Biology 1361: Chapter 5

Two closely related ___ are more similar in DNA than are more distantly related ___.

Two closely related species are more similar in DNA than are more distantly related species.

Typical secondary structures are a coil called an ___ ___ and a folded structure called a ___ ___ ___.

Typical secondary structures are a coil called an alpha helix and a folded structure called beta pleated sheet.

___ ___ ___ have on or more double bonds.

Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.

A slight change in ___ ___ can affecta protein's structure and ability to function.

A slight change in primary structure can affect a protein's structure and ability to function.

___ ___ are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups.

Amino acids are molecules with carboxyl and amino groups.

Molecular biology can be used to assess ___ ___.

Molecular biology can be used to assess evolutionary kinship.

Molecular structure and function are ___.

Molecular structure and function are inseparable.

Monosaccharides are classified by the location of the ___ group (as ___ or ___) and the number of ___ in the carbon skeleton.

Monosaccharides are classified by the location of the carbonyl group (as aldose or ketose) and the number of carbons in the carbon skeleton.

Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of ___.

Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH₂O.

___ serve as major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules.

Monosaccharides serve as major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules.

Most animal fats are ___.

Most animal fats are saturated.

Most proteins probably go through several states on their way to ___ ___.

Most proteins probably go through several states on their way to stable structure.

Nucleic acids are polymers called ____.

Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides.

Nucleic acids store and transmit ___ information.

Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information.

Nucleoside = ___ + ___

Nucleoside = Nitrogenous Base + Sugar

Nucleotide = ___ + ___

Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphate Group

Nucleotide polymers are linked together to build a ___.

Nucleotide polymers are linked together to build a polynucleotide.

One DNA molecule includes many ___.

One DNA molecule includes many genes.

Parallell cellulose molecules hold together by bonds between their H and OH groups are grouped in microfibrils, which form strong building materials for ___.

Parallell cellulose molecules hold together by bonds between their H and OH groups are grouped in microfibrils, which form strong building materials for plants.

Phospholipids are the major component of all ___ ___.

Phospholipids are the major component of all cell membranes.

Plant fats and fish fats are usually ___.

Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated.

Plants store surplus ___ as granulates within chloroplasts and other plastids.

Plants store surplus starch as granulates within chloroplasts and other plastids.

Polymers are disassembled to monomers by ___, a reaction that is essentially the reverse of a dehydration reaction.

Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the reverse of a dehydration reaction.

Polymers with alpha glucose are ___.

Polymers with alpha glucose are helical.

Polymers with beta glucose are ___.

Polymers with beta glucose are straight.

___ are polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids.

Polypeptides are polymers build from the same set of 20 amino acids.

Polypeptides range in length from a ___ to more than a ___ monomers.

Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers.

Polysaccharides, the polymers of ___, have ___ and ___ roles.

Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles.

Amino acids are linked by ___ ___.

Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds.

A DNA molecule has two polynucleotides, spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a ___ ___.

A DNA molecule has two polynucleotides, spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix.

A ___ ___ or more specifically a dehydration reaction occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule.

A condensation reaction of more specifically a dehydration reaction occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule.

A denatured protein is biologically ___.

A denatured protein is biologically inactive.

A diet rich in ___ ___ may contribute to cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits.

A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits.

A ___ is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides.

A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides.

A ___ ___ consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton.

A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton.

A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides ___, ___, and ___ into a unique ___.

A functional protein consists of one ore more polypeptides twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape.

A ___ is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks.

A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks.

A polypeptide is a polymer of ___ ___.

A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids.

A protein consists of one or more ____.

A protein consists of one or more polypeptides.

A protein's structure determines its ___.

A protein's structure determines its function.

___ tissue cushions vital organs and insulates the body.

Adipose tissue cushions vital organs and insulates the body.

Adjacent nucleotides are joined by ___ bonds that form between the ___ group and ___ carbon of on nucleotide and the ___ group on the ___ carbon on the the next.

Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds that form between the -OH group on the 3' carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate group on the 5' carbon on the the next.

All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules: ___, ___, ___, and ___ ___.

All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Alterations in ___, ___ ___, ___, or other ___ factors can cause a protein to unravel.

Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature,or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel.

Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to ____ ____.

Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease.

Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing ___ ___, called R groups.

Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups.

An immense variety of ___ can be built from a small set of ___.

An immense variety of polymers and be built from a small set of monomers.

___ uses computer programs to predict protein structure from animo acid sequences.

Bioinformatics uses computer programs to predict protein structure from amino acid sequences.

Carbohydrate macromolecules are ___, polymers consisting of many sugar building blocks.

Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks.

Carbohydrates include __ and the polymers of ___.

Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars.

