters (agonist and antagonist) Also excitatory and inhibitory

agonist: any substance that enhances the effect of the NT Antagonist: any substance that inhibits the NT effect Excitatory: (acetylcholine, NE, Glutamate) increase the likelihood of an action potential inhibitory: (GABA, endorphines) decrease the likelihood of an action potential

low GABA is associated with

anxiety and seizures

agonist

any substance that enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter

antagonist

any substance that inhibits the effect of the neurotransmitter

Damage to the left hemisphere results in:

aphasia & other language problems; apraxia; difficulties with the right side of the body

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain

somatic nervous system

carries signals from the skeletal muscles and senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the skeletal muscles

amygdala

attaches emotional significance to sensory input, strongly implicated in fear (startle response), aggression, and emotional memory. it essentially controls the fear response, receiving and integrating sensory input to determine level of threat. also involved in memory of fear and linked to PTSD stimulating it increases aggression. Whne its removed or destroyed, aggression is dimished. Kluver-bucy syndrome-damage to amydgala. results in placidity, apathy, hypersexuality, hyperphagia (excessive eating), and agnosias (problems with recogniton)

Metabolic effects

atypical AS. major weight gain and changes in metabolism. increases rick of diabeities and high cholesterol

side effects of ____ include anticholinergic effects, lowered seizure threshold, and sedation

atypical antipsychotics (i.e.: Clozaril, Risperdal)

MAOI's are best for treating

atypical depression: increased, hypersomnia, mood reactivity, rejection sensitivity, accompanying anxiety

Hair cells are...

auditory receptors.

occipital lobe

back of the brain, primary visual cortex damage is not common but can lead to problems recognizing drawn objects, probs identifying colors, hallucinations, illusions, word blindness, and problems reading and writing

comprised of the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra

basal ganglia

Biggest difference between the basal ganglia and the cerebellum

basal ganglia is inhibitory and cerebellum is excitatory

presumed mechanism of action: antidepressants

block reuptake of serotonin and/or norepinephrine, this increasing those levels in the brain. Wellbutrin is diff bc it increases domaine.

What are aspects of metabolic brain activity measured by PET?

blood flow, glucose metabolism, and oxygen consumption

Sympathetic nervous system

body's "mobilizing system." Fight or flight and is dominant during times of stress. when this mobilizing system is activated, hormones are released into the bloodstream which result in increased respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure and decreases the process of digestion and elimination.

CNS is composed of

brain and spinal cord

sympathetic

branch of the autonomic nervous system that activates bodily functions

Parasympathetic

branch of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to a resting state

corpus callosum

bundle of nerve fibers that connects left and right hemispheres even when CC is not intact, the left side always controls the right and vice versa it allows for communication btw the hemispheres. in split brain patients, the info cannot be shared. no language in right hemisphere, so if you see a word on the right and are split brain, you are not able to verbalize it.

Side effects of MAOI ADs

can cause orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure when standing), weight gain, edema, sec dysfunction, ad insomnia. Most serious side ffect is tyramine-induced hypertensive crisis. So ppl taking these meds cant eat foods high in thimaine bc it can trigger a dangerous increase in BP. symptoms include severe headache, still neck, palpatations, sweating, nausea, and vomiting. Food to be avoided include red wine, aged cheese, liver, orange pupl, pacaked soups, etc. can only have things like soy sauce, banannas, avocados, pluns, and yogurt in moderation. can also interact with SSRIs and cause serotinin syndrome.

tolerance/withdrawal/dependence/OD with stimulants

can cause psychological dependence and drug use. they have "street value" as uppers. can cause physical dependence, addition, tolerance, and withdrawal. withdrawal symptoms include increased appetite, weight gain, increased sleep, decreased energy, adn uncommonly paranoid symptms. OD is rarely lethal

overdose of tricyclics

cardiac arrythmia, sudden death

Haldol exerts its effects primarily by blocking _______ receptors in certain areas of the brain.

dopamine

action potential

cell-cell communication .At rest, out side of the cell has an excess of sodium ions, while the inside has an excess of potassium ions. when a stimulus of sufficient charge reaches a resting neuron, the na outside of teh cell rushes into the cell, creating an action potential (electric pulse). K moves out of the cell. The AP travels the entire length of the axon to the boutons (terminal buttons) releasing NTs into the synapse (small space btw neurons).

