Biopsych Exam 1, 2, 3, and final exam material from slides
Compensatory Brain Activity in High-Performing Older Adults
A memory task activated the right prefrontal area in young and in low-performing older adults. Older adults who performed as well as the young showed activation in both prefrontal areas
Glycine
Inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord and lower brain. The poison strychnine causes convulsions and death by affecting glycine activity
Major structures of the forebrain?
Two cerebral hemishperes (thalamus and hypothalamus)
purpose of glial cells
act as the glue of the nervous system produce myelin maintain cell resting potentials collect waste
What do stimulants do?
activate CNS to produce arousal, increased alertness, relieves fatigue, decreased appetite, and elevated mood
Cerebrospinal fluid
carries material from the blood vessels to the CNS and transports waste materials out of the CNS
Cells in the premotor cortex would be particularly involved when you
catch a fly ball.
Corpus Callosum
dense band of fibers connecting hemispheres
A likely result of the Coolidge effect is that an individual will
have more sex partners.
Most critical factor in the neuron's ability to communicate?
membrane that encloses the cell.
Motor and sensory neurons are specialized for
transmission over long distances
Duramater
tough outside; thick, fibrous, protective
Motor neuron
carries commands to the muscles and organs.
Table 4.1
comparison of EEG and Imaging Techniques
Cerebellum
"little brain" maintains balance refines movements, controls compensatory eye movements. Involved in learning motor skills
Occipital lobe
-posterior lobe of the brain -primary visual cortex contains a map of visual space -adjacent receptors in the eye send info to adjecent points in the visual cortex
How many odors can humans distinguish?
10,000+ from only a few receptors -"T-shirt studies" indicate that people can distinguish family members from others based on genetically determined odor
When do we have the highest number of neurons?
2-3 years old
How big is the synapse
20 angstroms
How many genes have turned out to be protein encoding?
21,000 of our genes (3% of our DNA)
Like autism, ADHD is a complex, multisymptom disorder, and different individuals display different combinations of symptoms. Whole-genome studies have implicated genes involved in cell migration, synaptic excitability, and neuronal plasticity
222 copy number variations (CNVs) in ADHD patients that were not found in control subjects
Phrenology
35 Different "faculties" located in precise areas of the brain. Draw connections between bumps on skull to personality traits. This was used to justify discrimination (bumps in certain areas were "signs of aggression" so if someone had bumps there we better lock him up eve though he hasn't done anything in case he does something)
How long an action potential take?
5 milliseconds
How many layers does the cortex have?
6
Hubel and Wiesel's Explanation for Responses of Complex Cells.
A complex cell receives input from several simple cells, each of which serves a group of circular fields (as in Figure 10.23). As a result, the complex cell continues to respond as the illuminated edge moves to the left or to the right. (Ganglion cells have been eliminated for simplicity.)
A savant is a person with exceptional intellectual skills, beyond the level of "typical" genius, like Leonardo da Vinci or Albert Einstein.
A few "ordinary" individuals can perform similar feats, but the savant's performance is typically faster, more automatic, and without insight into how it is done
Critics believe that scores on traditional intelligence tests are closely related to academic performance and to higher socioeconomic levels mostly because the tests were designed to reflect that kind of success.
A few tests are designed to be culture-free, like the Raven Progressive Matrices- Some researchers also believe that these tests give them a better representation of "pure" intelligence.
Evidence indicates that the number of variants contributing to schizophrenia is in the thousands
A person's risk of schizophrenia presumably increases with the number of these genes inherited.
But what areas of the brain change seasonally?
A recent study suggests that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex contains genes activated on a seasonal basis
ECT increases the sensitivity of postsynaptic serotonin receptors; in addition, the sensitivity of autoreceptors on the terminals of norepinephrine- and dopamine- releasing neurons is reduced, so the release of those transmitters is increased.
A temporary slowing of the EEG, which is correlated with therapeutic effectiveness, suggests that ECT synchronizes neuronal firing over large areas of the brain
A person with the allele for type A blood on one chromosome and the allele for type B blood on the other will have what bloodtype?
AB blood.
Diagnosticians recognize three types of ADHD; combined inattention and hyperactivity-impulsiveness is most common, but some individuals are predominantly inattentive or predominantly hyperactive-impulsive.
ADHD is the most common among childhood-onset behavioral disorders. A meta-analysis of 179 studies estimated prevalence at 7.2% worldwide
Relative refractory period
Action potential generated only in response to stronger than threshold stimulus
Opponent process theory
Color vision in terms of opposing neural process •This theory explained -Yellow as a primary color -Complementary colors -Negative color aftereffect
Difference between fraternal and identical twins
Fraternal twins are produced from two separately fertilized eggs (dizygotic), whereas identical twins results from a single egg that splits and develops into two individuals (monozygotic).
PVN
Male sexual performance
Studies by researchers at San Diego State University suggest two possible reasons. One study reported frontal underconnectivity in milder cases of ASD and temporal-occipital overconnectivity in more severe cases
Supekar and his colleagues noted that children with greater functional connectivity had more severe social deficits.
Material Monism
The body and mind and everything else are physical.
what is the eye
The eye is a spherically shaped structure filled with a clear liquid
Mark Gilbertson and his colleagues (2002) used magnetic resonance imaging to measure hippocampal volumes in Vietnam combat veterans and their noncombat identical twins.
Those who suffered from PTSD had smaller hippocampi than did PTSD-free veterans, as expected, but so did the PTSD subjects' noncombat twins
AgRP
agouti-related protein
seasonal affective disorder
depression that worsens in the winter and improves in the summer •In SAD, depression varies with the seasons •Phototherapy (exposure to high intensity lights) is a treatment for winter depression
Parkinson's disease is characterized most by
deterioration of dopamine-releasing neurons.
Family Studies
determine how strongly a characteristic is shared among family members (difficulty separating heredity and environment)
CNS glial cells
oligodendrocytes
Ecstasy (MDMA)
popular among young -psychomotor stimulant at low doses (releases dopamine) -hallucinatory at higher doses (releases serotonin)
Because the speech center is usually located in the left hemisphere of the brain, a person with the corpus callosum severed is unable to describe stimuli that are
seen in the left visual field
edema
swelling
X Linked characteristics affect males more than females because
the responsible gene is not paired with another gene on the Y chromosome.
Psychoactive drugs
those that have psychological effects, such as anxiety relief or hallucinations
Deception involves
-failing to reveal the exact purpose of the research -failing to reveal what will happen during the study -actively misinforming the participants
EEG/electroencephlogram
-records the combined activity from many neurons by using multiple electrodes -good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution -best used to detect changes in arousal
What do depressants do?
-reduce nervous system activity (sedation, anxiolytic, hypnotic)
Benzodiazepines
-safer drugs for treating anxiety -effects due to decreased activity in the limbic system, hippocampus, brain stem, and cortex -If taken with alcohol you can overdose
Schizophrenia Negative Symptomterm-1073s
Negative symptoms are characterized by the absence or insufficiency of normal behaviors, and include lack of affect (emotion); inability to experience pleasure; lack of motivation, poverty of speech, and impaired attention. Negative symptoms tend to be chronic. Patients typically have: poorer adjustment prior to onset; poorer prognosis after diagnosis; tissue deficits and intellectual and cognitive deficits.
What else is linked to obesity?
also linked to temporal lobe shrinkage, cognitive decline, and risk of Alzheimer's disease; threatens to reduce average lifespan
Bipolar disorder
alternating depression and either anxiety, irritation, or mania •Alternate between periods of depression and mania -Excess energy, decreased need for sleep and increased sex drive and (often) drug use -In some cases, a period of agitation replaces mania •In bipolar disorder, periods of depression typically last longer than mania -Cycling is regular in some and unpredictable in others; cycle length varies from 48 hours to months -Cycling varies in length from as little as 48 hours to months -Cycling can be regular or unpredictable -Stress can trigger manic episodes
Sodium Potassium Pump
always running in all of our cells. Most of the energy it takes to survive goes here. Moves 3 Na+ outside for every 2 K+ inside
Parental treatment has been ruled out as the cause of autism, but numerous other environmental conditions have been identified as contributing factors.
automobile traffic, agricultural practices, and industrial activity.
What did they give kids for tooth aches?
cocaine, its a local anesthetic so it works
The parvocellular system is specialized for
color and fine detail.
Where do sensory neurons enter the spinal cord?
dorsal root
Mixing red and green lights produces a sensation of yellow because red-sensitive and green-sensitive cones
excite yellow/blue ganglion cells.
Primary motor cortex
executes voluntary movements by organizing the activity of unspecialized cells; adds force and directions control
The primary motor cortex is most involved in
executing movements.
PET scan disadvantages
expensive, requires sophisticated staff, must be near a cyclotron, relatively slow
fMRI disadvantages
expensive, very slow
The rate law...
explains how the intensity of stimulus is produced.
What personality traits are associated with drug dependence
impulsivity, risk taking, novelty seeking, and stress responsiveness
the drugs did not help 30%-40% of schizophrenic patients, and— troublesome for the dopamine theory—nonresponsive patients experienced just as much D2 receptor blockade as responders.
in some of them the blockade exceeded 90%, while some responders showed remarkably low levels of receptor blocking, some patients appear to have a dopamine deficiency, especially those with chronic, treatment-resistant symptoms
Where is myelin produced?
in the brain and spinal cord by oligodendrocytes and schwann cells.
When is the brain at its full size?
in the early teen years
Eliminating a gene
in the knockout technique, a nonfunctioning gene is transferred into embryos, creating organisms without a functioning gene
Nerves synapse
in the lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN), then to visual cortex
Gas
nitric oxide
Arousal theory
people behave to satisfy a certain level of sensation
The part of the sexual response cycle that most resembles homeostasis is
resolution.
Meissner's corpuscles
respond with a brief burst of impulses.
Psychedelic drugs often produce hallucinations by
stimulating serotonin receptors.
Compensation
uninjured tissue takes over functions of lost areas
The descending pain inhibition circuit
Endorphin release in the periaqueductal gray inhibits the release of substance P by pain neurons in the spinal cord; this reduces the pain message reaching the brain.
autism, another culprit is organophosphate pesticides; children with above average urinary levels of a metabolite of these pesticides are twice as likely to be diagnosed with ADHD compared with children with undetectable levels
Even chemicals found in cosmetics, perfumes, and shampoo are turning out to be a problem; mothers who had higher levels of phthalates in their urine during the third trimester of pregnancy reported that their children had significantly more trouble with attention, aggression, and depression
Loss of Brain Tissue in Huntington's Disease
Left, a section from a normal brain; right, a section from a person with Huntington's disease. The enlarged lateral ventricle in the diseased brain is due to loss of neurons in the caudate nuclei
Indications of Disorders of Movement
Lewy bodies are evident in neurons in Parkinson's patients. This is an abnormal cluster of proteins, presumably as a result of neurons trying to deal with excess protein.
When you mix different kinds of colored light what happens (red green and blue)
Light mixing is additive - light waves are combined producing white
Blood brain barrier
Limits passage of substance between blood and brain
The heritability of suicidal behavior has been estimated in various studies at 38%-55%
The major ones—phobia, generalized anxiety, and panic disorder—have lifetime risks of about 13%, 9%, and 6.8%, respectively
Twelve hours later the mice showed increased resistance to treatments that produce depressive-like behavior
The mice slept normally, perhaps because the drug targeted only the A1 type of adenosine receptor;
third major category of bipolar disorder called cyclothymic disorder, in which individuals cycle rapidly between hypomania and mild depression.
The most recent data indicate that 3 out of 10 people will suffer a mood disorder in their lifetimes, most likely depression
Neural Disorganization in Schizophrenia.
The neurons in the normal hippocampus have an orderly arrangement (a), but in the brain of an individual with schizophrenia you can see that they have migrated in a haphazard fashion
Spatial Frequency Theory
-Cortical cells perform Fourier analysis on luminosity -Different cells have a variety of sensitivities -Can detect edges AND gradations of change
Opponent process theory
-R/G cone photopigment •Broken down by red light •Regenerates in green light -Y/B cone photopigment •Broken down in yellow light •Regenerates in blue light -Colors opposite each other are complementary; that is, equal amounts of light in those colors cancel each other out, producing a neutral gray.
Sleep and Memory
-REM sleep promotes memory -Both REM and slow wave sleep are needed for consolidation -The reverse learning hypothesis states that memories are purged during REM sleep
Pineal gland
-descartes' "seat of the soul" -regulates dialy rhythms (melatonin) a hormone that induces sleep. It controls seasonal cycles in nonhuman animals and participates with other structures in controlling daily rhythms in humans.
What health risks are associated with being obese?
-diabetes -high blood pressure -heart disease -stroke -certain cancers -cognitive decline
What is effective for helping obesity?
-dietary restriction is effective, especially when coupled with exercise; prolonged weight change can shift the set point -medication is not as effective
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
-double stranded helix chain -contains directions for making proteins -bases (A, T, G, C) are the genetic "alphabet"
Binge eating disorder
-eat large meals -usually high weight
Basal metabolic rate, BMR
-energy required to fuel the brain and body -75% of energy expenditure at rest -Average: 1800 calories/day
Heritability for personality characteristics and occupational interests
-estimates for about 40 to 50%
Heritability for intelligence
-estimates for about 50%
Heritability for schizophrenia
-estimates for about 60 to 90%
Antagonistic treatments block drug effects
-ex: naltrexone is used for opiate and alcohol addiction -antagonistic treatments don't replace the drug, so compliance depends on the addict's motivation to quit
The serotonergic system is suspect largely because of the 5-HT2A receptor's involvement in schizophrenic-like responses to hallucinogenic drugs, such as psilocybin and LSD.
The number of 5-HT2A receptors is upregulated in the brains of deceased schizophrenic subjects, and atypical antipsychotics block serotonin 5-HT2 receptors by as much as 90%
If you needed to measure brain activity that changes in less than 1s, your best choice would be
EEG
If a db/db mouse is parabiotically attached to a normal mouse, the db/db mouse will
be unaffected while the normal loses.
Why is alcohol a messy dirty drug?
because its small and fits in the membranes
Ventral
belly side
What are some examples of amphetamines?
benzedrine, dexadrine, and methamphetamine
Type 2 diabetes
body's tissues unresponsive to insulin
polarization
difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell. This difference in electrical charge is referred to as a voltage. A potential is any change in a membrane's voltage (tested with electrodes)
Alleles
different versions of a gene
Prefrontal area
directs search strategy for retrieval in hippocampus
The amount of noncoding DNA
does correlate with behavioral complexity.
The main neurotransmitter implicated in memory formation is
dopamine.
depressed individuals also improve following non-REM sleep deprivation or total overnight sleep deprivation
dosed mice with a drug that mimics adenosine, a compound that builds up in the brain during wakefulness and produces sleepiness. Twelve
Marijuana
dried leaves and flowers of Cannabis sativa Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabiol -binds to endogenous cannabinoid receptors -cannabinoids regulate presynaptic transmitters
Challenges to drive theory
driven emphasis on drives as states of the brain rather than conditions of tissues
What happens to proteins in your stomach?
hydrochloric acid and pepsin mixes with food to digest proteins into amino acids
Craving
hyperactivity in areas involved in learning and emotion (eg hippocampus)
General anesthetics open potassium channels, allowing potassium ions to leak out of the neuron. This...
hyperpolarizes the neuron, preventing firing
shared incidence of schizophrenia increases with the genetic closeness of the relationship and that the concordance rate for schizophrenia is three times as high in identical twins as in fraternal twins
identical twins of people with schizophrenia are three times as likely to develop the disorder as the fraternal twins of patients.
Also, individuals with ASD who had a mutant allele of CD38 had lower oxytocin levels than others with ASD.
identified over 500 genes that were expressed at different levels between the frontal and temporal cortices of healthy brains, and only 8 in ASD brains.
Human Genome Project (1999-2003)
identify the genome, or all the genes on our chromosomes
Superior colliculli
help guide eye movements and fixation of gaze
vestibular sense
helps us maintain balance, and it provides information about head position and movement.
Short term memory depends on
hippocampus, whereas cortex and interaction with hippocampus required for long-term memory Hippocampus is not the permanent storage area. Sensory aspects store throughout cortex
inhibition of neighbor cells
horizontal cells amacrine cells
What happens when the vagus nerve of heart A is stimulated?
it slowed
What happens when the accelerator nerve of heart A is stimulated?
it sped up
What will happen if the local potential exceeds the threshold?
it will initiate an action potential (typically about 10 mV more positive than the resting potential).
How would backward moving potentials effect the neuron?
it would lock up the neuron with a series of repeating action potentials traveling in both directions and block responses to newly arriving messages.
When would a doctor need to prescribe cocaine?
its a vaso constrictor, it constricts veins and it would be helpful for throat surgery
Osmotic thirst is due to
lack of fluid in the cells.
Rod receptive field
large, due to convergence on ganglion cells; contributes to light sensitivity
Declarative memory involves
learning that results in memories of facts, people, and events, which a person can verbalize
Sagittal
left to right
What is behind the cornea?
lens
A long-term signal that influences eating is
leptin.