Carbohydrates serve as ___ and ___ material.

Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material.

Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as ___ ___.

Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as insoluble fiber.

____ are protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

Chaperonins are protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls of many ___.

Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi.

___, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods.

Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods.

___, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes.

Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes.

___ is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope.

Collagen is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope.

In DNA, the sugar is ___; in RNA, the sugar is ____.

In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose, in RNA, the sugar is ribose.

DNA directs synthesis of ___ ___ (___) and, through ___, controls ___ ___.

DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis.

DNA provides directions for its own ____.

DNA provides directions for its own replication.

Each cells has thousands of different kinds of ___.

Each cell has thousands of different kinds of macromolecules.

Each nucleotide consists of a ___ ___, a ___ ___, and a ___ ___.

Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called ___.

Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides.

Each polypeptide has a unique ___ ___ of amino acids.

Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids.

___ are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions.

Enzymes are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions.

___ are macromolecules that speed up the dehydration process.

Enzymes are macromolecules that speed up the dehydration process.

Enzymes can perform their functions ___, functioning as ___ that carry out the processes of life.

Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly, functioning as workhorses that carry out the processes of life.

Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing ___ linkages can't hydrolyze ___ linkages in cellulose.

Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can't hydrolyze beta linkages in cellulose.

___ are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and ___ acids.

Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids.

Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called ___ ___, and are ___ at room temperature.

Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats, and are solid at room temperature.

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are called ___ ___ or ___, and are ___ at room temperature.

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are called unsaturated fats or oils, and are liquid at room temperature.

Fats separate from water because water molecules form ___ bonds with each other and exclude fats.

Fats separate from water because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and exclude fats.

Fatty acids vary in ___ and in the number and locations of ___ ___.

Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and locations of double bonds.

Genes are made of DNA, a ___ ___.

Genese are made of DNA, a nucleic acid.

___ (___) is the most common monosaccharide.

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is the most common monosaccharide.

___ is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon.

Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon.

___ is a storage polysaccharide in animals.

Glycogen is storage polysaccharide in animals.

___ is a globular protein consisting of four polypeptides: two alpha and two beta chains.

Hemoglobin is a globular protein consisting of four polypeptides: two alpha and two beta chains.

Humans and other mammals store their fat in ___ cells.

Humans and other mammals store their fat in adipose cells.

Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly ___ and ___ cells.

Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly liver and muscle cells.

Hydrogenating vegetable oils creates ___ ___ with ___ double bonds.

Hydrogenating vegetable oils creates saturated fats with trans double bonds.

___ is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.

Hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.

In a DNA double helix, the two backbons run in opposite ___ directions from each other, an arranged referred to as ___.

In a DNA double helix, the two backbons run in opposite 5'→3' directions from each other, an arranged referred to as antiparallel.

In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ___ ___, creating a ___, or ___.

In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol, or trigylceride.

In a ___, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to a glycerol.

In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol.

In addition to primary structure, ___ and ___ conditions can affect protein structure.

In addition to primary structure, chemical and physical conditions can affect protein structure.

In ___ structures, H atoms on one strand can be bonded with OH groups on other strands.

In straight structures, H atoms on one strand can bond with OH groups on other strands.

Interactions between R groups in tertiary structure include ___ ___, ___ ___, ___ ___, and ___ ___ ___ ____.

Interactions between R groups in tertiary structure include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions.

It is hard to predict a protein's structure from its ___ ___.

It is hard to predict a protein's structure from its primary structure.

Like ___, cellulose is a polymer of ___, but the glycosidic linkages differ.

Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages differ.

Links between adjacent nucleotides create a backbone of ___-___ units with ___ ___ as appendages.

Links between adjacent nucleotides create a backbone of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases as appendages.

Lipids are a diverse group of ___ molecules.

Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules.

Lipids are ___ because the consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds.

Lipids are hydrophobic because the consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds.

___ are the one class of large biomolecules that do not form polymers.

Lipids are the one class of large biomolecules that do not form polymers.

___ are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms.

Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms.

Macromolecules are ___, built from ___.

Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers.

____ vary among cells of an organisms, vary more within a species, and vary even more between species.

Macromolecules vary among cells of an organism, vary more within a species, and vary even more between species.

Many ____, from cows to termites, have symbiotic relationships with microbes with digest cellulose.

Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have symbiotic relationships with microbes with digest cellulose.

Primary structure is determined by ___ ___ ___.

Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information.

___ ___, the sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of letters in a long word.

Primary structure, the sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of letters in a long word.

What are the protein functions?

Protein functions include structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances.

Protein synthesis occurs in ___.

Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes.

Proteins account for more than ___% of the dry mass of most cells.

Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells.

Proteins have many ___, resulting in a white range of ___.

Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions.

___ (adenine and guanine) have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring.

Purines (adenine and guanine) have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring.

___ (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have single six-membered ring.

Purines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have single six-membered ring.

___ structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains.

Quaternary structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains.

___ ___ results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule.

Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule.

___ ___ ___ have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds.

Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possibile and no double bonds.

The difference in glycosidic linkages in cellulose is based on two ring forms for glucose: ___ and ___.

The difference in glycosidic linkages in cellulose is based on two ring forms for glucose: alpha and beta.

Scientists can use ___ ___ ___ (___), which does not require protein crystallization, to determine a protein's structure.

Scientists can use nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which does not require protein crystallization, to determine a protein's structure.

Scientists use ___ ___ to determine a protein's structure (late 1950s).

Scientists use x-ray crystallography to determine a protein's structure.

___ structure, found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain.

Secondary structure, found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain.

___ ___, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin.

Sickle-cell disease, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin.

Small building-block molecules are called ___.

Small building block molecules are called monomers.

Some microbes use enzymes to digest ___.

Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose.

___, a storage polymer of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers.

Starch, a storage polymer of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers.

___ are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.

Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.

Strong covalent bonds called ___ ___ may reinforce the protein's structure.

Strong covalent bonds called disulfide bridges may reinforce the protein's structure.

___ ___ is determined by interactions between R groups, rather than interactions between the backbone constituents.

Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between R groups, rather than interactions between the backbone constituents.

___ structure of proteins is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups).

Tertiary structure of proteins is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups).

Name the acidic, negatively charged R groups.

The acidic, negatively charged R groups are Aspartic (Asp or D) and Glutamic (Glu or E).

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a ___.

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a gene.

Name the basic, positively charged R groups.

The basic, positively charged R groups are Lysine (Lys or K), Arginine (Arg or R), and Histidine (His or H).

The coils and folds of secondary structure result from ___ ___ between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone.

The coils and folds of secondary structure result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone.

The covalent bond which connects two monosaccharides is called a ___ ___.

The covalent bond which connects two monosaccharides is called a glycoside linkage.

The linear sequence of ___ in DNA molecules are passed from parents of offspring.

The linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules are passed from parents of offspring.

The loss of a protein's native structure is called ____.

The loss of a protein's native structure is called denaturation.

The major function of fats is ___ ___.

The major function of fats is energy storage.

The most biologically important lipids are ___, ___, and ___.

The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form ___ bonds: adenine (A) always with ___ (_), and guanine (G) always with ___ (_).

The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C).

Name the nonpolar R groups.

The nonpolar R groups are Glycine (Gly or G), Alanine (Ala or A), Valine (Val or V), Leucine (Leu or L), Isoleucine (Ile or I), Methionine (Met or M), Phenylalanine (Phe or F), Tryptophan (Trp or W), and Proling (Pro or P).

Name the polar R groups.

The polar R groups are Serine (Ser or S), Threonine (Thr or T), Cysteine (Cys or C), Thyrosine (Thy or Y), Asparagine (Asn or N), and Glutamine (Gln or Q).

The polysaccharide ___ is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells.

The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells.

The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a ____.

The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside.

The ___ structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.

The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.

The sequence of amino acids determines a protein's ___ structure.

The sequence of amino acids determines a protein's three-dimensional structure.

The sequence of based alone DNA or mRNA polymers is unique for each ___.

The sequence of based alone DNA or mRNA polymers is unique for each gene.

The simplest carbohydrates are ___, or single sugars.

The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars.

The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its ___ ___ and the postions of ___ ___.

The structure and function of a polysaccharides are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages.

The structure of phospholipids results in a bilayer arrangement found in ___ ___.

The structure of phospholipids results in a bilayer arrangement found in cell membranes.

The two fatty acid tails of phospholipids are ___, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a ____ head.

The two fatty acid tails of phospholipids are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head.

The unifying feature of lipids is having little or no affinity for ___.

The unifying feature of lipids is having little or no affinity for water.

There are two families of nitrogenous bases: ___ and ___.

There are two families of nitrogenous bases: pyrimidines and purines.

There are two types of nucleic acids: ___ ___ (___) and ___ ___ (___).

There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueos solutions many sugars form ___.

Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueos solutions many sugars form rings.

Three of the four classes of life's organic molecules are polymers: ___, ___, and ___.

Three of the four classes of life's organic molecules are carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.

___ ___ may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease.

Trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease.

When phospholipids are added to water, the self-assemble into a ____, the the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the ____.

When phospholipids are added to water, the self-assemble into a bilayer, the the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior.

What forms large biological molecules?

Within cells, small organic molecules are joined together to form larger molecules.