_____ includes the brain and spinal cord

central nervous system

the _____ is almost completely undeveloped at birth

cerebral cortex

Two layers of the cerebrum

cerebral cortex and subcortical areas

major divisions of the brain

cerebrum (cerebral cortex and sub cortical areas), cerebellum, and brain stem

three areas of the brain

cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem

damage at the ____ level of the spinal cord causes quadriplegia

cervical

The spinal cord 4 regions

cervical/neck, thoracic/chest.,lumbar/back, and sacral region

absence seizure

characterized by a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms

visual agnosia

characterized by an inability to name an object while being able to demonstrate its use or matching it to similar objects. It is often caused by a stroke involving the posterior cerebral artery.

clonic seizures

characterized by jerky movements

Wernicke's aphasia

characterized by rapid speech which may seem effortless but is largely devoid of content and may include anomia, problems with repetition, and paraphasia

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

characterized by reduced fear and aggression, increased docility, and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors, altered diet habits, hypersexuality, and psychic blindness

ataxia

characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors, and loss of balance

Parkinsons

characterized by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and shufflinf gait. Neuropsychiatric symptms like depression or a neuro disorder. depression may precede onset by servarl years. up to 40% of patients developed a major NCD. incidence is about 1/10th of alzheimers. include alpha-synuclean aggreagtes in substantia nigra (basal ganglia). The aggregates are thought to cause degeneration of nerve cells that produce dopamine. L-dopa is used to treat the movement componets. However, it does not alter th progression or decrease neuro symptoms

RNA

chemical mediator for learning and memory

two types of neurotransmitters

classical & peptide neurotransmitters

damage to the right hemisphere results in:

cognitive/visual spatial abnormalities & affective abnormalities

Side effects of antipsychotics (1st and 2nd gen)

common SE's include sedation, drowsiness, dizziness, anticholinergec effects, weight gain, and sexual dysfunction. 1st:most significant side effects are extrapyramidal. All AS can cause tardive dyskenia, but chancel are lower in 2nd gen. However, 2nd gen carries a higher risk of metabolic side effects. clozapine: higer risk of arganulocytosis

Korsakoff's Syndrome

common alcohol induced NCD. results from chronic thiamin deficiency. Most significant problem is anterograde amnesia (difficulty forming new memories). They can also suffer from retrograde amnesia. Confabulation can occur. Also, lack of insight, limited spontaneous conversation, disorientation, apathy, irritability, executive funciton problems

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

complete removal of the amygdala; results in placidity, apathy, hyper sexuality, excessive eating, and agnosias

begin in the temporal lobe; involve impaired consciousness and involuntary chewing, lip smacking, fidgeting, and walking in circles

complex partial seizure

timbre

complexity of sound waves

____ is caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus and does not significantly affect comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition

conduction aphasia

Peptide Neurotransmitters

consist of long chains of amino acid. Two of them, enkephalins and endorphins, also known as endogenous opioids, help regulate stress and pain. Substance P is involved in pain regulation.

hippocampus

consolidates conscious memories

two types of catecholamines

dopamine and norepinhephrine

parietal lobe

contain primary sensory areas that process somatosensory information. enable us to integrate sensations of tough and merging things like shape, size and weight into a 3d experience of objects. also processes sensations of pain, heat and prorpiosensation (ability to sense position, location, and movement in the body). right side: attention and visual spatial skills Left side: overlearned motor routines and linguistic skills like reading and writing damage can cause anomia (inability to name objects), agraphia, alexia, acalculia, difficuluty drawing objects, problems with left and right, lack of awareness of certain body parts, hand eye coordination, and probs attending to more than one thing Gerstmann's syndrome

temporal lobe

contain the primary auditory cortex; involved in verbal memory and language

parietal lobe

contain the primary sensory areas that process somatosensory information

cell body (soma)

contains the nucleus, integrates information from the dendrites, and regulates all cell activity

Parts of a Neuron

contains three parts: 1. dendrites - receive information by capturing neurotransmitters released in the synaptic cleft. 2. Axon - tube-like structure that transmits information. 3. Cell body or soma - Integrates information from the dendrites. Contains the nucleus and controls hereditary characteristics (e..g., DNA).

left hemisphere of brain

control over language and motor control; involved in verbal memory & rational/logical thinking

Autonomic Nervous System

controls automatic or involuntary bodily functions of the smooth muscles and glans, including digestion, heart rate, and breathing. - Primary bodily function of the ANS is to maintain homeostasis. - The ANS is divided into two systems: Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and Parasympathetic Nervous system (PNS).

cerebellum

controls balance, involved in motor learning, and controls posture

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Thyroid Gland

controls metabolism through secretion of the hormone thyroxine.

The autonomic nervous system

controls the automatic or involuntary bodily functions of the smooth muscles and glands including digestions, heart rate, and breathing. The primary function is to maintain homeostasis. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

autonomic nervous system

controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs

cerebellum

coordinates voluntary motor movements, responsible for balance and posture, plays a role in the acquisition of motor skills

Subcortical brain areas

corpus callosum, limbic system, and basal ganglia

subcortical brain areas

corpus callous, limbic system, and basal ganglia

PNS is composed of

cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and peripheral ganglia

Parkinsons and Domamine

degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra. as a result, there is a decrease of dopamine available in the basal ganglia. L-Dopa is a used to treat it

Huntington's disease is due to....

degeneration of the caudate nucleus and putamen

Deficiency of Norepinephrine leads to

depression

low serotonin and low norepinephrine cause

depression

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

derived from the changes in water density in the brain; since 80 percent of the brain is made up of water, MRI produces a high-resolution image of the brain; MRS, on the other hand, aims to produce an image of the remainder 20 percent of the brain, namely brain tissue; radio waves are used to image the variety of molecules that make up brain tissue including DNA, RNA, proteins, phospholipids, and organelles that make up the neurons.