A light edge has enhanced apparent brightness next to a dark edge because the neurons stimulated by the light edge are inhibited
less by their "dark" neighbors.
Chemically gated channels can be opened by...
ligands (neurotransmitters or hormones)
Current research shows that the brain exhibits both______ and ______ of function
localization and distribution
The basal ganglia and the cerebellum produce
no movements.
The prefrontal cortex is involved in all but which one of the following functions?
orienting the body in space
Without the sodium potassium pump, the neuron would become
overfilled with sodium ions and unable to fire
Sharp pain and dull pain are due primarily to
pain neurons with different characteristics.
Opiates Analgesic
pain relief
Metabotropic receptors
slow (G-protein) open channels indirectly. Produces slower but longer acting effects. This takes at least 2 or 3 steps and they can do many things.
Cone receptive field
small, with one or a few cones converging on a single ganglion cell; contributes to detail vision
Phototherapy resets the circadian rhythm
so it is also helpful with circadian rhythm problems including jet lag, delayed sleep syndrome, and difficulties associated with shift work
The inside of the neuron is relatively poor in ____________ ions and rich in_____________ ions
sodium and potassium
The major atypical antipsychotics are at least equivalent to the first-generation drugs,
some are 15%-25% more effective; what is more, they often bring relief to treatment-resistant patients
Antagonists
something that blocks something. They do not do anything except bind to acceptor and prevents agonists from binding (Ex:naltrexone and naloxone)
Neurons
specialized cells that covey sensory info to the brain, carry out operations involved in thought feeling and action, and transmit commands out into the body
Localization
specific areas of the brain carry out specific functions (phineas gage and broca's area)
Localization means that
specific functions are found in specific parts of the brain.
arachnoid membrane
spider web like membrane (Blood brain barrier)
Dorsal
spine side
You have trouble with rabbits eating your garden. Several sprays are available, but they are washed off each day by the sprinklers. The solution with the best combination of kindness, effectiveness, and ease for you would be to
spray the plants occasionally with a substance that makes the rabbits sick.
Studies of elderly individuals who are "aging gracefully" indicate that they are holding their own through additional neural effort
such as the increased metabolism that is seen in subjects with mild intellectual disability and the recruitment of frontal areas in people with dyslexia during reading
panic disorder
sudden and intense attack of anxiety with no obvious trigger
Descartes' most important contribution was in
suggesting the physical control of behavior
Groove
sulcus or (fissure if its large)
Corpus Callosum/Drugs
surgeos have to sever the corpus callosum in patients with incapacitating epileptic seizures that cannot be controlled by drugs.
Activity is decreased in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex but increased in the orbitofrontal cortex and in a subregion of the hippocampus
the hippocampal activation is so characteristic of schizophrenia that in a group of people having brief psychotic symptoms, it identified with 70% accuracy
In the visual cortex different neurons fire depending on
the image's displacement on the two retinas. This provides information about the object's distance.
Which ions participate in the action potential?
the ions in a very thin layer on either side of the membrane. Na and K
What separates temporal from frontal and parietal lobes?
the lateral fissure
What did Helmholtz's work show about nerves?
the nerves do not behave like wires conducting electricity
The fact that midday phototherapy is effective suggests that the increased amount of light is more important than extending the length of the shortened winter day;
the observation that suicide rate is related to a locale's amount of clear sunlight rather than the number of hours of daylight supports this conclusion
Science is most distinguished from other disciplines by
the way it acquires knowledge
What do theories help to do?
they help to integrate and interpret diverse observations and generate testable hypotheses
Why do opiates have a high abuse potential?
they mimic endogenous opioids (natural pain killers called endorphins)
What do brain imaging techniques provide?
they provide a more detailed view of the brain -they are reasonably fast, inexpensive, and even portable
Today what do scientists think about the nature vs nurture concept
they reject it
According to Melzack and Wall, pressing the skin near a wound reduces pain by
triggering inhibition in the pain pathway.
types of sensory neurons
unipolar and bipolar
The most sensitive way to determine whether a particular gene produces a particular behavior would be to
use genetic engineering to manipulate the gene and note the behavior change
Basal ganglia
uses information from secondary areas and the somatosensory cortex to integrate and smooth movements; apparently involved in learning movements sequences
Visual Acuity
ability to distinguish details
Retrieval
•accessing stored memories -Glutamate required for consolidation and retrieval -Blocking glutamate receptors prevents consolidation and retrieval
Learning produces brain changes, creating lifelong addiction
Repeated use leads to enduring neural changes -Increased dendrite length and complexity in nucleus accumbens
Some observers believe that the suicidal acts of individuals on antidepressants is the result of rebounding energy levels, which allow those with suicidal ideation the ability to carry out suicidal thoughts.
Research has identified heritable characteristics that distinguish people at risk for suicide from others, referred to as endophenotypes. The most reproduced personality indicators have been impulsivity and aggression
Even studies using a single dose of oxytocin have reported improvements in repetitive behaviors, self- injury, empathy, social interaction, and ability to recognize mental or emotional state from photos of the eyes.
Results of an fMRI study indicated that oxytocin improves trust by reducing activity in fear areas in the amygdala and midbrain
Lateral inhibition
Retinal cells use lateral inhibition, where each neuron's activity inhibits the activity of its neighbors and in turn they inhibit its activity
Entrainment to 24-hr cycle from zeitgebers
Retinohypothalamic pathway - some direct connections with cells in SCN through ganglion cells with melanopsin (light sensitive photopigment) to detect overall levels of light
Modular processing
Segregation of the brain functions into separate locations
environment accounts for half of the differences among us in intelligence, yet the environmental influences have themselves not been clearly identified
Separating family members early in life does not eliminate the correlation; in fact, identical twins reared apart are still more similar in IQ than are fraternal twins reared together. Interestingly, the relative influence of heredity increases with age, from 41% in childhood to 55% in adolescence and 66% in adulthood
Monoamines
Serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
What makes localizing the source of the sharp pain easier?
Sharp pain receptors tend to be superficially located and are much more densely packed.
Disorders with psychotic-like symptoms have been reported for 4,000 years, and similar rates in disparate and long-separated societies suggest that the genes were present before humans left Africa some 100,000 years ago.
So why wouldn't genes as detrimental as those that produce schizophrenia be eliminated through evolution? One suggestion is that the genes that in combination can produce schizophrenia individually confer an evolutionary advantage.
What are the two subtypes of the peripheral nervous system?
Somatic and autonomic
All the effective antidepressant drugs increase the activity of norepinephrine or serotonin, or both, at the synapses.
Some block the destruction of excess monoamines by enzymes in the terminals (monoamine oxidase inhibitors), whereas others block reuptake at the synapse (tricyclic antidepressants).
PTSD is distinguished by decreased activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and, according to some studies, in the hippocampus.
Some structures have been reported to be smaller in people with anxiety disorders, particularly in those with PTSD.
Proprioception
(from the Latin proprius, "belonging to one's self") is the sense that informs us about the position and movement of our limbs and body.
Gender
-Behavioral characteristics associated with being male or female
Sensations
-Touch, warmth, cold, and pain. Possibly itch
instinct
-automatic and unlearned behavior -occurs in all members of a species
Interneurons
-connect one neuron to another in the same part of the brain or spinal cord
Bipolar neurons
-have an axon on one side of the cell body -have a dendritic process on the other
What do the secondary visual areas process?
-individual components of a scene: color, movement, and form
interneurons small axons
-make connections over very short distances.
Three types of neurons?
-motor -sensory -interneurons
Helmholtz showed that
-nerves are not like electrical wires because they conduct too slowly
Endorphins
-produce pain relief by stimulating these opioid receptors -produce additional positive effects by indirectly stimulating dopamine pathways
X linked traits
-some traits are on the X chromosome but not the Y -influences expression of recessive traits in males ex. red/green color blindness is most common in men
The local potential is a graded potential
-varies in magnitude with stimulus strength -decremental: magnitude decreases with distance
It is also not surprising that during a manic episode, brain metabolism increases from its depressed level by 4%-36%
The subgenual prefrontal cortex is particularly interesting because it has been suggested as a possible "switch" controlling bipolar cycling
Ionotropic receptors
Fast and very selective cause ion channels to open which has a direct and rapid effect on the neuron
The best way to assess the relative contributions of heredity and environment would be to compare the similarity in behavior of
Fraternal vs identical twins, half of whom have been adopted out.
Monism
Mind and body are single substance
Are the number of genes correlated with behavioral complexity?
No. 19735 protein coding genes are found in a roundworm.
dopamine hypothesis just another example of a beautiful hypothesis slain by ugly facts?
Not entirely; although atypical antipsychotics mostly target other receptors, those that lack at least a modest effect at D2 receptors are therapeutically ineffective
These CNVs were in or near genes involved in synaptic transmission, neural development, and learning and other psychological functions.
Numerous CNVs are in chromosomal locations that have been identified in autism and schizophrenia
neuroleptics
The effect appears to be due to a compensatory increase in the sensitivity of D2 receptors in the basal ganglia.
What is the lens partly covered by?
The lens is partly covered by the iris, a circular muscle
The term that describes a person with XX chromosomes and masculine genitals is
XX DSD.
Voltage
a difference in electrical charge between two points
The primary and two secondary motor cortices contain
a map of the body; the amount of cortical area corresponds to the fineness of movement in that part of the body The primary motor cortex orchestrates the activity of these cells into a useful movement and contributes to its force and direction. The primary motor cortex puts a sequence of behaviors together with help from the secondary motor cortex, the somatosensory cortex, and the posterior parietal areas.
a particular behavior is typically controlled by
a network of structures
Fusiform face area
a part of the fusiform gyrus on the underside of the temporal lobe is so important to face recognition.
Which of the following is not an example of regulation of synaptic activity...
a presynaptic neuron inhibits a postsynaptic neuron
In this case, the VAL66MET allele of the gene for brain- derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF),
a protein that encourages neuron growth and survival, protects against the effects of the 5-HTTLPR short allele on brain development
Michael's Parkinson's diagnosis
a result of decreased dopamine levels, the neurotransmitter responsible for smooth movements.
Because A-delta fibers transmit more rapidly than C fibers, you notice
a sharp, stinging pain almost immediately when you are injured, followed by a longer lasting dull, aching pain
Optic nerves join for
a short distance at the optic chiasm -left visual field to right brain -right visual field to left brain
What is the most commonly used and abused depressant?
alcohol, it has been used throughout history in cultural and social practices
When do levels of ghrelin increase?
around 8am, 12pm, and 6pm
Rate Law
axon encodes stimulus intensity by firing rate
The chromosomal sex of a fetus is determined
by the sperm.
When the action potential arrives at the terminal button, entry of _________ ions stimulates release of transmitter
calcium
Ischemic
can be fixed with drugs or surgery -for the surgery they go through big vein/artery and find blockage and put in stent or break it up
excitotosis
causes a large release of glutamate
Reticular formation
collection of many nuclei running through the middle of the hindbrain and the midbrain.
Lesion
damages neural tissue -reversible lesions can be produced by chilling an area or by applying certain chemicals
Nissl stains
do the opposite; they identify cell bodies or neurons.
Fetal alcohol syndrome involves
errors in neuron migration.
Wilhelm Wundt
founded first psychology laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1879
glial cells increases the conduction speed
from 1 m/s to over 120 m/s
Alcoholics often
have reduced serotonin and dopamine functioning.
Neuropeptide
initiates eating and produces metabolic shifts
In situ hybridization
involves constructing strands of complementary DNA, which will dock with strands of mRNA.
Neurotransmitters
local effects
Rod location
mostly in periphery of retina
Interneuron form and location
multipolar; brain and spinal cord
Receptors
normally inhibit bipolars (glutamate) light turns them off
Groups of cell bodies in the CNS are called
nuclei
Alleles determine traits
one per chromosome
Model
proposed mechanism for how something works
Cerebullum
refining movements initiated by the motor cortex by controlling their speed, intensity, and direction
Case study
report on the brain scan of a patient who had violent outbursts following a car accident that cause brain injury.
Stereotaxic atlas
shows the location of key structures on images of a series of brain sections
Synaptic transmission is much _____ than axonal (electrical) transmission
slower
there is a limit to how rapidly a neuron can produce action potentials. This is due to
the absolute refractory period
Saltatory Conduction
the action potential "jumps" from node to node
Horizontal
top to bottom
Acetylcholine
transmitter at muscles; involved in learning
Each rung of the DNA ladder is composed of...
two of the four nucleotides (nucleotides- adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine (A,T,G, C).
extraneous variables
uncontrolled influences
Negative correlation
when on value is high the other tends to be low
Positive correlation
when one variable is high the other tends to be high or vice versa
Down Syndrome
•(extra 21st chromosome) -Leading genetic cause of intellectual disability -Glia secrete two proteins less that support neuron survival -Increasing proteins in women with Down syndrome fetus might be an effective treatment
Affective Disorders Other genes implicated
•Calcium channels at myelin nodes •Genes shared with several other mental disorders
Sense of self Requires distinction between self and others
•Mirror neurons responsible or social understanding •Understanding intentions of others
Pain Pathway
•Spinal cord releases glutamate and substance P •Thalamus •Somatosensory cortex •Areas that process emotional aspects of pain
PTSD symptoms are resistant to traditional drug and psychotherapy treatments; an alternative approach is exposure therapy, which allows the individual to confront anxiety-provoking stimuli in the safety of the therapist's office.
Exposure therapy is essentially an extinction process, and fear memories are notoriously resistant to extinction, especially in the 30% of people who have the VAL66MET allele (which we saw is also involved in depression).
Hunger
Feeding behavior must provide energy for fuel and for maintaining body temperature, as well as material needed for growth and repair
Siblings of children with autism are 25 times more likely to be diagnosed with autism than other children the number would be even higher, but parents tend to stop having children after the first autism diagnosis.
For the identical twin of a child with autism, the risk of autism is at least 60%.When these symptoms are also considered, the concordance for identical twins jumps to 92%, compared with 10% for fraternal pairs
Transsexuals
Gender dysphoria - distress that people may feel due to mismatch between sex and gender Better clinical outcomes when hormone and/or surgery compared to just psychotherapy
several genes that code for synaptic proteins have been implicated; synaptic proteins are required for the formation and functioning of synapses.
Genes for GABAA and GABAB receptors and for both AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptors have also been linked to ASD, and a GABAB receptor agonist improves social function and behavior.
What causes anxiety disorders?
Genetic research has most often implicated genes responsible for serotonin production, serotonin reuptake, and various subtypes of serotonin receptors
Geneticists have located 28 chromosomal regions that are most likely related to Parkinson's disease,
Geneticists have located 28 chromosomal regions that are most likely related to Parkinson's disease
What does glucagon cause?
Glucagon causes liver to transform stored glycogen to glucose
The drug phencyclidine (PCP), which inhibits the NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartic acid) subtype of glutamate receptor, mimics schizophrenia far better than amphetamine does, particularly in producing negative as well as positive symptoms
Glycine activates the NMDA receptor, and adding it or similar compounds to antipsychotic medications reduces both kinds of symptoms
Phineas Gage
He was a nice guy and a 1 inch hole was blown through cheek, took out his eye, and exited through the back of his head. The spike was hot so the wound was instantly cauterized. After the incident he was mean. He ended up joining the circus.
What happened when solution from heart A was injected into heart B?
Heart B rate changed to match in similar ways
•Homosexual and transgender individuals respond to the pheromones AND and EST like their opposite sex counterparts
Heterosexual women and homosexual men responded to the testosterone derivative AND in the MPOA/anterior hypothalamus, but heterosexual men did not.
How phthalates cause this result is unknown, but they may disrupt thyroid hormones that are important during brain development.
High fat and sugar in women's diets during pregnancy was associated with increased methylation of the IGF2 gene, which is involved in development of brain areas implicated in ADHD, along with higher symptoms of ADHD
Another study suggests that socioeconomic class is more important than ethnic origin; it found that IQ runs about 20-30 points lower in the lowest social classes than in the highest social classes
Higher intelligence test results are not always found for Asians and their higher academic achievement is typically attributed to cultural and motivational differences
citizens found a correlation between severe head injury and schizophrenia; injury occurring between 11 and 14 years of age increased the likelihood of schizophrenia by 65%
However, researchers cannot separate the effects of the physical injury to the brain from the emotional effects of the stress and anxiety caused by the injury experience.
Lowered 5-HIAA is found in suicide attempters with a variety of disorders and probably reflects impulsiveness rather than the patient's specific psychiatric diagnosis
However, antidepressants can increase the risk of suicide. A variety of explanations have been offered, including the agitation that often accompanies SSRI use and disappointment over slow improvement and side effects
Newborn infants are routinely tested for phenylalanine in the urine or blood, and intellectual disability can be prevented by avoiding foods containing phenylalanine.