amplitude

determines loudness

Diabeties

develops when the pancreas does not produce insulin (type 1, insulin dependent, onset before 30, kids are good about meds but tend to become non-complaint/erratic in adolescence ), when the body develops insulin resistance (type 2, can sometimes be controlled during diet/exercise, african americans/hispanics have highest risk of developing it), or during pregnancy (gestational, 1-3 % of pregnancies, may precede a type II development) Hallmark is hyperglycemia: excessive glucose or blood sugar levels. Symptoms are the 3 Ps: 1) polyuria(increased urination); 2) polydipsia (increased thirst); 3) polyphagia (increased appetite) Meds used to treat this can cuase blood sugar to drop too low, which can cause hypoglycemia. Symptoms include nervousness, irritability, trembling, cold sweats, fatigue, rapid heart rate, hunger, headache, and confusion

Parkinson's disease

disorder characterized by difficulty with intended movement

Huntington's disease

disorder characterized by the presence of extraneous unwanted movements

The left hemisphere

dominant in 97% of people. dominance refers to control over language (reading, writing, speaking, motor control, etc). 90% of population is right handed and almost all are left hand dominant, most left handers too. involved in verbal memory and rational, analytical, logical, and abstract thinking. Damage to the left hemisphere may result in aphasia, language impairments, apraxia, and difficulties for the right side of the body Left is for Language and Logic

Left Hemisphere f

dominant in about 97%of all people. Dominance refers to control over language, which includes reading, writing, speaking, spelling, naming, as well as motor control. - about 90% of the population are right handed, and almost all right handers are left hemisphere dominant. - of the 10% left handed population, most of the are also left hemisphere dominant (75-80%). - Left hemisphere is also involved in verbal memory,, as well as in thinking that is rational, analytical, and abstract. - Damage to left hemisphere may result in aphasia (speech disorder), other language problems (agraphia, anomia), apraxia (motor disorder), and/or difficulties with right side of the body. Left = Language and Logic.

non-REM Sleep Stage 4

dominated by delta waves, "the deep sleep" stage

Dependence/withdrawal/overdose with anti psychotics

dont cause addiction, dependence, or tolerance. withdrawal is only caused when a high dose is suddenly stopped symptoms can include headache, insomnia, nightmares. OD are usually not highly lethal unless a full 30-60 day supply is taken at one time. They are more lethal when combined with other drugs

Dependence/withdrawal/ overdose with ADs

dont cause depencende, tolerance, or addiction. apruplty stopping can cause non life threatening withdrawal symptoms. TCAs and MAOIs are highly lethal when patients attempt suicide with med OD>. lethality increases iwith alcohol. SSRIS and other ADs are not ver lethal

Tegretol/carbamazepine

effective for maina, especially rapid cycling; faster onset than lithium

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

electric currents are passed through the brain deliberately triggering a brief seizure that can immediately reverse symptoms of some mental illnesses. Considerd safe and effective. usually used for patients with severe depression and treatment resistant bipolar, acute psychosis, and catania. helps up to 85% of patients, often after 1st or second treatment. Concerns: memory loss. after it, ppl can be confused for up to 45 minutes. also retro and antero grade amnesia which can last a while. but sever and long lasting memory loss is rare. Bilateral ECT causes more impairment than unilateral.

what separates the lobes? frontal and parietal lobes? temporal from frontal and parietal?

elongated grooves (sulci); central sulcus; lateral sulcus

the cingulate cortex is most associated with ________

emotions and motivation

edogenous opiods

enkephalins and endorphins that help regulate stress

structural brain abnormalities found in largest proportion of patients with Schizophrenia

enlarged ventricles

Etiology: Downs Syndrome

extra #21 chromosome

presumed mechanism of benzos

facilitate GABA's ability to bind to its receptor site, enhancing the effects of GABA. GABA is the major inhibitory transmittor in the brain and increasing it reduces anxiet, increases sedation, muscle relaxion, and reduction in seizures when used for sleep problems, it should just be short term. there could be rebound insomnia and benzos distrupt the normal speel cycle and disrupt REM. so there can be REM rebound can be used to treat mania, akathisia, alcohol withdrwal, muscle relaxants, and as adjuncts to anathesia

ansosgnosia

failure to recognize one's own neurological defect

Huntington's disease

fatal condition that results from an autosomal-dominant gene. onset between 30 and 50 years. Early symptoms are typically non=specific and include things like irritability, apathy, or dishininbtion. Progressive deterioration of cognitive and physical abilities. Choreiform movements (frequent jerking movements), athetosis (slow writhing movements), and facial grimaces may develop up to 10 years after onset. Disease invovles the Basal Ganglia, specifically the caudate nucleus and putamen. REduction of Acetylcholine and GABA which in turn triggers excess dopamine. 50% chance of passing it onto child

functions of the hypothalamus

fever, feeding, fighting, falling asleep, and f**king

side effects and OD-lithium and anticonvulsants

fine hand tremors, gastric distress, weight gain, sedation, hair loss, acne, polyuria, and polydipsia. blood tests are required. most severe side effect is lithium toxicity-potentilal fatal. can occur bc of OD or even to people following their doctor's orders side effects of ACs-drowsiness, dizziness, headache, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and possibly increase in suicidal thoughts/behaviors

gyri

folds/ridges in the cerebral cortex

research on constructive memory has linked false recollection to lesions in the _____.