Hydrocephalus occurs when cerebrospinal fluid builds up in the cerebral ventricles; the increased fluid volume crowds out neural tissue, usually causing intellectual disability
Activation of receptors on the postsynaptic cell has two possible effects on the membrane potential
Hypopolarization and Hyperpolarization
By way of illustration, height is about 90% heritable, yet the average height has increased dramatically over the past few decades, due to improved nutrition.
IQ scores increased at the rate of 5-25 points over just a generation (termed the Flynn effect;
only 2% of the population score above 130 points or below 70 points.
IQ tests
What would be the effect on vision if there was a problem with your horizontal cells?
Impaired edge detection in the Mach band illusion
In a study of cognitive abilities in children with ASD, 55% had intellectual disability (defined as IQ < 70), and 16% had moderate to severe disability, with IQs below 50
Impairment was not universal, however; 28% had average intelligence (IQs of 85-115), and 3% scored above 115.
Body image
Important to subjective sense of self ("my" tongue, nose) •Disruptions of body image, sensory feedback diminish sense of self •Somatosensory cortex, anterior cingulate and Insula involved in sense of body image
Alzheimer's Disease Progress Parallels Aggregation Difference Scores
In (a), the darker the colors, the earlier plaques and tangles appear in that area; gray areas are unaffected. In (b), the darker the colors, the more aggregation promoters exceed aggregation-inhibiting proteins. Note the similarity in the images.
Both depressed and bipolar patients have anomalies in functional brain connectivity. Connectivity is reduced in the cortex, corpus callosum, and thalamus in individuals with bipolar disorder
In depression, increased as well as decreased connectivity has been reported. For example, one study reported decreased connectivity between frontal areas and the ventral striatum, but increased connectivity between frontal areas and the dorsal striatum
The Role of Stress and the Serotonin Transporter Gene in Depression
In individuals with either one or two copies of the so-called short allele, the percentage who were diagnosed at age 26 with depression increased with the number of stressful life events in the past five years. (b) In those with two copies of the long allele, the number of stressful events made no difference. Life events were assessed from a checklist of 14 employment, financial, housing, health, and relationship stressors
Researchers estimate that one out of every four adults in the United States suffers from a diagnosable mental illness, and that 46% will fall victim during their lifetime
In late-life interviews people recalled bouts of mental illness 2-12 times less often, depending on the type of illness, than they had reported them in three interviews over the previous 25 years
Genetic liability differs by gender; a Swedish twin study estimated heritability at 29% for men and 42% for women
In one study, seven genes were exclusive to men, nine were exclusive to women, and only three were shared between men and women
found that statistically removing the effects of speed from test scores significantly reduced elderly individuals' performance losses.
In the elderly, those with better whole brain network efficiency (clustering and short path length) had higher processing speed and superior executive functions, including impulse control and decision making
The Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds
In this theory, three important hormones interact to determine not only the strength of bonds with others but also the characteristics of those relationships. First, testosterone levels increase aggression and decrease social bonding, while vasopressin levels modify the form of aggression. Low levels of vasopressin cause attack-type behaviors (antagonistic), while high levels of vasopressin increase protective behaviors that result in stronger social bonds with others. Oxytocin regulates the level of intimacy and interacts with testosterone as well. Low testosterone with high oxytocin is correlated with more helpful, supporting intimacy and stronger social bonds, whereas high levels of both hormones lead to more sexualized relationships with others. Therefore, the strongest social bonds result from high levels of oxytocin and vasopressin and low levels of testosterone.
The hypofrontality seen during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test has been attributed to disrupted communication between the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex
Inadequate coordination between brain areas is at least partly due to white matter reduction; white matter loss has been consistently reported in the brains of people with schizophrenia, particularly in prefrontal and temporal areas
Which of the following was not discussed as a factor in anorexia and/or bulimia?
Increased numbers of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
Relative Odds of Avoiding Substance Abuse Disorder in Individuals Receiving Stimulant Treatment for ADHD as Children, Compared With Those Not Receiving Stimulant Treatment.
Individuals with ADHD who were treated with a stimulant drug as children were as much as 4.6 times as likely to be free of alcohol abuse disorder as individuals who did not receive stimulant treatment and up to 8.1 times as likely to be free of a drug abuse disorder. Values below 1 indicate that treated individuals in that study were at greater risk
Modular processing: Hierarchical processing
Information is processed by ascending through increasingly complex levels of the nervous system
What does insulin enable?
Insulin enables cells to take in glucose
The first effective treatment for depression was discovered accidentally, and theory again followed practice rather than the other way around. Iproniazid was introduced as a treatment for tuberculosis, but it was soon discovered that the drug produced elevation of mood and was an effective antidepressant
Iproniazid was later abandoned as an antidepressant because of its side effects, but its ability to increase activity at the monoamine receptors led researchers to the monoamine hypothesis, that depression involves reduced activity at norepinephrine and serotonin synapses.
How can an agonist have that effect?
It can accomplish this by having the same effect on the receptor as the neurotransmitter, by increasing the transmitter's effect on the receptor, or by blocking the reuptake or the degradation of the transmitter.
Intellectual disability has an estimated prevalence of just over 1% worldwide,
It can result from childhood infections, birth complications, extreme malnutrition, maternal alcohol abuse during pregnancy. Although intelligence is highly heritable, no reliable estimates of the heritability of ID exist.
About 30%-50% of depressed patients fail to respond to drug therapy, a statistic made worse by the fact that the placebo response rate alone is 30%
Lack of response is partly related to symptom severity; patients with mild or moderate symptoms receive little or no relief, but for patients with severe depression the benefit of medications is substantial
Confirmed environmental influences include brain injury, stroke, and complications during pregnancy and birth
Lead, for example, is a known neurotoxin; although eliminating lead in gasoline and paint has reduced levels in the environment, it is occasionally found in children's costume jewelry and imported candies as well as in the soil and water.
Physiological mechanisms for disorders of circadian and circannual rhythms include both neurotransmitter and prefrontal cortex changes.
Lowered serotonin activity is involved in winter depression. Drugs that increase serotonin activity alleviate the depression and reduce carbohydrate craving
Gray Matter Loss, Then Gain, in Patients With Chronic Hip Pain Before and After Replacement Surgery
Magnetic resonance imaging shows areas where patients lost more gray matter than controls in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and brain stem. (A) Yellow represents the amount of loss in chronic pain patients compared to pain-free controls, and (B) orange represents postsurgical gain compared to presurgical size in patients with chronic hip pain.
major (or unipolar) depressive disorder (MDD), a person often feels sad to the point of hopelessness for weeks at a time; loses the ability to enjoy life, relationships, and sex; and experiences loss of energy and appetite, slowness of thought, and sleep disturbance.
Mania involves excess energy and confidence that often leads to grandiose schemes; decreased need for sleep, increased sexual drive, and abuse of drugs are common.
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, which requires individuals to change strategies in midstream, first sorting cards using one criterion but then changing to another.
Many people with schizophrenia perform poorly on the test, persisting with the previous sorting strategy.
What two brain areas are important for both sexes for sex
Medical preoptic area (MPOA) Medical amygdala
Functional MRI Scans of Brains During Perception and Recall
Memories of pictures and sounds evoked responses in the same general areas (arrows) as the original stimuli
Schizophrenia afflicts men and women about equally often, and there is no difference in incidence between urban and rural environments
Men usually show the first symptoms during their teens or twenties, as Ned did, while the onset for women ordinarily comes about a decade later
untreated menopausal women are more impaired than women receiving estrogen replacement on tests of working memory, response switching, and attention, which tells us that estrogen improves functioning in prefrontal areas
Men who maintain testosterone production past the age of 50 have better preserved visual and verbal memory and visual-spatial functioning
Retention in Normal and aCaMKII- Deficient Mice Over Time
Mice given foot shocks in a conditioning chamber were later tested for memory of the foot shocks by observing emotional "freezing" when they were returned to the chamber. Note that in the mice heterozygous for the mutant gene, memory had begun to decay after three days and they failed to form permanent memory.
Mind body Dualism
Mind and brain are separate Brain=material mind/soul= nonmaterial the mind influences behavior through interacting with the brain
Deoxyglucose Autoradiograph Showing Retinotopic Mapping in Visual Cortex.
Monkeys were given radioactive 2-deoxyglucose and then shown the design in (a). They were sacrificed, and a section of their visual cortical tissue was placed on photographic film. The exposed film showed a pattern of activation (b) that matched the design.
Family and twin studies indicate that the anxiety disorders are genetically influenced, with heritability ranging between 20% and 47%, depending on the disorder
More than 90% of individuals with anxiety disorders have a history of other psychiatric problems
With sensory gating impaired, the intrusion of non-attended stimuli such as traffic noise or a distant conversation is not just annoying but can be interpreted by the person with schizophrenia as threatening.
Most people will "gate out" the second of two clicks presented a half-second apart, indicated by a reduction in the P50 EEG wave, but individuals with schizophrenia typically have an abnormal P50 wave
A few researchers have attempted to unleash savant-like capabilities by using transcranial electrical or magnetic stimulation to inhibit neural activity in the frontal-temporal area
Most of the results have been unremarkable, but 40% of subjects receiving excitatory right-hemisphere stimulation along with inhibitory left- hemisphere stimulation were able to solve a problem that none of the control subjects could solve
Maternal metabolic conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and hypertension, may also be associated with ASD; mothers of autistic children were 40% more likely to be obese and 47% more likely to have any one of these conditions
Mothers who took folic acid during pregnancy were half as likely to bear a child who would later be diagnosed with autism
How does the eye adjust to see things far away and up close?
Muscles stretch the lens flatter to focus the image of a distant object on the retina, or relax to focus the image of a near object. When you are looking at something far away, the muscles surrounding the lens relax, and the lens flattens out. When you focus on something close, the muscles contract and make the lens more round. This is called accommodation
What does posterior parietal cortex cause?
Neglect (a disorder in which the person ignores objects, people, and activity on the side opposite the damage.)
Both antidepressants and ECT modify activity in a large number of genes, especially in the hippocampus; most of those genes contribute to neural plasticity and neuron survival, as well as to neurogenesis
Neurogenesis might contribute to antidepressant effect, but it appears that restoration of plasticity is more important.
Proliferation (Early in development)
Neurons divide and multiply in ventricular zone (neurogenesis)
Migration
Neurons move up radial glial cells towards final locations
Besides sensory gating, nicotine improves several negative symptoms, including impaired visual tracking of moving objects, working memory, and other cognitive abilities
Nicotine appears to compensate for diminished functioning of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors increase glutamate and GABA release, and increase dopamine levels in the prefrontal cortex where it is depleted in hypofrontality
Suicide accounts for more deaths than homicide or war; it is the 13th leading cause of death worldwide and the 4th among those aged 15-44 years
Ninety percent of people who attempt suicide have a diagnosable psychiatric illness; mood disorder alone accounts for 60% of all completed suicides
Studies on "old" rodents
No loss of hippocampal neurons Cortical cell loss is minimal. Some loss of NMDA receptors, LTP, myelin, and cells in prefrontal cortex. Deficits that do occur: Loss of synapses and NMDA receptors in some hippocampal circuits, leading to LTP impairment and slower learning. Myelin loss and metabolism decrease in the entorhinal cortex. Substantial cell loss in the basal forebrain region. Prefrontal deficits, as seen in the gambling task
What are at the Nodes of Ranvier?
No myelin but there is sodium potassium channels and this is where action potentials occur
Does this mean there was no genetic effect at all?
No. In fact, the correlation between the children's IQs and their biological parents' educational levels increased over the 10-year follow-up period, while correlations with their adoptive parents' educational levels decreased
What the gaps in the neurons without myelin?
Nodes of Ranvier
If damage to the right parietal cortex can eliminate recognition of a paralyzed left arm or leg, shouldn't removing a person's arm or leg eliminate all consciousness of the limb?
Not if there are cortical areas still devoted to the missing body parts. Most amputees continue to experience the missing limb, not as a memory, but as vividly as if it were real
Relative Absorption of Light of Various Wavelengths by Visual Recepto
Note that each type of cone responds best to wavelengths corresponding to blue, green, and red light, though each responds to other wavelengths as well.
Largest of the cell organelles?
Nucleus
Synchronized Activity Among Areas Involved in Learning
Numbered circles indicate the location of EEG electrodes; colored areas, from anterior to posterior, are the primary somatosensory cortex, secondary somatosensory cortex, and visual cortex. A light was paired several times with a shock to the middle finger. After that, presenting the light alone produced 40-Hz (average) EEG activity, which was synchronized between the visual cortex and the somatosensory cortex. The arrows indicate the pairs of electrodes between which synchrony was observed. Synchrony occurred (a) in the right hemisphere when shock had been applied to the left hand and (b) in the left hemisphere when shock had been applied to the right hand. Much behavior guided by processes outside awareness
What has a co-morbidity with anorexia
OCD
Personality Disorders
OCD, tourette syndrome, borderline personality disorder
Obesity Heritability
Obesity: 50-90% BMR: 40% Adopted children's weight and BMIs are moderately related to those of their biological parents, but have little similarity with those of their adoptive parents.
Time Spent in Daily Sleep for Different Animals.
Observations support the hypothesis that sleep is an adaptive response to feeding and safety needs
The sex disparity suggests one reason disorder genes can be difficult to locate in a clinical group, and it may explain the higher frequency of depression in women and the higher rate of suicide in men.
One finding is that the 5-HTTLPR portion of the SLC6A4 serotonin transporter gene has been associated with an increased vulnerability to depression, along with a 15% reduction in gray matter in the amygdala and a 25% reduction in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex
Humans have a greater proportion of white matter (myelinated processes) to gray matter than other animals, and IQ varies among individuals with the degree of myelination
One indicator of the role of brain efficiency in intelligence is that individuals who are higher in IQ use less brain energy.
Effects of Disrupted Circadian Rhythm on Sleep
Ordinarily, a person falls asleep while the body temperature is decreasing and awakens as it is rising (a). If body temperature is phase delayed (b), the person has trouble falling asleep; if body temperature is phase advanced (c), the person wakes up early. (Sleep period is the time in bed, whether the person is sleeping or not.)
University of Chicago researchers used county-level data on genital malformation in male children as a surrogate for environmental exposure and found that the incidence of ASD increased 283% for every percentage point increase in incidence of malformations
Other environmental influences originate in the mother herself. For example, infection during the second trimester of pregnancy tripled the chance of bearing a child who would later be diagnosed with ASD
Ten percent of women who have a child with autism have immune molecules in the blood that react with proteins in the brain; this rate is four times higher than in the general population of women of childbearing age
Other researchers identified six brain proteins that anti-brain antibodies attach to; all of them are involved in neuronal development
Children with autism engage in less contagious yawning than other children do, and they show neural deficiencies during mirroring tasks.
Other studies show reduced activation in the inferior frontal cortex and motor cortex, suggesting weakness in the dorsal stream connections that provide input to those areas
Most SAD patients are more depressed during the fall and winter, and then improve in the spring and summer, which parallels onset for schizophrenia as well
Others are more depressed in the summer and feel better during the winter. Members of either group may experience a mild mania-like activation called hypomania during their "good" season.
If SRY gene absent (XX)
Ovaries develop Wolffian ducts degenerate The Müllerian ducts develop into the uterus, fallopian tubes, and the inner vagina.
The ASPM gene is a major determinant of brain size
PACAP precursor gene plays a role in neurogenesis and neural signaling and may have contributed to the formation of human cognitive abilities
Monoamine Oxidase Levels in the Body of a Nonsmoker and a Smoker
PET scans were done using a radioactive tracer that binds to monoamine oxidase B. Levels were reduced 33%-46% in smokers. Monoamine oxidase reduction can have beneficial, detrimental, or neutral effects, depending on the location and other conditions
When you mix different kinds of colored paint what happens (red green and blue)
Paint mixing is subtractive - light waves are absorbed by the paint, producing black
What parts of the brain are important for males for sex?
Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) Sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)
Ambiguous genitalia
Parents of children with ambiguous genitalia often have difficulty knowing whether to rear them as boys or as girls. (The unusual pigmentation of the skin is due to excess excretion of sodium, or salt wasting, which often occurs with CAH.) •If parents choose to raise the child as female, surgery can reduce the size of the clitoris and eliminate labial fusion. •If pronounced, the choice may be to raise the child as male, and reconstructive surgery can be performed.
What kind of people are more likely to become alcoholics later
People who do not respond to the negative effects of alcohol, such as motor impairment
35% of people seeking treatment for cocaine abuse have a history of childhood ADHD
People with ADHD are also twice as likely to die prematurely, mostly from accidents
Performance deficits show the importance of sleep. Deprivation Studies
Performance declines in shift workers. In long-term deprivation studies, performance declines at night and recovers somewhat during the day. Night-Time Accidents Driving accidents peak at 2 a.m The Chernobyl meltdown, the Bhopal chemical plant leakage, and the Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in the early morning hours. Traveling eastward across time zones decreases performance. For example, west coast teams playing in the east won fewer games than east coast teams playing in the west.
What are the two subtypes of the nervous system?
Peripheral nervous system and central nervous system
Negative symptoms are characterized by the absence or insufficiency of normal behaviors and include lack of affect (emotion), inability to experience pleasure, lack of motivation, poverty of speech, and impaired attention and social interactions.
Positive symptoms are more often acute, and they are more likely to respond to antipsychotic drugs than are negative symptoms
Researchers disagree on whether schizophrenia represents one disease or many, but most authorities do agree that the symptoms fall into two major categories: positive and negative.
Positive symptoms involve the presence or exaggeration of behaviors, such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and abnormal motor behaviors.
Schizophrenia Positive Symptoms
Positive symptoms involve the presence or exaggeration of behaviors, such as delusions, hallucinations, thought disorder, and bizarre behavior. Positive symptoms are more often acute and are more likely to respond to antipsychotic medications
evidence is stronger for a variety of influences at the time of birth or during the prenatal period. These include both physical complications and emotional stresses on the mother, such as death of the father and military invasion
Prenatal stress in mice results in upregulation of 5-HT2A receptors and downregulation of mGlu2 receptors, both of which are seen in the brains of schizophrenia patients
As researchers looked for genetic links to autism, several of the genes that turned up pointed in turn to serotonin, glutamate, GABA, and oxytocin
Prenatal serotonin activity is regulated by cortisol levels, and cortisol is increased in the mother by psychological stress, depression, type 2 diabetes, inflammatory disorders, and obesity
Injecting pregnant mice with a drug that activates the immune system produced the same result, suggesting that immune responses are responsible for the receptor alterations in schizophrenia
Prenatal starvation is another pathway to schizophrenia that until recently was the subject of controversy. The idea came about after the rate of schizophrenia doubled among the offspring of mothers who were pregnant during Hitler's 1944-1945 food blockade of the Netherlands
What is the regulatory process that occurs in the axoaxonic synapse?
Presynaptic inhibition decreases the release of transmitter Presynaptic excitation increases the release of transmitter This regulation occurs by affecting calcium entry into the terminal
Crystallized intelligence—skills and overlearned knowledge—remains stable or improves; vocabulary, for example, improves through the seventh decade
Problem solving, reasoning, and the ability to process and learn new information make up fluid intelligence, which declines beyond the third decade.
Myosin and Actin Cause a Muscle to Contract
Protrusions from the myosin filament extend to the actin filament and attach, then flex, causing the actin to slide alongside the myosin; this shortens the muscle, producing a contraction. The protrusions then withdraw from the actin and repeat the process in rapid succession.
a study of depressed patients located six chromosome sites that were associated with suicidal risk but independent of susceptibility for mood disorders
Psychiatric patients who attempt suicide also are more likely to have low levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) than non-attempters, which means that their serotonin activity is particularly decreased.
Diffusion tensor imaging shows that the quality of connections is compromised throughout much of the brain
Recent studies also documented an overall decrease in cortical thickness, changes in neuronal maturation, and reduced cortical folding in the cingulate-frontal-temporal circuit, suggesting that hypofrontality may be a result of decreased gray and white matter in frontal-associated circuits
White Matter Reduction and Cortical Thinning in the ADHD Brain
Red and yellow colors indicate where white matter is significantly reduced in the brains of individuals with ADHD, compared with controls. (b) Areas where the cortex is thinner in individuals with ADHD than in controls. Transitions from purple to red indicate greater thinning
Retinal color blindness
Red-green color-blind individuals show a deficiency in either the red end of the spectrum or in the green portion; this suggests that the person lacks either the appropriate cone or the photochemical.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Brain anomalies
Reduced Prefrontal cortex, Cerebellum, and Right caudate nucleus of the striatum Disruption of attention-inhibition network of temporal, inferior parietal
amygdala had the most pronounced deficit, which is important because the amygdala has functions not only in emotion but also in response inhibition.
Reductions were greatest in children and leveled off in adults, which lent support to the brain maturation theory of ADHD.
Descartes theory for the function of the pineal gland
Regarded it as the principal seat of the soul and the place in which all our thoughts are formed he said it is where the mind and body interacted
a single injection of ketamine alleviated depression in 68%, and the improvement lasted seven days in 46% of the patients
Relapse time is highly variable, though, and ketamine appears to be most valuable as a temporary treatment
Form vision: Complex Cells
Respond when a line or an edge moves to a different location, as long as it is not too far from the original sit
Brain Structures Involved in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
Scans of OCD patients show that (a) activity is elevated in the caudate nucleus (a part of the basal ganglia) and in the orbital gyrus, and that (b) behavior therapy reduces this activity in the caudate nucleus
This enhanced synchrony, which indicates hyperexcitability, is seen in the occipital area in visual hallucinators and in the left auditory cortex in auditory hallucinators
Scans of the brains of people with schizophrenia show that language areas are active during auditory hallucinations and visual areas are active during visual hallucinations
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013), provides the framework for therapists, clinicians, and researchers in assessing an individual's unique history and symptoms and arriving at a diagnosis from a long list of disorders
Schizophrenia is a debilitating disorder characterized by perceptual, emotional, and intellectual deficits; loss of contact with reality; and inability to function in life.
In the late 1700s and early 1800s, doctors began to view mental illness as a medical problem; at that time, the mentally ill were literally released from their chains and given treatment
Schizophrenia is a familial disorder, which means that the incidence of schizophrenia is higher among the relatives of people with schizophrenia than it is in the general population
Additional evidence to support the monoamine hypothesis is that serotonin and norepinephrine are involved in behaviors that are disturbed in affective disorders.
Serotonin plays a role in mood, activity level, sleep and daily rhythms, feeding behavior, sexual activity, body temperature regulation, and cognitive function
How did Masters and Johnson start talking about sex?
Set up a fake apartment and recruit people and pay them to live in the apartment and live normally for some amount of time. They watched them with cameras or mirrors. There was informed consent. They found that people did not just have sex in the bed and did not have sex in missionary position and not only to have babies
Structures of Waking and Arousal
Several interacting structures and pathways produce waking, maintain arousal during waking, and increase arousal during REM sleep.
Stages of Consolidation
Short term memory (seconds to hours), long term memory (hours to months), and long lasting memory (months to lifetime) Making a memory permanent involves multiple stages and different processes
Brain Mechanisms Regulating Sleep
Sleep is brought about primarily by suppressing activity in arousal structures (shown in green).
So-called common variants—genes that occur in 5% or more of the population—have weak effects individually, requiring multiple "hits" to have an effect
Small effect is not the only reason identifying autism genes is difficult; a recent genetic analysis estimates that half of all autism cases are the result of de novo mutations
The posterior parietal cortex is composed of several subareas, which are responsive to different sense modalities and make different contributions to a person's interaction with the world.
Some cells combine proprioception and vision to provide information about specific postures, for example, the location and positioning of the arm and the hand. Others contribute to reaching and grasping movements and eye movements toward targets of interest
Hunger: Complex Drive
Some evidence that taste preference and sensitivity are developed early in life -signals travel to the insula (the primary gustatory cortex) and to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NST)
Reduced connectivity between frontal and posterior regions of the brain correlates with positive and negative symptoms as well as with performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.
Synchronized activity in frontal-thalamocortical circuits occurred at lower frequencies in patients (schizo)
Temperature
TRP (transient receptor potential) family of protein ion channels
If SRY gene present at month (XY)
Testes develop, releases testosterone Mullerian ducts degenerate Wolffian ducts develop into seminal vesicles, vas deferens
Testosterone
Testosterone is related to sexual activity in both males and females. However, the cause may be the reverse of expected; testosterone levels go upon evenings after they have sex, and go down when they don't.
Information from adoption studies gives a more impressive indication of genetic influence; these studies show that adopting out of a home with schizophrenia provides little or no protection from developing schizophrenia symptoms.
The incidence of schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like symptoms was 28% among individuals adopted out of Danish homes in which there was one parent with schizophrenia, compared with 10% in matched adoptees from homes without an individual with symptoms
With 69% of diagnosed children taking medication, some observers have raised concerns that children are being overdiagnosed and overmedicated as an easy solution to classroom behavioral problems.
The link with drug abuse fostered concerns that treating children with stimulant drugs such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) and amphetamine was leading to addiction later in life.
studies have found overall reductions in brain volume, particularly in prefrontal and parietal-temporal areas and the cerebellum, along with reductions in cortical thickness
The reductions were observable in adults at 33-year follow-up, though there was some evidence of mitigation of the deficiencies in those who were symptom free.
Although the Head Start program has produced long-term benefits in mathematics, educational attainment, and career accomplishments, the average increase of 7.42 IQ points compared with controls eventually disappears.
The Abecedarian Project, which began at birth, produced IQ gains that were as strong 10 years later as those in the Head Start program after 2 years
In elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment, a combination of B vitamins reduced the rate of brain atrophy 50% and slowed cognitive decline, compared with subjects given a placebo
The B vitamins slow gray matter atrophy by reducing homocysteine, a toxic compound that is elevated in people with a diet high in animal proteins.
The genes' functions involve a calcium channel at the nodes of Ranvier and cellular functioning and signaling.
The Cross-Disorder Group study, with 33,332 patients, reported that some genes are shared among five disorders: bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
ASD genes are particularly expressed in superficial layers of the cortex, where they interfere with the development of connections between the layers and between the hemispheres
The RORA gene, for example, codes for the protein RORA1, which regulates the activity of more than 2,500 other genes; some of these are involved in neuron and synapse development and synaptic transmission, and at least 6 have been associated with ASD
The overlap with mood disorders is particularly strong; 50%-60% of patients with major depression also have a history of one or more anxiety disorders and panic disorder is found in 16% of bipolar patients
The anxieties themselves appear to fall into three genetically related clusters, with generalized anxiety, panic, and agoraphobia (fear of crowds and open places) in one group; animal phobias and situational phobias in the second; and social phobia overlapping genetically with both groups
Hippocampal Activity Related to Consolidation
The arrow is pointing to the hippocampal region. Reds and yellows indicate positive correlations of activity at the time of learning with later recall; blues indicate negative correlations.
The Brain of a Deceased Multiple Sclerosis Patient
The arrows indicate areas of sclerosis, or hardened scar tissue (dark areas). Demyelination and neuron loss result in muscular weakness, tremor, impaired coordination, urinary incontinence, and visual problems. The autoimmune reaction may be triggered by an earlier viral disease, such as Epstein-Barr, mumps, or measles. Drugs modify immune activity and slow the progress of the disease but do not repair the harm.
There are many anomalies in the brains of individuals with autism, but the most striking characteristic is the atypical sequencing of brain development.
The autistic brain undergoes dramatic growth during the first year of life, with the overgrowth focused in frontal and temporal areas that are important for the social, emotional, and language functions that are impaired in the disorder
Retinal Ganglion Cells Containing Melanopsin
The cells were labeled with a fluorescent substance that reacts to melanopsin. Notice the widespread dendrites, which contain melanopsin
Receptive Fields of Color-Opponent Ganglion Cells.
The cones in the center and the cones in the periphery respond to colors that are complementary to each other. The center cones excite the ganglion cell, and the cones in the periphery inhibit it. Some have retinal fields made up of complementary color circles of cones. Color-opponent circular fields increase color discrimination and contrast through lateral inhibition.
Epigenetic effects in general can be traced to a variety of environmental influences, including toxins, diet, starvation, drugs, and stress; they likely account for most of the environmental influences we have been talking about.
The defects in the brains of people diagnosed with schizophrenia apparently occur early in life, some at the time of birth or before.
Schizophrenia is diagnosed in about 1% of the population worldwide; in the United States the rate is 1.2%, or roughly 3.8 million people
The economic burden of schizophrenia amounts to $156 billion annually in the United States, which included direct health care costs (24%), unemployment (38%), and caregiving (34%)
The density of the skin receptors varies throughout the body, so does sensitivity
The fingertips and the lips are the most sensitive, and the upper arms and calves of the legs are the least sensitive
The Patellar Tendon Reflex, an Example of a Stretch Reflex
The hammer stretches the tendon, causing a reflexive contraction of the extensor muscle and a kicking motion. This is a highly simplified representation; many more neurons are involved
In some cases, it appears that many neurons in the temporal and frontal lobes failed to migrate to the outer areas of the cortex during the second trimester; they are disorganized and mislocated in the deeper white layers
The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are 30%-50% deficient in reelin, a protein that functions as a stop factor for migrating neurons
Relationship Between Receptor Blocking and Clinical Effectiveness of Schizophrenia Drugs
The horizontal axis is the average daily doses prescribed by physicians; the horizontal red lines represent typical ranges of doses used. Values on the vertical axis are amounts of the drugs required to block 50% of the dopamine receptors.
lacking the executive functions, the savants perform poorly on apparently similar tasks that require higher-order processing.
The idea gains some credibility from the case of a man impaired in his left temporal and frontal areas by dementia; despite limited musical training, he began composing classical music, some of which was performed publicly
Alzheimer's Brain (Left) and a Normal Brain
The illustrations show the most obvious differences, the reduced size of gyri and increased size of sulci produced by cell loss in the diseased brain.
Different Intentions Distinguished by Mirror Neurons
The implied intention of the actor in the photo on the left is to drink; in the photo on the right, it is to clean up. Different neurons were active as research participants viewed these two scenes, suggesting that mirror neurons can distinguish among intentions. Malfucntioning mirror neurons thought to underlie social deficits in autism - empathy, theory of mind, distinction between self and others, etc.
"rubber hand illusion."
The individual sits at a table with the left hand hidden from view; the experimenter strokes the hidden left hand with a brush while simultaneously stroking a rubber hand, which is in full view. After a few seconds, the sensation seems to be coming from the rubber hand, which the subject identifies as "my hand." A study used fMRI to determine where the illusion occurs in the brain
Copy number variations (CNVs) have much larger effects; for example, a duplication of a segment of DNA on chromosome 7 produces a 10-fold increase in risk
The large majority of CNVs are inherited, but de novo mutations are more often implicated in diseases. Along with epigenetic modifications, they help account for discordance in identical twins, who otherwise have identical genomes.
A review of genetic studies identified 24 "hot genes," each of which had been linked to ADHD in at least five studies
The large majority of these genes are involved with dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transmission, including synthesis, transport, and receptors.
While depressed, they usually sleep excessively, and they often have increased appetites, especially for carbohydrates, and gain weight.
The length of day and the amount of natural light appear to be important in winter depression; symptoms improve when the patient travels farther south
There is a greater risk of schizophrenia if the father's age at the time of conception exceeds 25, and by paternal age of 50 the risk has increased by two thirds
The mechanism for this effect is unknown, but chances are it is epigenetic, due either to the normal aging process or to an accumulation of external environmental insults.
Glucose Metabolism Increase During Mania in a Rapid-Cycling Bipolar Patient
The middle row shows the sudden increase in activity during a manic episode, just a day after the previous scan during depression. In the bottom row, the patient had returned to the depressed state.
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
The nuclei, indicated by the arrows, took up more radioactive 2-deoxy-glucose in the scan because the rat was injected during the "light-on" period of the day; (b) the rat was injected during the "light-off" period.
Transplanted Embryonic Cells in the Brain of a Parkinson's Patient.
The patient died in a car accident seven months after her surgery. (a) Her right putamen (part of the striatum) was removed and placed on a photograph of the magnetic resonance image of her brain made at the time of surgery. The red lines indicate the angle at which the needles were inserted into the brain to inject the fetal cells (right side of the brain) and as a control procedure (left side). The dark area on the putamen along the needle track is due to the staining of new dopamine cells and shows that the axons had grown 2-3 millimeters from the cell bodies. The image in (b) is an enlargement of the putamen.
GAMA
The predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter. Its receptors respond to alcohol and the class of tranquilizers called benzodiazepines. Deficiency in GABA or receptors is one cause of epilepsy
At least some of the increase can be attributed to improved detection, broader diagnostic criteria, and doctors' greater willingness to use the label because of decreasing stigmatization of autism and because the diagnosis will qualify the family for increased services and financial assistance
The prevalence is almost five times higher among males than females
In DSM-5, autism spectrum disorder includes the previously used diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, and childhood disintegrative disorder
The prevalence of ASD was 1 in 150 children (3.7%) in the years 2000 and 2002 but increased to 1 in 68 in 2010
Recordings From Place Cells in a Rat in a Circular Runway
The recordings are from seven different place cells, indicated by different colors. Note that each cell responds when the rat is in a particular part of the runway. (Due to cue similarities in a circular apparatus, cells occasionally respond on the opposite side of the circle.)
PGO Waves, EEG Desynchrony, and Muscle Atonia
The records are of electrical activity in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LG), eye movements (EOG, electrooculogram), electroencephalogram (EEG), and muscle tension (EMG, electromyogram). Notice that PGO waves signal the beginning of EEG desynchrony, rapid eye movements, and atonia several seconds later.
Women are two to three times more likely than men to suffer from MDD during their lifetimes; bipolar disorder occurs equally often in both sexes
The risk for MDD increases with age in men, whereas women experience their peak risk between the ages of 35 and 45; the period of greatest risk for bipolar disorder is in the early 20s to around the age of 30.