frontal lobe

the prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, and Broca's area are located in the _______

frontal lobe

4 lobes of the brain

frontal, pareital, temporal, occipital

Four lobes of the cerebral cortex

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

Side effects of SSRIs

headaches, nervousness, restlessness, insomnia, and gastro distress. tend to fade over time. sexual dysfunction can occur, but can be helped by changing the dose. suicidal thining or attempt risk in kids/teens

Medulla

hindbrain structure that controls the flow of information between the spinal cord and brain anad regulates breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure

the ____ plays a role in processing visual, spatial, and verbal information and consolidating declarative memories

hippocampus

Side effects of MAOI's

hypotension, dizziness, dry mouth, nausea, weight gain, blurred vision Most serious is a hypertensive crisis if taken with other drugs or food with the amino-acid tyramine

precocious puberty has been linked to premature awakening of the ______

hypothalamic-pituitary axis

location of the suprachiasmatic nucleus

hypothalamus

regulates homeostasis

hypothalamus

the _____ generates physiological responses associated with rage, fear, and other strong emotions

hypothalamus

the ______ controls the release of hormones from the pituitary and other endocrine glands

hypothalamus

the brain part that manages the circadian rhythm is located in the _____

hypothalamus

alarm stage (Selye)

hypothalamus responds to stress by activating the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline, which increases glucose levels and heart and respiration rates

resistance stage (Selye)

hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to release ACTH, which activates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol

_______ generates physiological reactions associated with rage, fear, and other strong emotions

hypothalmus

All or none principle

if a neuron is sufficiently stimulated, it will fire to its fullest extent. If not sufficiently stimulated, it will not fire at all. After firing, there is an absolute refractory period, during which the neuron cant fire regardless of the strength of stimulation. NA and K return to their normal sides during the refractory period.

exhaustion stage (Selye)

if stress becomes chronic; pituitary gland and adrenal cortex lose the ability to maintain elevated hormone levels

Wernicke's area

in the left temporal lobe; involved in language comprehension

Agnosia

inability sensory stimulus, such as objects, people, sounds, shapes, or smell. Caused by damage to parietal, temporal or occipital lobe.

Apraxia

inability to carry out voluntary/purposeful motor movements even though there are no motor or sensory deficits. The person understands and is willing to do the movements, but they simply cant execute it. can effect speech, movement, etc. EX: can scratch your nose until someone asks you to do it. caused by lesions in neural pathways in the brain for learned patterns of behavior, pareital/temporal lobes

Broca's aphasia

inability to express language (due to motor difficulties)

tactile agnosia

inability to recognize familiar objects by touch

Amino Acids

include GABA, Glycine and glutamate.

Neurocognitive disorders

include delirium, major, mild, and subtypes. Preferred term for conditions affected younfer persons

How do SSRI's work?

increase the availability of serotonin at the synapse by inhibiting reuptake

arousal of the sympathetic nervous system leads to:

increased respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure decreases digestion and elimination

GABA and glycine

inhibitory neurotransmitters on the CNS that have a calming effect

side effects of SSRI's

insomnia, nausea, headache, dizziness, sexual dysfunction

parietal lobe

integrate sensations of touch to create a 3-d experience of the objects around us

Cell body (SOMA)

integrates info from the dendrites. contains the nucleus which regulates all cell activity and controls hereditary characteristics.

Thalamus

integrates information from all of the senses except olfaction and relays it to the cerebral cortex

Partial Seizures

involve an electrical disturbance that is limited to a specific area of one cerebral hemisphere. Classified as either simple (consciousness/awareness retained) or complex (consciousness is impaired or lost). Simple: in a focal area of the brain only, which include any of the lobes. Symptoms may be motor, autonomic, sensory, or psychological. Remain conscious and can describe the seizure. Jacksonian seizure-simple frontal love seizure that starts as a localized motor seizure like in the finger, then spread. Complex: Always involves impairment of awareness/consciousness. Autoplasims often occur such as lip smacking, nonsense phrases, fidgeting, etc. often preceeded by an aura such as deja vu, nausea, heat, tingling, or distortion of sensory perceptions. These are usually a manifestion of tempral lobe epilepsy

left parietal lobe

involve in over learned motor routines and linguistic skills (reading, writing, naming objects)

dopamine

involved in mood, motivation, and voluntary movement

serotonin

involved in mood, sleep, appetite, aggression, sex, and pain perception

pons and medulla

involved in sleep, respiration, and cardiovascular activity

basal ganglia

involved in the control of voluntary movement

right temporal lobe

involved in visual memory

Cerebrum

involved with complex thought, perception, and action

The cerebrum

involved with complex thought, perception, and action. the outer layer is the cerebral cortex and the inside includes the subcortical areas.

Gerstmann's syndrome

involves lesions of the left parietal lobes and results in agraphia, acalculia, right0left disorientation, and finger agnosia

Benzodiazepine withdrawal

is similar to alcohol withdrawal syndrome and barbiturate withdrawal syndrome and can in severe cases provoke life threatening withdrawal symptoms such as seizures; protracted withdrawal symptoms include anxiety, irritability, insomnia and sensory disturbances.

How do benzodiazepines work

it enhances GABA which inhibits the CNS

amygdala

key structure in the mediation of conditioned fear

ataxia

lack of coordination of voluntary movements in the absence of weakness or sensory loss

The left hemisphere is dominant for ________ for most people, regardless of handedness

language

cerebral cortex

least developed part of the brain at birth

the cerebral cortex

least developed part of the brain at birth. more developed in humans than other animals. full of folds (gyri) which allow for expansion of the cortical surface without increasing brain size. divided into two halves-left and right which are connected by the corpus collosum

areas in the _____ hemisphere mediate happiness and other positive emotions and damage can cause anxiety or depression

left

Location of Broca's Area

left frontal lobe

Gerstmann's syndrome

lesion on left pareital lobe. reults in: agraphia, acaclulia, left-right disorientation, and finger agnosia (difficulty with recognition, cant recognize fingers as part of their own body).

Side effects of Tegretol/carbamazepine

lethargy, tremor, ataxia, visual disturbances

The brain stem

lies below the subcortical regions and in front of the cerebellum. most primitive part of the brain and is an extension of the spinal cord. 10/12 cranial nerves begin here. major areas are: pons, medulla, and reticular formation

Retrograde amnesia

loss of pre-existing memories. recent memories are much more affected in comparison w/remote memories. Usually episodic memory (autobiographical info) is more severely affected than semantic memory (memory for facts). Childhood and adolescent memories typically are in-tact

Anterograde Amnesia

loss of the ability to form new memories. Person will forget new info, people, and events w/in a few seconds bc the info does not transfer from short to long term memory

presbyopia

loss of visual acuity

Smell runs directly to the

limbic system

Treatment of choice for bipolar

lithium

temporal lobes

located on sidesL around the tempeles above the ears (hearing). contain primary auditory cortex. connected to the limbic system so they also play a role in emotional behavior and memory. left: verbal memory and language comprehension (wernicke's area) right: visual memory damage may result in increased aggression ("temper"al lobe), changes in interest in sexual behavior, interference with memory, and wernicke's apahasia

Herschel's convolutions

location of tonotopic processing of auditory stimuli

Agnosia

loss of ability to recognize a specific sensory stimulus not due to memory loss. Caused by damage to the parietal, temporal, or occipital lobes Prosopagnosia, anosognosia

side effects of stimulants

loss of appetite, insomnia, headaches, gastro issues, irritiability, anxiety, dysphoria, increase haer rate and bp, and may temorarily suppress growth in kids (taking drug holidays can help).

Parkinson's disease is due to...

loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantial nigra

Aphasia Broca's Wernicke's

loss of language due to brain lesions Brocas: lesion in dominant left frontal lobe. Severe problems with speech production. Comprehension is mostly in tact but come problems may occur like grammatical constructions. expressive/motor aphasia Wernicke's: lesion in left temporal lobe. no language comprehension (cant follow directions or repeat phrases). they can speak fluently but its nonsense. unaware of their problem (anosgnosia)/ receptive/sensory aphasia

serotonin

low levels of _____ have been linked to suicide and violent suicide attempts.

primary function of the ANS is to ______ _______

maintain homeostasis

The "catecholamine hypothesis" predicts that drugs which _______________ will alleviate depression.

maintain or increase norepinephrine levels

Glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter

GABA and glycine

major inhibitory NTs in the CNS and they have a calming effect. anxiety and seizures are associated with insufficient levels of GABA. Benzos are GABA agonists, which increase GABA and decrease arousal

thalamus

major sensory relay center for all senses except smell

thalamus

major sensory relay center. receives input from all of our senses except olfaction. It integrates and processes information before projecting it to appropriate cortical areas. critical in the perception of pain. abnormalities have been linked to schizophrenia (misperception of sensory input)

parts of the limbic system

mammillary bodies, septal nuclei, hippocampus

Too much norepinephrine causes

mania

low serotonin and high norepinephrine cause

mania

Neurocognitive Disorder due to Alzheimer's Disease has been linked to the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in what area of the brain?

medial temporal

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

mediates the sleep-wake cycle and other circadian rhythyms

Symptoms of a temporal lobe lesion

memory impairment, depression or anxiety, hallucinations

hippocampus

memory, specifically consolidation of conscious memories. It stores new info and events as lasting memories

red nucleus

midbrain structure; involved in motor coordination

Sysnesthesia

mixed sensations. Occurs when a stimulus in one sensory modality (eg vision) involuntarily elicits a different perception in the same modality (olfaction); or a perception of a form (letter or number( induces a different perception in the same modality (color). Runs in familias and in ppl who are neurologically normal

septum

moderates or decreases aggression

Septum

moderates or decreases aggression. damage can result in septal rage syndrome. Septum allows you to Simmer down

Alzheimer's disease

most common NCD. more prevalent in women (women live longer). Early symptoms include memory problems, apathy, and depression kater symptoms include disorientation, confucseion, gait, behavior. final stages: patients lose their ability to communicate, dont recognize loved ones, and are bed ridden. Used to only be detectable by autopsy, but there are more options now (amyvid). evidence for a genetic component (ppl with relatives with it are more likley to get it). progressive disease. no treatment to stop or heal it.