Neural Abnormalities in the Brain of a Person With Alzheimer's
The round clumps in the photo are plaques, which interfere with neural transmission. (b) The dark, twisted features are neurofibrillary tangles, which are associated with death of neurons
Hippocampal Activity During the Switch Between Multiple Personalities
The scans show inhibition of the parahippocampus and hippocampus during the switch from the primary personality to the alter (a) and increased activity in the right hippocampus during the switch back (b, c). The brain levels of these three scans are shown in (d). (The brain is viewed from below, so right and left are reversed on the page.)
Most genes are paired with a gene for the same function on the other chromosome. There is one exception.
The shorter y chromosome has only 1/25th as many genes as the X chromosome.
The savant's exceptional capability may be limited in scope, however; some who are calendar calculators cannot even add or subtract with accuracy
The source of the autistic savant's enhanced ability is unknown.
Reorganization of the Somatosensory Cortex in a Phantom Pain Patient Following Arm Amputation
The symbols represent the location of sensitivity to touch of the fingers (squares) and the lips (circles); black symbols are from a patient with phantom pain and white symbols from a patient without phantom pain. By looking at the homunculus superimposed on the left hemisphere (opposite the intact arm), you can see that the circles and the squares are in their normal locations. In the right hemisphere, opposite the amputated arm, lip sensitivity in the patient with the phantom pain (black circle) has migrated well into the area ordinarily serving finger sensitivity
What is the function of the vestibular sense?
The system responds only to acceleration and stops responding when speed stabilizes.
Winter Birth Effect
The tendency for more schizophrenics to be born during the winter and spring months than at any other time of the year.
Reduced volume in the orbitofrontal cortex had occurred since the first scan, but the high-scoring subjects had lower ACC volume at the time of the first scan; this suggests that a smaller ACC is a vulnerability factor for PTSD.
The ventral attention network orients to attention-demanding stimuli and in people with anxiety disorders contributes to excessively stimulus-driven attention.
The effect has been replicated in a large number of studies, some with more than 50,000 schizophrenic patients as subjects
There is good evidence that the mother's exposure to viral infections during the fourth through sixth months of pregnancy (second trimester) increases the risk of schizophrenia. This appears to be caused not by the virus itself but by the immune reaction that it triggers.
The environmental challenges may be external, such as bereavement, job difficulties, or divorce, or they may be internal, such as maturational changes, poor nutrition, infection, or toxic substances.
There is mounting evidence that these environmental influences work in part by epigenetic means, that is, by upregulating and downregulating gene functioning
Gray Matter Loss in Schizophrenic Adolescents.
There is some loss in the brains of normal adolescents due to circuit pruning, but the rate of loss is much greater in schizophrenic adolescents. Red and pink areas represent 3%-5% losses annually.
Participants learned a motor skill task and were retested twice at 10-hr intervals
There was no statistically significant improvement for individuals who remained awake during the interval (a, Retest 1), but performance improved following sleep (a, Retest 2 and b, Retest 1 and Retest 2).
Recent genome-wide studies have identified at least 108 genes suspected of a role in producing schizophrenia
These genes are typically related to neurodevelopment and plasticity, neurotransmission (such as dopamine, glutamate, and calcium channels), immune responses, and hormonal activity, such as the DISC1 (disrupted in schizophrenia 1) gene.
In addition, neurons generated from stem cells derived from skin cells of individuals with schizophrenia exhibited impairment of signaling molecules that are responsible for neuronal differentiation
These observations and the association of schizophrenia with birth trauma and prenatal viral infection all argue for early damage to the brain or a disruption of development.
Huntington's disease deficits
These deficits include impaired judgment, difficulty with a variety of cognitive tasks, depression, and personality changes.
ADHD has been treated mostly with the stimulant drugs methylphenidate and amphetamines.
These drugs increase dopamine and norepinephrine activity by blocking reuptake at the synapse, which supports a role for both transmitters.
Correlation of Slow-Wave and REM Sleep With Overnight Task Improvement
These graphs show the correlation of slow-wave sleep (SWS) and REM sleep with improvement on a visual discrimination task at the beginning of the next day's practice. They indicate that SWS has more effect during the first quarter of the night, whereas REM is important during the fourth quarter
Electromagnetic spectrum
These range from gamma rays at one extreme of frequency to the radiations of alternating current circuits at the other. includes a variety of energy forms -visible light (adequate stimulus for vision) only 1/70th of spectrum light is described by its wavelength the distance the oscillating energy travels before it reverses direction. -visible light ranges from 300 to 800 nm
ADHD to reduced activity in dopamine pathways, including the prefrontal cortex and the striatum
These structures' functions include executive control, impulse inhibition, working memory, movement, learning, and reward—all functions that are affected in ADHD.
A signature characteristic of schizophrenia is a decrease in brain tissue, both gray and white matter, with deficits reported in at least 50 different brain areas
These tissue losses are accompanied by alterations in neural functioning but not necessarily in the expected direction:
What happens to 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid) in women with anorexia and bulimia compared to healthy women?
They are lower
Hurvich and Jameson resolved the conflict with a compromise:
They proposed that three types of color receptors— red sensitive, green sensitive, and blue sensitive—are interconnected in an opponent process fashion at the ganglion cells.
White matter integrity also is reduced in children with ADHD, both in interhemispheric connections and in anterior-posterior pathways
They share this characteristic with children diagnosed with ASD and obsessive-compulsive disorder. In fact, the children with greater white matter impairment also had more impairment in functioning, regardless of their diagnosis.
Adolescence is a particularly significant period in the development of schizophrenia. This is a time when symptoms of schizophrenia often begin to develop and a time of brain maturation, including frontal myelination and connection of temporal limbic areas
This apparent severe pruning may reflect the elimination of circuits that have already been diminished by a lack of glutamate activity or through neuronal cell death pathways
What appears to be an environmental cause of ADHD often turns out to be an indication of a genetic predisposition in the parents.
This includes correlations of ADHD with maternal smoking and stress during pregnancy; parental abuse of alcohol, stimulants, and cocaine; and parental mood and anxiety disorders
parieto-insular-vestibular cortex
This is the likely location where excessive eye movements, from reading in a moving car for example, cause dizziness and nausea.
The heritability for schizophrenia has been estimated at between .60 and .90
This means that 10%-40% of the variability is due to environmental factors.
Almost all of us occasionally experience depression, an intense feeling of sadness; we feel depressed over grades, a bad relationship, or loss of a loved one.
This reactive depression can be severe, but major depression goes beyond the normal reaction to life's challenges.
The other study found underconnectivity in several areas, including prefrontal cortex, but hyperconnectivity in the temporal lobe; the researchers pointed out that the underconnectivity occurred in earlier-maturing parts of the cortex and overconnectivity was associated with a later-maturing area
This study raises the possibility of both under- and overconnectivity occurring to varying degrees within an individual or an individual exhibiting one or the other,
ECT is the most controversial of the psychiatric therapies.
Though bilateral electrode placement produces a faster response that is desirable with suicidal patients, unilateral right hemisphere placement is usually favored because it minimizes cognitive side effects, such as temporary memory impairment
Discordance among identical twins has been used as an argument that schizophrenia is environmentally produced.
To address this issue, Gottesman and Bertelsen (1989) compared the incidence of schizophrenia in the offspring of affected and normal identical twins; they found that the offspring of the unaffected identical twins were just as likely to be schizophrenic as the offspring of the affected twins
Forty-Hertz Oscillations in Neurons
Top: Recording of the combined activity of all neurons in the vicinity of the electrode. Bottom: Activity recorded at the same time from two neurons adjacent to the electrode. By visually lining up the peaks and valleys of the two tracings, you can see that the two neurons are firing in synchrony with all the others in the area. (The upper tracing appears smoother because it is the sum of the activity of many neurons and because random activity is equally often positive and negative and cancels itself out.) If a person doesn't consciously notice the word, only the visual cortex is activated; as soon as the person becomes aware of the word, the lateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex become active. These two areas and the thalamus have more interconnections with each other and the rest of the brain than any other region Back to the binding problem - evidence here suggests that neural synchrony is key
Maps of a Patient's Phantom Hand
Touching the arm above the stump produced sensations of the missing hand. The same thing happened on the face, confirming what we saw in Chapter 11, that neurons from the face have invaded the hand area in the somatosensory cortex.
This hypofrontality apparently involves prefrontal dopamine deficiency, because administering amphetamine increases blood flow in the prefrontal cortex and improves performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
Traumatic injury to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex causes impairments like the symptoms of schizophrenia: flat affect, social withdrawal, reduced intelligence and problem-solving ability, diminished motivation and work capacity, and impaired attention and concentration
Some 20%-30% of patients do not respond to the traditional medications or cannot tolerate them
Two drugs sometimes used in their place, modafinil and atomoxetine, block norepinephrine reuptake, adding support for its role in ADHD as suggested by genetic studies.
Hippocampal reduction is often associated with childhood abuse, and Elizabeth Binder and her coworkers (2008) found that previously abused individuals were twice as likely to succumb to PTSD following traumatic events.
Two mutations of the FKBP5 gene are more common among PTSD patients who were abused and apparently contribute to the vulnerability (Binder et al.). A smaller anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) may also be a vulnerability factor.
The personality disorders are a group of 10 related disorders
Typical behavior patterns include distrust and suspicion (paranoid), unstable social and interpersonal relationships (asocial, avoidant, dependent, borderline), problems with control and attention (obsessive- compulsive), and emotional dysfunctions (histrionic, narcissistic).
Movement perception is the primary function in visual area
V5.
Offspring of the normal fraternal twin of a schizophrenic do not have an elevated risk. The offspring of the normal identical twin of a schizophrenic are as likely to become schizophrenic as the offspring of the schizophrenic identical twin.
Various problems make the identification of candidate genes difficult. Not all studies include the spectrum diagnosis. The effects of multiple genes are small and cumulative. A significant cause is rare copy number variations. The genes that have been identified play a role in: Neurotransmission and transmitter deactivation Neural development, such as axon guidance Neurodegeneration Immune factors and the inflammatory response
often-distinguishing feature between identical twins discordant for schizophrenia is the size of their ventricles
Ventricular enlargement is not specific to schizophrenia; enlarged ventricles are also associated with several other conditions, including old age, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's chorea, and alcoholism with dementia
What parts of the brain are important for females for sex?
Ventromedial hypothalamus
piamater
Very thin, innermost layer of meninges, onion skin
Retinotopic maps
Visual cortex contains maps of retina, meaning that adjacent retinal receptors activate adjacent cells in the visual cortex.
RORA gene is upregulated by estrogen and downregulated by testosterone
We're also learning that male-female differences in vulnerability may be qualitative as well as quantitative. One study found that adult males and females with autism had markedly different patterns of white and gray matter increases compared to neurotypical controls
Mind Brain Problem
What is the mind and what is its relationship to the brain?
Map of Event-Related Potentials to Masked and Unmasked Visually Presented Words
When briefly presented words were masked by following them with nonmeaningful visual stimuli, activation was largely confined to the primary visual area (as well as slightly delayed) and did not produce awareness. Unmasked words produced additional subsequent activity, which spread through the frontal and parietal cortex, accompanied by awareness. Theories require a widely distributed neuronal network Theorized to be coordination of this network Crick suggested claustrum is executive of consciousness
Consider what would happen without a functioning vestibular system.
When he walked, his body canted to the left, tilted a full 20 degrees.
Although we have known for a long time that schizophrenia is partially genetic, identifying the genes involved has been difficult. One reason has been researchers' inconsistency in including the spectrum disorders in their diagnosis of schizophrenia
When identical twins are discordant for schizophrenia, 48%-54% of the nonschizophrenic twins have spectrum disorders
Estimates of the annual cost for all mood disorders in the United States have varied from $24 billion to $234 billion
When one identical twin has an affective disorder, the probability that the other twin will have the illness as well is about 69%, compared with 13% in fraternal twins
Antagonistic Muscles of the Upper Arm
When the biceps muscle contracts, it flexes the arm (left); contracting the triceps muscle extends the arm
Hubel and Wiesel's Explanation for Responses of Simple Cells.
When the edge is in this position, the ganglion cell for each of the circular fields increases its firing. (The fields shown here have on centers.) The ganglion cells are connected to the same simple cell, which also increases firing, indicating that an edge has been detected. This particular arrangement would be specialized for a vertical light edge.
This interpretation was supported in a study of individuals diagnosed with Asperger syndrome, the former term for high-functioning autism.
When they imitated facial expressions, transmission over the dorsal stream (occipital to superior temporal to posterior parietal to frontal) was delayed by 45-60 milliseconds compared with normal controls
vestibular sense is not just for adjusting the body's position.
When we reach for an object, we must know not just where the object is in three- dimensional space but also the position of our body and the relation of our hand and arm to our body.
A later meta-analysis confirmed that VAL66MET also reduces vulnerability to depression
Whole-genome studies have been extremely beneficial because researchers can explore the genome without any hypothesis or even an educated guess about what to look for.
Without the seizure activity in the brain that produces the convulsions, the treatment does not work.
Within a few minutes, the patient is conscious and coherent, though perhaps a bit confused; the patient does not remember the experience. Usually ECT is administered two to three times a week for a total of 6-12 treatments.
Setup for Demonstrating the Cheshire Cat Effect
Your view will alternate between your hand and your friend's face. Self-directed but some stimuli can grab your attention Attention influences memory Attention involves several brain structure: organized into two networks: a dorsal one that allocates attention under goal-directed control and a ventral one that responds to stimulus demands Anterior cingulate cortex may play executive role
Zika virus, one of the infectious causes of intellectual disability, can have a devastating effect on brain development and intelligence.
Zika virus, one of the infectious causes of intellectual disability, can have a devastating effect on brain development and intelligence.
Homeostatic drive
a "control system" maintains conditions around a set point
Hemorrhagic
a blood vessel bursts. The worst is an aortic rupture most likely you will die unless you are already at the hospital
Spinal Cord
a cable of neurons that carries sensory information to the brain, and motor commands to the muscle and organs
Electrically gated channels can be opened by...
a change in the electrical potential of the membrane
Gene Transfer
a gene from another organism is inserted into the recipient's cell.
Transgenic animal
a gene is inserted into the developing embryo, creating an organism with an extra gene
What does the brain develop from?
a hollow tubular structure
Norepinephrine
a hormone released during stress. Functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain to increase arousal and attentiveness to events in the environment; involved in depression
Addiction: Neural Basis
a hypothesized basis or addiction is reward -the positive effect an object or condition (drug, food, sex, etc.) has on the user -The mesolimbocortical dopamine system is usually considered the major reward system -The dopamine system is implicated in the rewarding effects of drugs, food, sex, and electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
Human Connectome Project
a large-scale, multi-university effort to map the brain's circuits
substance P
a neuropeptide that increases pain sensitivity
Epinephrine
a stress hormone related to norepinephrine; plays a minor role as a neurotransmitter in the brain
Experiment
a study in which the researcher manipulates a condition (the IV) that is expected to produce a change in the subject's behavior (the DV)
What exactly does dopamine do to trigger the symptoms of schizophrenia?
aberrant salience hypothesis, suggests that heightened levels of dopamine increase attentional and motivational circuits to make ordinary environmental features seem significant.
Spatial Resolution
ability to detect precisely where in the brain the signal is coming from, is poor.
PET scan advantages
ability to track changing activity in the brain, fast
Lewy bodies
abnormal clumps of protein that form within neurons
What pH is stomach acid?
about 2
Faternal twins share
about 50% of their genes (develop from two separate fertilized eggs) dizygotic
Superior
above
All of the following neurotransmitters are deactivated by reuptake except
acetylcholine
behavior can mean:
actions, thinking, learning, emotion, etc
Endorphins
activate the same receptors as opiate drugs.
Before undergoing her gender reassignment surgery, Caitlyn Jenner took estrogen supplements to start developing breasts and a more female-typical body shape. The changes to her body as a result of the estrogen supplements were _____ effects.
activating
Synaptic changes during learning involve
activation of proteins.increased number of dendritic spines. increased number of receptors.
fMRI advantages
activity measurement, good spatial resolution and speed, no radioactive substances
Drug treatment is cost effective
addiction costs $600 billion a year in the U.S., but every dollar invested in treatment saves $7
Alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines are deadly when taken together because they
affect the same receptor complex.
Treatments for addiction
agonistic treatments mimic the drug's effects -example: methadone for opiate addiction -serve as "replacement" for drug
higher blood levels of lead in children diagnosed with ADHD, and lead levels were correlated with teacher and parent ratings of symptoms
air pollution; children whose mothers were exposed during pregnancy to high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon from sources such as traffic and fossil-fuel-burning electric plants had increased levels of ADHD symptoms,
Idealistic Monism
all nonphysical. Only the mind exists and the physical world is a construct of the mind.