Glutamate

most common NT and is a major mediator of fast excitatory synaptic transmission. Abnormal glutamate transmission is suspected in schizophrenia, OCD, Autism, and depression

akathisia

motor restlessness such as fidgeting, rocking, or pacing due to the neuromuscular or neurologic adverse effects associated with the use of antipsychotics

paresis

muscle weakness due to incomplete severing of the spinal cord

when someone is relaxed they are using their _________ nervous system; energy conserving system

parasympathetic

dependence/tolerance/withdrawal of lithium and Anticonvulsants

neither causes toleracne, addiction, dependence, or withdrawal. Lithium shouldnt be used in people w/heart disease, thyroid disease, renal damage, and pregnancy. requires close medical supervision.

4. Optic nerves carry ...

nerve impulses from the retina to the brain

dopamine

neurotransmitter involved in thought, movement, and emotion; also linked to the reward system in the brain

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter involved in voluntary movement, memory, and cognition

According to the catecholamine hypothesis, depression is due to a deficiency in _______.

norepinephrine

Pet and SPECT scans

nucleur imaging techniques used to demonstrate activity of the brain and other organs.

the ____ is active during states of relaxation and energy conservation

parasympathetic branch

the somatosensory cortex is located in the ____ lobe

parietal

Which system, parasympathetic or sympathetic, is healthier to have dominant?

parasympathetic

location of the visual cortex

occipital lobe

Frontal lobe

occupy largest portion of the brain 3 main divisions: prefrontal cortex, premotor area, motor area. damage is most often caused by brain injury, stroke, or disease and may result in paralysis, changes in personality, emotional lability, perseveration, inattention, difficluty with problem solving, and brocas aphasia (expressive lang)

One-sided neglect

often results from a stroke in the right hemisphere. ppl with this often fail to be aware of objects on their left (contralateral to the brain damage). They may eat from only one side of the plate, write on on side of the page, etc...

Pupil

opening with the colored part (iris). It opens to regulate the amount of entering light.

damage to the _______ is most likely to result in altered emotional behaviors

orbitofrontal cortex

cerebral cortex

outside most layer of the brain

Hyperpituitarism

over secretion of pituitary growth hormone. Gigantism or acromegaly (enlargement of hand, feet, jaw, forehead, etc).

Cushing's disease

oversecretion of corticosteroids. Symptoms: depression, irritability, emotional lability, memory and concentration problems, and even suicide. Also, adiposity (swelling and fattening of the face, neck, and trunk)

Paraplegia

paralysis in the legs only. Severing the spinal cord at C6 or C7 results in both paraplegia and partial paralysis of the arms. - Severing the spinal cord at T1 or below results in paraplegia only.

Severing the spinal cord on C6 or C7 results in:

parapalegia & semi paralysis in arms

Right hemisphere

perceptual, visuospatial, artistic, musical, and intuitive activities. also maintenance of body image and comprehension of visual, facial, and verbal emotion. Damage may result in left side hemi-neglect, prosopagnosia, visual spatial disturbances, and agnosia for musical sounds. also, indifference, euphoria, hysteria, depression, mania, disinhibition, impolisitivty, and abnormal sexual behavior

the ________ includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

peripheral nervous system

suffix of second generation antipsychotics (atypical, Novel) most commonly prescribed

pine, done, zole Clorazil (clozapine), Risperdal (risperidone), Zyprexa (olanzapine), Invega (paliperidone), Seroquel (quetipaine), Geodon (ziprasidone), and abilify (arizapole)

right parietal lobe

plays a role in directing attention

pons and medulla

pons (top) and medulla (bottom) are involved in sleep (including initiation of REM), respiration, movement, and cardiovascular activity. damage can lead to a failure of bodily functions and death. Cranial nerve XII, hypoglossal nerver, origninates in the medilla and damage can cause similar problems to broca's apahasia

major areas of the brain stem

pons, medulla, reticular formation

the somatosensory cortex is located on the _________

post central gyrus

agranulocytosis

potentially lethal side effect of clorazin (clozapine). usually only given to ppl who have failed on other meds. It is a sudden drop in white blood cell count that results in a very high risk of serious infection due to immune suppression

Dependence, withdrawal, tolerance, and OD with Benzos

ppl can develop both physical and psychological dependence. most addictive ones have a rapid onset but short half life like xanax. tolerance can be developed. BZs and alcohol have cross tolerance. withdrwal can be serousl and fatal...they should never be abruptly stopped, but graudally tapered off. can lead to seuzires. when taken with alcohol or CNS depresseants, they can be fatal. Should be used with caution in older adults-increased risk of falls/fractire, car accidents, and cog imapirment.