Experiments are considered superior to other research procedures because they
all of the above (involve control over the variable of interest, permit control of variables not of interest, permit cause and effect conclusions).
Homozygous vs Heterozygous
alleles can be matched (homozygous) or different (heterozygous)
Adoption Studies
allow measurement of children's similarity to their biological parents vs their adoptive parents
What are proteins converted into?
amino acids
inactivated sodium channels create______
an absolute refractory period
A model is
an organism or a system used to understand a more complex one.
The theory has considerable support; schizophrenic patients typically have higher dopamine activity in the striatum
and drugs that block dopamine receptors are effective in treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia
In two studies with high-functioning ASD participants, oxytocin improved brain functioning by increasing previously deficient activity in the right anterior insula during an emotion inference task
and increasing functional connectivity between anterior cingulate cortex and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
Follow-up studies indicate that memory and cognitive impairment induced by ECT dissipates within a few months
and that cognitive performance even improves over pretreatment levels as the depression lifts
Descartes Hydraulic Model
animal spirits and the pineal gland fluid flowed through the brain and into the muscles to produce movement fluid flowing into brain pores caused sensations and memories
The type of alcoholism in which the individual drinks regularly is associated with
antisocial personality disorder.
Depressants Anxiolytic
anxiety reduction
What is a drug?
any substance that changes the body or its functioning
What don't drugs do?
anything new for you because its like a neurotransmitter and it mimics natural things
People with the short variation show an exaggerated amygdala response to fearful facial expressions
apparently due to a loss of feedback from the cingulate cortex that would ordinarily dampen amygdala activity
Amphetamines
are a group of synthetic drugs that produce euphoria and increase confidence and concentration
Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings
are in the deeper layers, where they detect stretching of the skin and contribute to our perception of the shape of grasped objects
Addiction and Withdrawal
are independent processes; they even occur in different parts of the brain
Free nerve endings
are simply processes at the ends of neuronal dendrites; they detect warmth, cold, and pain.
area postrema
area of the brain that is completely unprotected. Has chemosensors that sample blood to see whats going on. Vomit reflex is here
When do women tend to initiate sex more often?
around the middle of the menstrual cycle, which is when ovulation occurs
How is sex similar to hunger and thirst?
arousal and satiation hormonal control controlled by specific areas of the brain
Supplementary Motor Area
assembles sequences of movements, such as eating or playing the piano; coordinates movements between the two sides of the body (ex. task sharing between the hands)
Twin studies
assess how similar twins are in some characteristics -genain quadruplets all became schizophrenic
The researcher sounds a tone and then delivers a puff of air to your eye. After several times, the tone alone causes you to blink. This behavior is probably explained by
associative LTP.
Vulnerability is viewed as a continuum, depending on the number of affected genes inherited. At one extreme, a small percentage of genetically predisposed individuals will become schizophrenic under the normal physical and psychological stresses of life;
at the other extreme are individuals who will become schizophrenic only under the severest stress such as the trauma of battle or because of a constantly stressful life with poor social support and family environments
Results of removing the thymus gland suggest that myasthenia gravis is a(n) ________ disease.
autoimmune
In the circuit formation stage of nervous system development,
axons grow to their targets and form connections.
Posterior
back
Chronic exposure to abused drugs changes the brain
baseline levels of dopamine activity decreases in the system -Tolerance and decreased response to normal rewarding stimuli -But, the drug/drug-related stimuli produce greater increases in dopamine -This sensitization can last long after the person stops taking the drug
Tolerance is one reason for overdose
because tolerance can develop in response to the drug's pleasurable effects without developing in response to others.
The best evidence that the brains of people with sexual variations have been masculinized or feminized contrary to their chromosomal sex is (are) their
behavior and cognitive abilities.
inferior
below
What did Helmholtz and the electrical brain establish?
biological nature of neural communications and neural functioning is open to scientific study
DSM-5 now considers bipolar disorder to be a cluster of disorders, separate from depressive disorders and serving as a bridge between depression and schizophrenia
bipolar disorder, a person alternates between periods of depression and either mania (bipolar I) or hypomania (bipolar II);
The structure is a part of the cingulate cortex, located at the midline; it is in a good position to act as a bipolar switch, because it has extensive connections to emotion centers such as the amygdala and the lateral hypothalamus and it helps regulate neurotransmitters involved in affective disorders.
bipolar subjects were asymptomatic and working on a cognitive task, activity increased in limbic and associated areas . The researchers suggested that individuals with bipolar I disorder are unable to suppress emotion networks during emotionally neutral activities.
mania can occur in the absence of depression, but this is rare and the treatment is the same as for bipolar I disorder.
bipolar I patients often demonstrate psychotic features such as delusions, hallucinations, paranoia, or bizarre behavior, which has led psychologists to consider bipolar I as a bridge disorder between schizophrenia and depression.
aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen,
block inflammatory enzymes required for producing prostaglandins, so they primarily reduce swelling and peripheral pain.
absorptive phase
body lives off of nutrients from digestive system glucose increases-parasympathetic activation-pancreas secretes insulin- glucose enters body cells, glucose stored in liver and muscles as glycogen, fat stored in adipose cells as triglyderides
Fasting phase
body releases stored energy glucose decreases-sympathetic activation-pancreas secretes glucagon- glycogen transformed to glucose (for brain), stored fat released as fatty acids (for body) and glycerol (for brain, after conversion to glucose)
Fetus starts out with
both systems -Wolffian ducts- male system -Mullerian ducts- female system
What part of the nervous system is the central nervous system?
brain and spinal cord
Concussion
brain bruise (brain bumps into skull)
Axon terminals
branches at the end of the axon culminate in swellings.
Science is not distinguished by the knowledge it produces...
but by its method of acquiring knowledge.
Depressants Sedation
calming, reduces agitation and irritability
Withdrawal from alcohol
can be life threatening
Reversible Lesions
can be produced by chilling a brain area or by injecting certain chemicals.
A cannula
can be used to introduce chemicals into the brain to observe their effects; or to extract fluids in a procedure called microdialysis
Electrode in stereotaxic surgery
can be used to stimulate neurons or to record their activity
In vitro fertilization
can provide greater control of early environment effects for example: ow birth weight in babies of smoking mothers was environmental, but antisocial behavior was genetic
A typical neuron's resting potential is around____
can range from -40 to -80 mV but typically around -70mV
What do people with eating disorders have a low activity in?
cannabinoid and dopamine reward systems -lack of enjoyment of food as well as other life pleasures -eating increases dopamine levels, and viewing pictures of food stimulates cannabinoid receptors in insular cortex of anorexics and bulimics -eating also increases food related anxiety. Therefore, food restriction, while not pleasurable, reduces anxiety
Sensory neurons
carry info from the body and from the outside world into the brain and spinal cord.
Aversive treatments for addiction
cause an unpleasant reaction when the addict uses the drug -Example: antabuse (that blocks the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase or ALDH) for alcohol addiction causes immediate hangover effects -Treatment compliance depends on the addict's motivation to quit
What can heavy use of amphetamines do?
cause symptoms that resemble schizophrenia -have been used in weight loss drugs to postpone sleep and to treat narcolepsy
Gray matter
cell bodies
Nucleus contains what?
cell's chromosomes
According to the spatial frequency theory of visual processing, edges are detected by
cells that respond to high spatial frequencies.
When the police have a drunk driving suspect walk a straight line and touch his nose with his finger, they are assessing the effect of alcohol on the
cerebellum
What is the largest part of the brain?
cerebral hemispheres separated by longitudinal fissure
If you easily get motion or seasickness,
chances are that you have a more sensitive PIV (parieto-insular-vestibular) cortex.
gene expression
changes over time genes can be turned on or off to increase or decrease certain proteins changes in gene expression relates to developmental changes and the aging process
The correlation tells us that the children's IQs are still tied to their biological parents' intelligence, as if by an elastic string that can stretch but nevertheless affects how much the IQ can change; that elastic string in this case is the influence of genes.
children whose mothers who had high levels of organophosphate pesticide residue in their blood during pregnancy averaged 7.0 IQ points lower, compared with children of mothers with the lowest residue measures
There is another rhythm that is important in affective disorders; some people's depression rises and falls with the seasons and is known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD).
circannual rhythm, one that follows the changes of the seasons.
What did people think about cocaine in the past?
cocaine was believed to be safe (Freud initially endorsed use) -users have deficits in executive functions that involve the pre-frontal cortex
Unlike Parkinson's disease,
cognitive and emotional deficits are a universal characteristic of Huntington's disease.
If our experience of color were entirely due to the wavelength of light reflected from an object, we would not experience
color constancy.
Premotor Cortex
combines information needed for movement programming, such as the target being reached fro and its location, which arm to use, and the arm's location
Temporal Summation
combines potentials arriving a short time apart from either the same or separate inputs.
Spatial summation
combines potentials occuring simultaneously at different locations on the dendrites and cell body.
Anterior parietal cortex
combines this depth information with information about the object's shape and location to provide three-dimensional location of objects. Demonstrations of retinal disparity: •Stereograms, such as Magic Eye •Polarized pictures and screen, such as the Nintendo 3DS •3-D movies such as Avatar (requiring glasses).
Premotor Cortex example
comes from a study in which monkeys were cued to reach for one of two targets, A or B, in different locations and to use the left arm on some trials and the right arm on others. Some premotor neurons increased their firing rate only if target A was cued, and other neurons were selective for target B. Other cells fired selectively depending on which arm was to be used. Still other cells combined the information of the first two kinds of cells; they increased their firing only when a target was cued and a particular arm was to be used
Studies of object, color, and movement agnosias indicate that
components of the visual image are processed separately.
Psychedelic drugs
compounds that cause perceptual distortions -often referred to as hallucinogenic -light, color, and details are intensified -objects may change shape, sounds may evoke visual experiences, and light may produce auditory sensations
Interoceptive System
concerned with sensations in our internal organs.
ADHD runs in families would be an understatement: Heritability averages 76% across studies
concordances have been variously estimated at 58%-83% for identical twins and 31%-47% for fraternal twins
Motor neuron function
conduct messages from brain and spinal cord to muscles and organs.
Iodopsin
cone photopigment
People with red-green color blindness
confuse red and green because they lack one of the photopigments.
Amacrine cells
connect across many ganglion cells
Synapse
connection between a neuron and another cell
Vomeronasal organ (VNO)
connects to the MPOA and amygdala -function in humans is uncertain -Other odor cues detected by olfactory receptors
Buerger's Disease
constriction of the blood vessels that may lead to gangrene in the lower extremities, requiring progressively higher amputations
Caffeine after surgery
constriction of the blood vessels that may lead to gangrene in the lower extremities, requiring progressively higher amputations
Temporal lobes
contain auditory projection area, visual, and auditory association areas and an additional language area.
Pheromones
contribute to aggressive behavior in animals and have a questionable role in human behavior
Dopamine
contributes to movement control and promotes reinforcing effects of food, sex, and abusing drugs; involved in schizophrenia and parkinson's disease
Genes do not provide a script for behavior, they____
control the production of proteins
Pharamacological treatment
controversial due to belief that recovery should involve the exercise of will and that it is wrong to give an addict another drug, such as methadone
What are the two key features that characterize more intelligent species?
cortex has more convolutions cerebral hemispheres are larger in proportion to other brain areas
Male vulnerability may not be the whole story, however; females may enjoy some protection. Girls with ASD had very long copy number variations (differences in how often a segment of DNA is repeated) more often than boys with ASD; this implied that it takes more mutations to produce ASD in a female, which suggested a "female protective model"
cortical levels of the RORA protein are decreased in both males and females with autism, levels are higher in unaffected females than in unaffected males
What are the contents of the PNS?
cranial nerves on the underside of the brain, spinal nerves that connect to the sides of the spinla cord at each vertebra
The most obvious indication that learning and brain plasticity are involved in addiction is seen in
craving.
Hypopolarization (depolarization)
creates an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) this makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire. EPSP opens sodium channels.
Hyperpolarization
creates an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) this makes it less likely an action potential will occur. IPSP opens potassium or chloride channels or both.
When rats trained to press a lever for electrical stimulation of the brain are given a drug that blocks dopamine receptors, lever pressing
decreases.
Epigenetic effects on offspring weight have resulted from the mother's
diet.
Example zeitgeber
difference between light intensity between light and dark periods of day (seen those commercials for non-24 in blind individuals) But, vary bright light (artificial) might disrupt sleep as well
excitatory and inhibitory transmitters at _______ synapses
different
Opiates
drugs derived from the opium poppy
What are the dangers of smoking mostly due to?
due to compounds in tobacco smoke not nicotine -this includes: various cancers, burerger's disease, reduced birth weight
Why is cocaine addictive?
due to intense euphoria and craving during abstinence -difficult to treat because many users have co-morbid conditions
What are the three layers of meninges?
duramater, arachnoid, piamater
Prolonged use of antidopamine drugs often produces tardive dyskinesia, tremors and involuntary movements due to long-term blocking of dopamine receptors and resultant neuron death in the basal ganglia.
dyskinesia develops, it persists even after the person stops taking the drug.
Whatever the actual number of skin senses, the important point here is that
each is distinct from the others, with its own receptors and separate "labeled line" pathway to the brain.
Although intelligence and cognitive abilities do typically decline with age, the amount of loss has been overestimated.
early studies were cross-sectional, comparing people at one age with different people at another age; you have already seen that more recent generations have an IQ test performance advantage over people from previous generations.
The increase in testosterone on nights that couples have intercourse is an example of
effect.
Social
empathy, social judgment, interpersonal communication skills, ability to make and retain friendships
Neuropeptides
endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide
Inactivation
enzymes break down the transmitter in the cleft
Obesity Environment
epigenetic characteristics: gene expression changes due to environment (AgRP)
How does estrogen produce these effects?
estrogen levels during the menstrual cycle are correlated with cortical excitability, increased glucose metabolism, blood flow in areas involved in cognitive tasks, and responsiveness to acetylcholine, which is important in memory and cognitive functioning
What part of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system?
everything else
Several studies have reported a relationship between the oxytocin receptor genes (OXTR) and ASD;
evidence suggests that downregulation of the gene in some subgroups of ASD results in increased activity in the temporal-parietal junction, which participates in social perception
An interesting observation supports an association between ASD and hyperconnectivity: Synesthesia is found 2.6 times more often in people with ASD than in the general population
evidence favors hyperconnectivity between sensory areas as an explanation.
Regarding anorexia and bulimia,
evidence indicates that epigenetic changes occur during adolescence.
Science is constantly....
evolving so its conclusions are tentative
Dominant alleles
expressed regardless of other allele
Axon
extends like a tail from the cell body and carries info to other locations.
Dendrites
extensions that branch out from the cell body to receive info from other neurons.
We mention a therapeutic effect of smoking for the second time only to illustrate again how people may self-medicate without being aware they are doing it and why some people have so much trouble quitting;
extensive effect of smoking on monoamine oxidase inhibitor levels throughout the body.
Cocaine
extracted from coca plant -blocks dopamine and serotonin reuptake -dopamine removes inhibition on lower structures
Your study calls for daily measurement of activity changes in emotional areas of the brain. You would prefer to use
fMRI
Tanezumab, an antibody for nerve growth factor
factor, has shown safety and effectiveness in clinical trials with chronic back pain and the inflammatory pain of joint arthritis. An experimental drug that blocks the TRPV1 receptor produces modest reduction of bone cancer pain in mice, but much smaller doses significantly increase the effectiveness of morphine when the two are used in combination
If a peripheral nerve were transplanted into a severed spinal cord, it would
fail to grow across the gap.
Neuromodulators
farther effects via bloodstream
What are fats transformed into?
fatty acids and glycerol in either the intestine or in the liver
phobia
fear or stress when confronted with a particular situation
The somatosensory cortex and posterior parietal areas provide
feedback for refining movements "on the fly"
gernalized anxiety disorder
feeling of stress and unease most of the time involve deficits in GABA and serotonin, are often treated with antidepressants that modulate serotonin. Brain areas involved in anxiety include amygdala locus coeruleus parahippocampal gyrus
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
fight or flight
Ventricles
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
William Masters and Virginia Johnson's research on human sexual responses (1960s)
for males there is an excitement phase:a period of arousal and preparation for intercourse, plateau phase:the increase in sexual arousal levels off, orgasm:, rhythmic contractions occur in the vagina and those in the penis are accompanied by ejaculation, resolution phase:as arousal decreases and the body returns to its previous state, refractory phase:males have a refractory phase that can last minutes to days.Unable to become aroused Females do not have a refractory period
What does the upper tube develop into?
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
Radial Glia
form scaffolds that guide new neurons to their destinations
Object perception is two steps
form vision (detection of object's boundaries and features) and object recognition.
Numerous studies have reported one difference or another in the brains of individuals with ADHD, but the results have been inconsistent.
found reductions in overall brain volume and in five specific structures involved in emotion, motivation, and reward processing: the caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus.
Anterior
front
Coronal
front to back
Cone function
functions best in bright light, poorly or not at all in dim light. Detail vision is good. Subset distinguishes among colors.
Rod function
functions best in dim light, poorly or not at all in bright light. Detail vision is poor. Does not distinguish colors.
What is a group of cell bodies called in the peripheral nervous system
ganglion
Surgery for Obesity
gastric bypass (for the morbidly obese) -weight loss averages 25% after 10 years, compared to 5-10% with dieting Benefits include reduced mortality and many health improvements
Both congenital pain insensitivity and chronic pain involve
gene-mediated alterations of pain sensitivity.
Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Related Disorders
general anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobia, PTSD
A theory
generates further research
In the largest study to date, researchers examined data from all two million children born in Sweden between 1982 and 2006 and estimated the heritability of ASD to be 50% and of autism at 54%, with the remainder due to nonshared (nonfamilial) environmental influence
genes that have been identified contribute to neuron development and migration, synapse formation, and neurotransmitter activity
glutamate theory, hypofunction of NMDA receptors results in increases in glutamate and downstream increases in dopamine, which together produce positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia
genes that underlie glutamate signaling are correlated with the severity of schizophrenia and related disorders
Genotype vs phenotype
genotype: what genes an individual has (Combinations of alleles like B and B or B and O). phenotype: observable characteristics like blood type B.
The biggest obstacle to using stem cells would be elimanted if researchers could
get adult stem cells to work as well as embryonic ones
Critics of treating drug addiction with drugs believe that
getting over addiction should not be easy.
Merkel's disks
give a more sustained response. Located near the surface of the skin as they are, they detect the texture and fine detail of objects. They also detect movement and come into play when you explore an object with gentle strokes of your hand or when a blind person reads Braille.
What does giving testosterone to women do to their sexual arousal and activity? What about estrogen?
giving testosterone to women increases their sexual arousal and activity; estrogen doesn't.
What does the liver monitor?
glucose and fatty acids and it sends signla to NST then NST sends to arcuate nucleus
During the absorptive phase,
glucose from the stomach is the main energy source.
What does alcohol inhibit?
glutamate (excitatory transmitter) -alcohol part of the GABAa receptor complex (inhibitory effects) -effect is sedation, anxiolytic, muscle relaxation, and inhibition of cognitive and motor skills
Amino Acids
glutamate, GABA, Glycine
Saltatory conduction results in
greater speed with the use of less energy
Neural networks add further complexity to neural processing
groups of neurons that function together to carry out a process
Ridge
gyrus
Cutting the optic nerve between the right eye and the chiasm would cause a loss of vision in
half of each visual field.
hydrocephalus can also be treated if caught early, by installing a shunt that prevents the accumulation of the excess cerebrospinal fluid.
half of those whose ventricles fill 95% of the cranium have IQs over 100
For the motor cortex what takes up a lot of the space?
hands and face, more brain=more nerves
Behavioral management for heroin
has a 10% to 30% success rate; combined with methadone, success rises to 60-80%
However, three studies involving mice have found evidence that itch...
has its own receptors, neural pathway (spinothalamic tract), and receptor proteins; itch (pruriception) will most likely be added to the list of skin senses.
People with a mutation in the SCN9A gene
have nonfunctioning versions of a specific sodium channel, so their pain neurons are disabled
If the nerves providing sensory feedback from the legs were cut, we would
have trouble standing upright.
Luigi Galvani and his work showed what?
he could make a frog's leg muscle twitch by stimulating the attached nerve with electricity, even after the nerve and muscle had been removed from the frog's body. (1700s)
Loewi's Experiment
heart uses chemical messengers, not action potentials, to change heart rate
Inferior colliculi
help locate the direction of sounds
All of the following are involved in producing movement, except the
hippocampus
Because of this reduced connectivity, activity is segregated into localized clusters rather than being integrated across larger areas
hub of local connections centered around the amygdala; the researchers suggested that the ADHD brain may be configured to respond impulsively instead of having the neural organization to regulate and inhibit responses.
Negative color aftereffect
if you habituate with one color, see complimentary color when it is removed. Complementary Colors and Negative Color Aftereffect. Stare at the dot in the center of the flag for about a minute, and then look at a white surface (the ceiling or a sheet of paper); you should see a traditional red, white, and blue flag. Negative color aftereffects demonstrate opponent processes
What do eating disorders imbalance?
imbalanced ratio of serotonin receptors -anorexics and bulimics have impaired executive control over emotional responses
You could best identify receptors for acetylcholine by using
immunocytochemistry
What does chronic use of ecstasy cause?
impairment in serotonin functioning -cognitive deficits such as memory loss -in monkeys, MDMA destroys serotonergic neurons
Ketamine also interests us because its effect is not on norepinephrine or serotonin; instead, it has its antidepressant effect by activating AMPA receptors
implicating glutamate function in depression as well as in schizophrenia.
How are the cells arranged?
in columns
Medial Amygdala
in the temporal lobe Involved in sexual behavior, aggression, and emotions
deep brain stimulation (DBS),
in which electrical stimulation through implanted electrodes is used to trigger dopamine release in areas deprived of that neurotransmitter.
Testosterone injections in a gay man would most likely
increase his sexual activity.
Neurons in the arcuate nucleus release NPY, which
increases eating.
What are endorphins?
indigenous opioids for your body
Informed consent
individual voluntarily agrees to participate after receiving information about any risks, discomfort, or other adverse effects
Principle of natural selection (Darwin)
individuals whose genes provide them with a greater ability to adapt are more likely to survive, and pass on these beneficial genes to more offspring
cortical thickness to intelligence;
individuals with a particular variant had a thinner cortex in the left hemisphere and performed less well on intelligence tests
Balance
information about head position and movement -3 semicircular canals (head movement) -Utricle and saccule (head position relative to gravity) The utricule and saccule monitor head position in relation to gravity. The hair cells are embedded in a gelatinous mass, so they are activated when the head tilts. A horizontal patch of hair cells and a vertical patch provide tilt information in two planes.
The premotor cortex begins programming a movement by combining
information from the prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex.Its output flows to the supplementary motor area, which assembles complex sequences of movements. The primary motor cortex is responsible for the execution of voluntary movements. Its cells fire most during the movement instead of prior to it. Individual cells are not allocated to specific movements, but contribute to a range of related behaviors
Empiricism
information through observation
Lateral hypothalamus
initiates eating and controls several aspects of feeding behavior as well as metabolic responses -controls chewing and swallowing through its brainstem connections; salivation, acid secretion, and insulin production through autonomic pathways in the medulla and spinal cord; and cortical arousal, which likely increases locomotion and the possibility of encountering food
Paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
initiates eating, though less effectively, and regulates metabolic processes such as body temperature, fat storage, and cellular metabolism
What are the fastest ways to get drugs into your body?
injecting and smoking
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
injecting radioactive substance into the bloodstream which is taken up by active parts of the brain according to how active they are.
Antisense RNA procedure
injects an animal with complementary RNA, which docks with the gene's messenger RNA; the cell recognizes this RNA as abnormal and destroys it
The ability of complex visual cortical cells to track an edge as it changes position appears to be due to
input from simple cells with similar fields.
Optogenetics
inserting new DNA and makin it light sensitive (modified ion channels that are triggered by light) better precision then electrodes
Theoretical Approaches to motivation
instinct, drive theory, incentive theory, arousal theory
The prefrontal cortex
integrates auditory and visual information with information from the posterior parietal cortex and holds the information in memory while selecting the appropriate movement and its target
Variability in behavioral characteristics result from
interaction of genetic and environmental influences (nature and nurture)
Antisense RNA Technology involves
interfering with protein construction controlled by the gene
Reflex sensory neurons to_____ to_____
interneuron to motor neuron
Most numerous neuron
interneurons
Tourette syndrome
involuntary motor and sound tics, grimaces, blinks, grunts, and imitation
Serotonin
involved in mood, sleep and arousal, aggression, depression, OCD, and alcoholism
Electrostatic pressure
ions attracted to the opposite charge (+ to -), and repelled by the same charge (+ from +)
Force of diffusion
ions flow from high to low concentration.
Action potential
is an abrupt depolarization of the membrane that allow the neurons to communicate over long distances.
Genetic Engineering
is an experimental technique; it involves manipulation of genes or their functioning
An animal is said to be in homeostasis when it
is at its set point temperature.
Color agnosia
is the loss of the ability to perceive colors Cells in V1 are wavelength coded, whereas cells in v4 are color coded. V4 provides color constancy, the ability to recognize the so-called natural color of an object in spite of the illuminating wavelength. If it were not for color constancy, objects would seem to change colors as the sun shifts its position through the day or as we go indoors into artificial light.
Visual field
is the part of the environment that is being registered on the retina. Information from the left visual field is detected by the right half of each retina, and transmitted to the right hemisphere. An image in the right visual field will similarly be projected to the left hemisphere.
stereotaxic instrument
is used to place an electrode or other device at a precise location in the brain
The best argument that caffeine is an addictive drug like alcohol and nicotine is that
it affects the same processes in the brain.
Temporal resolution
it can distinguish events only 1 millisecond (ms) apart in time, so it can track the brain's reponses to rapidly changing events.
What determines whether the effect on the postsynaptic neuron is facilitating or inhibiting?
it depends on a combination on which transmitter is released and the type of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
This effect is adaptive because
it encourages guarding of the injured area, but the resulting pain can be more troublesome than the original injury. From the injured area, pain information travels to the spinal cord over large, myelinated A-delta fibers and small, lightly myelinated or unmyelinated C fibers.
Specieism refers to the belief that
it is more ethical to do risky experiments on lower animals than on humans
How is sex different from hunger and thirst?
it is not a homeostatic tissue need; sex is not required for survival. It is required for reproduction and that is a necessity for species survival
Role of genes in alcoholism
its heavily studied there are two types of alcoholism -The inheritable ability to eliminate aldehyde is associated with alcoholism and vulnerability to other drugs -A genetic deficiency in the ability to metabolize nicotine protects some people from nicotine addiction
What is smoking the primary cause of?
its the primary cause of preventable death in the world -480,000 premature deaths annually -6 million world wide
One such drug (NKTR-181)
just finished phase 3 clinical trials with promising results in decreasing chronic lower back pain without causing drowsiness or euphoria
Beneficial drugs affect these ion channels as well
local anesthetics block sodium channels (Novocaine/Lidocaine/Procaine) general anesthetics work by opening potassium channels
primary somatosensory cortex
located on the postcentral gyrus processes skin senses (Touch, warmth, cold and pain) and the senses that inform us about body position and movement.
If the ventral root of a spinal nerve is severed, the person will experience
loss of motor control of a part of the body.
The human genome project has
made a map of the human genes.
Affective Disorders
major depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder
genetic influence on several of the functions that contribute to intelligence, including working memory, processing speed, and reaction time in making a choice
major structural contributors to intelligence are accounted for by genetic factors; estimated heritabilities in one twin study were 90% for brain volume, 82% for gray matter, and 88% for white matter
The main point of the discussion of cognitive and behavioral differences between the sexes was to
make a case for masculinization and feminization of the brain.
Autoradiography
makes neurons stand out visibly just as staining does, but it also reveals which neurons are active, and this information can be correlated with the behavior the animal was engaged in.
Polygenic traits
many characteristics are determined by several genes ex. height, intelligence, skin color, psychological disorders
The idea that mind and brain are both physical is known as
materialistic monism
higher level of interleukin-1β in the spinal fluid of first-episode patients, indicating that an immune response has occurred
maternal infection with the influenza virus upregulates 5-HT2A receptors and downregulates mGlu2 receptors in the frontal cortex of the offspring
Motivations
means "to set in motion" it refers to the factor that initiate, sustain, and direct behaviors
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
measures brain activation by detecting the increase in oxygen levels in active structures
Cardiovascular activity and respiration are controlled by the
medulla
Damage would be most devastating to humans if it destroyed the
medulla
When researchers injected anisomycin, which blocks protein synthesis, into the brains of mice two weeks after fear conditioning, the results demonstrated that
memories are particularly vulnerable during recall.
Medial
middle
Agonist treatments for drug addiction
mimic the drug's effect.
Agonists
mimics or enhances a neurotransmitter
The presence of synapes in a neuron chain provides the opportunity for...
modification of neural activity
Receptor subtypes add...
more complexity acetylcholine receptor has nicotine and muscarinic subtype
What do experimental studies with animals provide?
more control than studies of brain damaged patients
An inhibitory neurotransmitter causes the inside of the postsynaptic neuron to become..
more negative
research that followed children with ADHD into adolescence and adulthood revealed that, at worst, stimulant treatment made no difference
more positive outcome for the treated individuals could have been due to the reduction of symptoms, or it could have been the result of other factors, such as the support of parents who opted for treatment,
Neurons can release...
more than one chemical (contradicts dale's principle) one fast acting plus one or more slower acting neuropeptides two or more fast acting transmitters
What are some examples of Opiates?
morphine, heroin was synthesized from morphine, oxycontin
Some patients who are unresponsive to antidepressant medication can get relief from their depression by readjusting their circadian rhythm.
most antidepressant drugs also suppress REM sleep
Environmental influences on sexual orientation are
most likely prenatal.
Cone location
mostly in fovea and surrounding area
What is an example of in situ hybridization?
mouritsen focused on the CRY 2 cryptochrome (rather than CRY 1) because it was constructed outside the retina
Michael's Parkinson's treatment
movements. He was told that taking synthetic dopamine (L-dopa) would temporarily reduce, or even eliminate, the movement symptoms.
Motor neurons form and location
multipolar; throughout nervous system
Researchers attempting to explain the higher incidence of ASD in males have most often looked to the X chromosome.
mutations in the AFF2 gene occurred five times more frequently in boys with ASD than in boys without ASD
Glial cells
myelin is a fatty tissue that surrounds axons (like a jellyroll) providing electrical insulation and support
White matter
myelination
Withdrawal
negative reaction that occurs when drug use is stopped
Important to understand about voltage
neither the inside of the neuron nor the outside have a voltage. Its a DIFFERENCE. Only meaningful only in comparison with another location
What does stopping drugs activate?
neruons in the amygdala -Mediate fear and other aversive states, producing the negative emotions and many of the bodily symptoms that characterize withdrawal
What is a bundle of neurons called in the peripheral nervous system (A bundle of axons running together like a multiwire cable)?
nerve
Coding of neural messages
neural impulses vary intervals with bursts separated by different intervals
Research suggests phantom pain is due to
neural reorganization in the somatosensory area.
Endorphins
neuromodulators that reduce pain and enhance reinforcement
Synaptic Cleft
neurons are not in direct physical contact at the synapse but are separated by this 'small gap'.
Dale's principle
neurons can only release one neurotransmitter
Absolute refractory period
neurons cannot generate another impulse -(1)this limits frequency of firing -(2)action potential is only forward moving
NPY
neuropeptide Y
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
newer, noninvasive technique -uses magnetic coil to induce voltage in brain tissue -disrupt temporarily our hypothetical volunteers' frontal lobe functioning.
What does nicotine stimulate?
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors -in periphery, activates muscles and may cause twitching -centrally produces increased alertness and faster response to stimulation
Do intelligent individuals have bigger brains?
no brain is mostly related to body size, because larger bodies require larger brains
What is the autonomic nervous system involved in?
non voluntary movements
The aged brain is characterized by substantial ____ throughout the cortex.
none of the above
What do amphetamines increase the release of?
norepinephrine and dopamine
Normal individuals show increased activation in the prefrontal area during the test; schizophrenic patients typically do not, despite normal activation in other areas
normal brain practically lighting up during the test, in comparison with the schizophrenic brain, especially in the frontal area called the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
A problem that makes some people question drive theory is that
not all motivation involves tissue needs.
What is a group of cell bodies called in the central nervous system
nucleus
A structure in the medulla that is involved in taste as well as in hunger and eating is the
nucleus of the solitary tract.
Obesity Genes
obesity (ob) gene on chromosome 4 diabetes (db) gene on chromosome 6 FTO gene (A allele)
Naturalistic observation
observing aggressive behavior in children on the playground to see if there are differences between boys and girls .
MPOA
of the hypothalamus More important in performance than sexual motivation
A and B type parents have a...
one in four chance of having a child with different blood types.
Nitric Oxide
one of two known gaseous transmitters, along with carbon monoxide. Can serve as a retrograde transmitter, influencing the presynaptic neuron's release of neurotransmitter. Viagra enhances male erections by increasing nitric oxide's ability to relax blood vessels and produce penile engorgement.
Recessive alleles
only expressed when homozygous
Complementary colors
opposite each other on the color wheel, colors that cancel each other out to produce a neutral gray or white
Optic nerve
optic nerves run to a point just in front of the pituitary, where they join for a short distance at the optic chiasm. Separating again, they travel to their first synapse in the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus. Information goes from the thalamus to each visual cortex. At the optic chiasm axons from the nasal sides of the eyes cross to the other side and go to the occipital lobe in the opposite hemisphere Neurons from the outside half of the eyes (the temporal side) do not cross over, but go to the same side of the brain
Without a posterior parietal cortex, we would be most impaired in
orienting movements to objects in space.