the ______ plays a role in emotion, memory, self-awareness, and higher-order cognitive functions

prefrontal cortex

three areas of the frontal lobe

prefrontal cortex, motor area, premotor area

prefrontal cortex, premotor area, and motor area (frontal lobe)

prefrontal: critical to personality, emotionality, inhibition, planning and initiative, judgement, higher mental functions, and abstract thinking. premotor: planning movement motor: voluntary muscle movement left frontal lobe: broca's area (controls muscles that produce speech)

corpus callosum

primary function is to convey sensory information from one hemisphere to the other

the _______ is part of the pyramidal motor system and different areas control muscle in different parts of the body

primary motor cortex

limbic system

primitive brain that plays a key role in survival. it is largely involved in emotions (anger, fear, pleasure) and basic drives (sex, hunger), learning, olfaction, and memory. also influences autonomic and endocrine system. includes thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and septum

Huntington's disease and Parkinson's

results from degeneration of the caudate nuculeus and putmen and produces continuious thrusting movements of the face and limbs parkinsons results from a slow and steady loss of domaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and results in tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia (slowed movements).

Cushing's Disease

results from over secretion of corticosteroids. Symptoms include: agitated depression, irritability and emotional lability, difficulty with memory and concentration, and even suicide. - Physically, the patient experiences adiposity (swelling and fattening) of the phase, neck, and trunk.

Global Aphasia

results in widespread damage to much of the language regions of the cortex. Most language functions are impaired , including fluency, comprehension, repetition, and naming.

in TBI, when _____ occurs, memories from the more distant past return first.

retrograde amnesia

areas in the ______ hemisphere mediate sadness, anger, and other negative emotions, damage can cause apathy or undue cheerfulness

right

Anxiety, trauma, OCD, chromic pain, bulimia, premature ejaculation (anti deps)

safe alternative to anti anxeity meds and dont lead to abuse. -panic disorder: in addition to meds like xanax and ativan -OCD: often reposnds to the TCA Anafanil (clomiprine) and appears to respond to all SSRIs -PTSD, anxiety disorders- commonly prescribed -Chronic pain disorders-repond well to the TCAS -Bulimia- Prozac and other SSRIs and MAOIs -premature ejaculation- trycycilcs and ssris

Disorders treated with antipsychotics

schizophrenia, delusioanl disorder, brief psychotic disorder, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar, delirium, tourettes, and ASD. Sometimes used with PTSD and major depressive disorder. used for NCDs, but death rates of older ppl with NCDs increase with it

The cerebellum

second largest structure in the brain. located at the base of the brain behind the stem. provides excitatory inputs that are responsible for maintaining smooth movement and coordinating motor activity. also controls autonomic adjustments of posture and muscle one that result in balance and equilibrium. hallmark of cerebellar disease is ataxia (lack of coordination of voluntary movements in the absence of weakness or sensory loss). symptoms may appear as problems with gait, posture, incorrect timing in the activation of muslces, disequilibrium, vertigo, in ability to reach out and grab objects, difficulty making rapid movements, or problems coordingating fine movements

Major vascular neruro cog disease

second most common NCD. results from small cerebrovascular strokes. equally common in makes and females. the location of the injsury determines how the person's functioning is affected. early symptoms include impaired judgement or inability to make plans. abrupt onset, step-wise progression. half diagnosed with it dies withing 2-3 years. earlieier age of onset than AZ.

choroid plexus

secretes cerebrospinal fluid

Subdivisions of PNS

somatic and autonomic

role of Acetylcholine

somatic nervous system: skeletal muscles autonomic nervous system: internal organs and glands brain: learning and memory

loss of sensation due to brain injury is likely to involve the ______

somatosensory cortex

Mood stabilizers (lithium and anticonvulsants)

specific mechanism is largely unknown. used to treat bipolar disorder, depression (when ADs alone dont work), combined w/ AS to streat schizophrenia, impulse control disorders, cuclothimuc disorder, borderline personality disorder, pain relief for neurological pain disorders like tigeminal neuralgia. takes 1-3 weeks to help mania and 6-8 for depression. may be combined with other drugs to treat manic and depressive symptoms. After several months the drug has a preventative effect (prohphylactic), cutting mood episodes in half and decreasing severity. anticonvulsants are used when lithium doesnt work or cant be used

The central nervous system

spinal cord and brain with sensory (afferent) neurons carrying info to the CNS and motor (efferent) neurons carrying info away from the CNS to muscles and glands

seizures

sudden disruption of the brain's normal electrical activity. They are short lived and stop on their own. They always invovle altered consciousness and/or other neuro or behavioral manifestations. Classified as either generalized or partial.

Brain structure implicated in the etiology of seasonal affective disorder

suprachiasmatic nucleus

24-hour biological activity is managed by the _____

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

two divisions of the autonomic nervous system

sympathetic and parasympathetic

the ______ is active during states of activity and mediates the body's fight-or-flight reactions

sympathetic branch

_________ and _______ make up the autonomic nervous system

sympathetic branch, parasympathetic branch

biofeedback helps people decrease their _______ nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

_____ is a potentially irreversible extrapyramidal side effect assoicated with long-term use of antipsychotic drugs

tardive dyskinesia

location of the auditory cortex and Wernicke's area

temporal lobe

CT Scan

test of structure. combines X-ray views take from many different angles of the brain, bones, or soft tissue. esp useful for examining ppl with bleeding, blood clots, or internal injuries from trauma

absence seizures are thought to originate in the _____

thalamus

critical in the perception of pain

thalamus

the _____ is involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex

thalamus

the ______ plays a role in declarative memory, and damage can produce severe memory impairment

thalamus

Key limbic system structures

thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and septum

fMRI provides much less temporal resolution...

than EEG.

fMRI and MRI produce images of higher resolution...

than PET.

auditory localization

the ability to orient towards direction of sound. It is present at birth and declines 1 to 4 months. It re-emerges and is fully developed at 1 year.

action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the neuron

Genotype

the contribution of heredity to an observed characteristic can be expressed in terms of a heritability estimate, which indicates the extent to which phenotypes vary within groups as a result of differences in ________.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations ("fight or flight")

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that sends and receives sensory messages that control voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles

Gate-Control Theory of Pain

there are mechanisms in the spinal cord that mediate the perception of pain

blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD)

the hemodynamic signal detected by MRI

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the automatic glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).

non-REM Sleep Stage 3

theta waves begin to be replaced by delta waves

benzodiazepines do what to what neurotransmitter?

they are agonists (enhance) to glutamate

antipsychotics do what to which neurotransmitter?

they are antagonists to dopamine

all-or-none principle of action potentials

they either occur or do not occur, when they do occur they are always the same in terms of magnitude

Korsakoff's syndrome is due to a ____ deficiency

thiamine deficiency

damage at the _____ level of the spinal cord causes paraplegia

thoracic

Dopamine

thought, movement, and emotion. It is also linked to the reward system of the brain. Schizophrenia (excess dopamine or hyperactivity of the dopaminergic system). traditional antipsychotics were mainly dopamine antagonists. second generations are combined serotonin/dope antagonists and block D at a lower rate. deficit in DA transmission in prefrontal cortex could lead to cog impairments and negative symptoms of Schizo.

hypothalamus

through its connections to the endocrine system (glands) and autonomic nervous system, it serves a role in homeostasis including regulating temperature, hunger, thirst, sex, cyclic sex hormone secretion (menstrual cycle), aggression, and sleep/wake cycle. the suprachimaisc nucleus is located here and is considered the body's circadian clock. directly influences the pituitary gland by secreting hypothalamic releasing and hupothalamic inhibiting hormones (thyrotropin-releasing and corticotropin-releasing hormones. In response to those hormones, the pituitary secretes its own hormones (eg growth hormone, thyroid stimulating, adreno...) that activates the other endocrine glands (eg thyroid and pancreas) 5 fs: fever, feeding, fighting, falling asleep, and f_ing Hypothalamus:homeostasis

axon

tube like structure that transmits info

axon

tube-like structure that transmits information

Computerized Tomography (CT) & Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan) are used to identify...

tumors, blood clots, tissue damage, & structural abnormalities e.g., cerebral vascular accident, multiple sclerosis

Hypopituitarism

under secretion of pituitary growth hormones, can cause dwarfism and pubertal delay in children.

Addison's disease

undersecretion of corticosteroids or adrenal insufficiency. Symptoms include apathy, weakness, irritability, depression, and gastro disturbance.

Tricyclics are best for treating

vegetative symptoms i.e., appetite and sleep issues, psychomotor retardation TCAs are used to treat depression, anxiety, OCD, & neuropathic pain. may be helpful for agoraphobia

Basal ganglia

vital role in regulation and coordination of movement. in order to move smoothly, the motor cortexes must receive info from the BG. without it, the cortex is unable to properly direct motor control. includes the caudate nuculeus, putamen, substantia nigra, globus pallidus, and subthalamic nucleus it is inhibitory and geerally put the brakes on movement, allow us to be still and maintain posture. in order to move voluntarily, the breaks must be released. dysfucntion results in two major problems: presence of extraneous movements (huntingtons) or difficluty with intended movement (parkinsons). two other disorders related include tourette's and OCD

Bipolar, depressed (anti deps)

when used, mood stabilzer is usually prescribed also to minmize risk of a manic episode. prozac, paxil, zoloft, and wllbutrin often used

Blind spot

where the optic nerve leaves the retina

Stimulants

work by both increasing the release of dopamine and NE (the catecholamines)and by blocking their reuptake. so, an overall increase in levels of dopamine and NE used for ADHD (begin to work within 2 days) and sometiems for treatment resistant depression, obesity, narcolepsy, and medically debilitating conditons (AIDS, cancer)

Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRI)

work to increase both serotonergic and noradrenergic activity. SNRI's include Effexor-venlafaxine & Cymbalta-duloxetine. SNRI's are used to treat anxiety disorders and neuropathic pain.

antagonist

works by binding to the receptor site and blocking the neurotransmitter's access to the site and reducing its ability to affect the cell's activity