Type 1 diabetes
pancreas unable to produce enough insulin
Incentive theory
people motivated by external stimuli
schizophrenic has some combination of several symptoms: hallucinations (internally generated perceptual experiences, such as voices telling the person what to do); delusions (false, unfounded beliefs, such as that one is a messenger from God); paranoia, characterized by delusions of persecution; disordered thought; inappropriate emotions or lack of emotion; and social withdrawal.
people with schizophrenia were subdivided into diagnostic categories based on which of these symptoms was predominant, such as paranoid or catatonic.
Damage to the inferior temporal cortex
people with this have difficulty recongizing familiar objects by sight, even though they can give detailed descriptions of the objects
Prefrontal damage
people with this will often engage in behavior that normal individuals readily recongize will get them into trouble.
Heritability
percentage of variation in a characteristics that is attributed to genetics -can be calculated by comparing concordance rate for twins
Schizophrenia
perceptual, emotional, and intellectual deficits; positive and negative symptoms -Loss of contact with reality -Inability to function in life Psychosis -Severe disturbances in reality, orientation, thinking •1% of men and women -Men show first symptoms during teens/twenties -Onset for women ordinarily comes a decade later •Acute symptoms -Develop suddenly -More responsive to treatment Prognosis reasonably good •Chronic symptoms -Symptoms develop gradually and persist for a long time Poor prognosis
The first "psychologists" were actually...
philosophers
Alzheimer's disease is most closely associated with
plaques and tangles.
Second refractory period
plays a role in intensity coding in the axon.
Negative symptoms tend to be chronic; these patients show poorer adjustment prior to the onset of the disease
poorer prognosis after diagnosis ; more intellectual and other cognitive deficits, suggestive of a brain disorder; and greater reduction in brain tissue
Malfunction in the basal ganglia results in
postural abnormalities and involuntary movements in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease, which can be treated using deep brain stimulation
A monkey is presented a stimulus and then must wait a few seconds before it can reach to the correct stimulus. Activity in the secondary motor area during the delay suggests that this area
prepares for the movement.
Hypovolemia detected by
pressure receptors (baroreceptors); information conveyed by vagus nerve to nucleus of the solitary tract (NST) in medulla, then to preoptic area
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
prevents the death of neurons and stimulates their functioning; individuals with the highest levels of BDNF were 33% less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer's disease than those with the lowest levels (G. Weinstein et al., 2014). BDNF is in phase 1 clinical trials; and nerve growth factor (NGF), which has similar effects, is in phase 2 trials
What is 5-HIAA; 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid
primary serotonin metabolite
Distributed processing
processing occurs across a wide area of the brain
Bath salts
produce positive effects similar to those of amphetamines, they can also lead to hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, anxiety, or depression, as well as impaired memory, attention, and concentration; seizures and death have also been reported
Agonists
produces some activity (ex: heroin, oxycodone, methadone, hydrocodone, morphine, opium)
PTSD
prolonged stress reaction to a stressful event characterized by recurrent thoughts, images, nightmares, impaired concentration, and overreaction to sudden events -Prolonged stress reaction to traumatic event -Heritability is about 30%, and unrelated to severity or reaction to a traumatic event
Meninges
protective three layered membrane
Microglia
provide energy to neurons and respond to injury and disease by removing cellular debris.
Coolidge effect
quicker return to sexual arousal when a new partner is introduced
Golgi stain method
randomly stains about 5% of neurons, placing them in relief against the background of seeming neural chaos.
The circadian rhythm—the one that is a day in length—tends to be phase advanced in patients with affective disorders;
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is the stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs;
The most popular research animals among the following are
rats
The cerebellum
receives information from the motor cortex about an intended movement and determines the order and timing of muscular contractions; uses information from the vestibular system to maintain posture and balance, refine movements, and control eye movements that compensate for head movements. Also plays a role in learning skilled movements, and is involved in nonmotor tasks.
A person with damage to the inferior temporal cortex would most likely be unable to
recognize familiar objects visually
Memories are vulnerable to the insertion of "false facts" through suggestions or ideas that fill in the gaps. This usually occurs during the process of
reconsolidation.
OCD
recurrent, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions) paired with ritualistic behaviors that remove anxiety (compulsions) -Obsessions (recurring thoughts) and compulsions (irresistible impulses to act) •Abnormally high activity in the orbital frontal cortex and the caudate nuclei, and low activity in basal ganglion •Genetic association with related anxiety disorders involving imbalanced levels of serotonin (high) and dopamine Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) consists of two behaviors, obsessions and compulsions. An obsession is a recurring thought, such as an annoying tune or wishing harm to another person. The compulsive individual is compelled to engage in repetitive behaviors such as hand washing, ritualistic touching, or checking appliances to make sure they are turned off.
noradrenergic system is involved in responsiveness and sensitivity to the environment...
reduced norepinephrine activity may contribute to the depressed individual's slowed behavior, lack of goal-directed activity, and unresponsiveness to environmental change
Hypofrontality
reduced activity in frontal regions -creates impulsivity and complusivity
What do eating disorders reduce?
reduced serotonin activity -SSRI antidepressants increase serotonin, reducing bingeing and purging and lowers relapse rates
Open potassium channels create_____
relative refractory period
Patients with unipolar depression share this early onset of REM sleep with 70% of their relatives,
relatives with reduced REM latency are three times more likely to be depressed than relatives without reduced latency
bipolars
released from inhibition stimulate ganglion cell
The study in which kittens reared in an environment with only horizontal or vertical lines were later able to respond only to stimuli at the same orientation is an example of
reorganization.
Simple cells
responds to a line or an edge that is at a specific orientation and at a specific place
Visual word form area (VWFA)
responds to written words
What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
rest and digest, calms you down, always workin
The receptive field of a cell in the visual system is the part of the ____ from which the cell receives its input.
retina
The separation between eyes produce
retinal disparity -Distant objects toward the nasal side (B) -Closer objects toward the temporal retina (C) Provides information on object's distance
If you are positive you know who the 14th president of the United States is, but cannot remember at this very moment, you are having a problem with
retrieval.
What are the two ways to remove neurotransmitters
reuptake and inactivation
Rhodopsin
rod photopigment
Major Depressive Disorder
sadness, hopelessness, decreased enjoyment, loss of energy and appetite, slow thought, sleep disturbance •Sadness, hopelessness, loss of ability to enjoy life, relationships, sex •Changes in thoughts, sleep, concentration Females are three times more likely to be depressed than males Risk for men increases with age; women are most vulnerable between the ages of 35 and 45
What happens to starches in your mouth?
saliva starts breakdown of starches into glucose
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans work by measuring the radio frequency waves emitted by the hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field
Heritability (highest percentage)
schizophrenia
The term schizophrenia was coined in 1911 by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler from the combination of two Greek words meaning "split mind."
schizophrenia has nothing to do with multiple personalities; the term refers to the distortion of thought and emotion, which are "split off" from reality.
PNS glial cells
schwann cells
Anterior Commissure
secondary smaller band of connecting fibers
what does polarization result from?
selective permeability of the membrane
Prefrontal Cortex
selects the appropriate behavior and its target, using a combination of bodily and external information
Practical
self management in areas such as personal care, job responsibilities, money management, recreation, and organizing school and work tasks
What do interneurons connect?
sensory and motor neurons, or and brain
Neuroimaging studies have found diminished serotonin synthesis in children with ASD, and treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as Prozac, decreases repetitive and obsessive behavior in some autistic individuals.
several autism symptoms improve during treatment with risperidone
The sex difference in the size of the sexually dimorphic nucleus is due to
sex hormones.
Of the following, the best argument that sex is a drive like hunger and thirst is that
sexual behavior involves arousal and satiation.
Three different kinds of neurons do operate similarly. They differ mostly in...
shape! Their shape fits them for their specialized task.
Studies comparing the weights of adopted children with their biological parents and their adoptive parents
show that weight is influenced most by heredity.
Anti-Addiction Obesity medications
showing effectiveness in weight loss
Lateral
side
Reflex
simple automatic movement in response to a sensory stimulus
What are carbohydrates metabolized into?
simple sugars, particularly glucose
Conceptual
skills in language, reading, writing, math, reasoning, knowledge, and memory
If HM's striatum had also been damaged, he would also not have remembered
skills learned after his surgery.
Depressants Hypnotic
sleep inducing
Opiates Hypnotic
sleep inducing
Regarding environmental influences on weight,
sleep loss increases appetite.
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials are typically produced by movement of __________ ions, whereas inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are typically produced by movement ____________ ions.
sodium; potassium or chloride.
Myelination
solution that vertebrates developed in response to conduction speed/axon size use less energy than non-myelinated cells
What is ideal for neural repair?
stem cells
Anti-drug vaccines
stimulate the immune system to make antibodies that degrade the drug -Reduced serotonin is found across several addictions -Drugs that potentiate serotonin have shown some usefulness
Wilder Penfield
stimulated patients' temporal lobes. Did surgery to remove malfunctioning tissue that caused epileptic seizures.
What are alcohol's pleasurable effects due to?
stimulation of opiate serotonin, and cannabinoid receptors
Opiates Euphoria
strong feelings of happiness or ecstasy
When a group of patients at risk for suicide was followed for one year, 20% of those who were below the group median in 5-HIAA level had committed suicide; none of the patients above the median had
studies have confirmed the association between lowered serotonin and suicidality
Mathematical ability in humans depends on the prefrontal cortex and the parietal cortex.
subjects who performed better on tests of basic arithmetic had greater cross-connection activity between the two parietal lobes during problem solving
During a difficult exam, your heart races, your mouth is dry, and your hands are icy. In your room later, you fall limply into a deep sleep. Activation has shifted from primarily _______ to primarily _______.
sympathetic, parasympathetic
Nicotine withdrawal
symptoms are mild but contribute to a 7% increase in workplace accidents during the United Kingdom's "no Smoking day" -only 20% of attempts to stop are successful after two years
Caffeine withdrawal
symptoms include headaches, fatigue, anxiety, shakiness, and craving
The feature most common between Alzheimer's disease and Korsakoff syndrome is the
symptoms.
Stimulation continues to shape ________ and_______ throughout life
synaptic construction and reconstruction
Myelin stains
taken up by the fatty myelin that wraps and insulates axons; the stain thus identifies neural pathways.
The MDAN series of drugs
targets the mu opioid receptor while blocking the delta opioid receptor; these drugs are reportedly 50 times more potent than morphine, without producing either tolerance or addiction
Homeostatic drive: Hunger
taste buds on tongue papillae detect five primary categories of chemicals -sweet: carbohydrates -salty: ions for neural transmission -sour: spoiled or rotten food -bitter: toxic chemicals -umami: protein content
Free nerve endings detect
temperature and pain
A person who has trouble identifying objects visually probably has damage in the
temporal lobe.
Gray matter deficit and ventricular enlargement are ordinarily present at the time of patients' diagnosis
that the loss of brain volume occurs rapidly and dramatically in adolescence or young adulthood and then levels off
local anesthetics
that are applied to or injected into the painful area—block sodium channels in the pain neurons and reduce their ability to fire.
Caffeine
the active ingredient in coffee -produces arousal increased alertness and decreased sleepiness -blocks receptors for the neuromodulator adenosine increasing the release of dopamine and acetylcholine -because adenosine had sedative and depressive effects, blocking its receptors contributes to arousal
Autoreceptors sense...
the amount of transmitter in the cleft and cause the presynaptic neuron to reduce excessive output
Temporal Lobe Structures Involved in Amnesia
the amygdala (A), hippocampus (H), and other structures labeled in the normal brain are partly or completely missing in HM's brain. (b) Structures of the medial temporal lobe, which are important in learning. (The frontal lobe is to the left.)
the various anxiety disorders share a commonality of functional brain anomalies.
the amygdala is hyperresponsive; the anterior cingulate cortex is hyperactive in general anxiety, panic disorder, and phobias, and the insular cortex is overly responsive in phobias and PTSD
Drive theory
the body maintains homeostasis-equilibrium- in its systems
behavioral neuroscience definition
the branch of psychology that studies the relationships between behavior and the body (particularly the brain)
What is the most prominent part of the neuron?
the cell body (soma) which is filled with cytoplasm and contains organelles
If a member of a twin pair is diagnosed with Parkinson's disease before the age of 51,
the chance of an identical twin also having Parkinson's is six times greater than it is for a fraternal twin
A mismatch would signal the need for increased executive control, the domain of the frontoparietal network.
the default mode network engages in self-monitoring, future planning, and emotion regulation; underactivity in this network results in poor emotional regulation.
Resting potential
the difference in charge between the inside and outside of the membrane of the neuron at rest
Seventy years ago, this effect was believed to be so inevitably linked to the therapeutic benefit that the "right" dose was the one that caused some degree of motor side effects.
the drugs used to treat schizophrenia became known as neuroleptics, because the term means "to take control of the neuron"
boys are more than twice as likely as girls to be diagnosed
the expected difficulties with life and work, these individuals have greatly increased rates of antisocial personality disorder, criminal behavior, and drug abuse
Some of these (from the inflammatory soup) stimulate pain receptors, but they also produce
the familiar swelling and redness of inflammation, and they enhance excitability of the pain neurons so much that the neurons respond even to light touch.
During acceleration (an increase in the rate of movement)
the head (and the cupula) moves but the fluid does not, which causes the cupula to bend in the opposite direction of head movement proportionally to the rate of acceleration.
Movement Agnosia
the inability to perceive movement -Bilateral damage to medial temporal (MT) area -Information about movement is integrated in area MT -Patient LM had difficulty: •Guiding eye and finger movements •Telling if something (or someone) was moving •Objects moving toward or away from him
How is the amount of light that enters the eye controlled?
the iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by contracting reflexively in bright light and relaxing in dim light
Visible part of the spectrum
the middle (colored) area, which has been expanded to show the color experiences usually associated with the wavelengths. Only 0.0035% of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to humans.
Cardiac Muscles
the non-fatiguing muscles that make up the heart.
Lesioning the SCN in rats abolishes
the normal 24-hr rhythms of sleep, activity, body temperature, drinking, and steroid secretion Controls timing, not amount Cells maintain cyclical activity even when isolated from organism
When we say that the body defends weight during dieting, we mean primarily that
the person's metabolism decreases.
Proprioception gives us information about
the position and movement of our limbs and body.
Nicotine
the primary psychoactive and addictive agent in tobacco
Glutamate
the principle excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord. Vitally in learning and implicated in schizophrenia
believe that these capabilities are within us all and are released when brain centers that control executive or integrative functions are compromised.
the savant access to speedy lower levels of processing that are unavailable to us.
What is is outer covering of the eye
the sclera is opaque except for the cornea, which is transparent.
Dull pain receptors are deeper and respond to a wider array of painful stimuli,
the sensations are harder to localize
What does the lower tube become?
the spinal cord
Anorexia nervosa
the starving disease -restrictors: reduce food intake to maintain weight -hunger battle: NPY, ghrelin high; leptin low
Bipolar patients are most at risk; about 20% of people who have been hospitalized for bipolar disorder commit suicide.
the suicidal individual has a predisposition, known as a diathesis, and then stress such as a worsening psychiatric condition acts as an environmental "straw that breaks the camel's back"
Lobotomy
the surgical destruction of the prefrontal cortex. Psychosurgery- use of surgical intervention to treat cognitive and emotional disorders. Done with an ice pick like tool through nose or eyes
Reuptake
the transmitter brought back into the terminals
Gene Therapy
the treatment of disorders by manipulating genes
"inflammatory soup";
these include histamine, proteins (bradykinin), lipids (prostaglandins), neurotransmitters (serotonin), and cytokines
Brain damage produces various deficiencies in consciousness
these must be understood and assessed to determine prognosis and potential for communication. •Coma: unarousable and unresponsive to stimulation •Vegetative state: reflexive responses to stimulation and sleep cycling, but no voluntary interaction •Minimal consciousness: some voluntary responses but inability to communicate reliably •Locked-in syndrome: full consciousness, but mostly uncommunicative because of paralysis (due to brain stem lesions) Vegetative patients have communicated with researchers by producing distinctive patterns of brain activity.
Evidence in the text that addiction does not depend on the drug's ability to produce withdrawal symptoms is that
they are produced in different parts of the brain.
How are Neurotransmitters stored in the terminals?
they are stored in vesicles and action potential causes exocytosis and neurotransmitters move across synapse because of diffusion and its relatively slow
A large coalition of European researchers and pharmaceutical companies is undertaking a €16.5 million ($18.8 million) study called PRISM (Psychiatric Ratings Using Intermediate Stratified Markers);
they will follow individuals with schizophrenia and other neurological disorders to determine the biological roots of the negative symptom of social withdrawal that is common to the groups
Homunculus
this is the form that the motor area of each hemisphere is in (little man). The cells that control the muscles of the hand are adjacent to the cells controlling the muscles of the arm and so on...
Individuals with damage to the left frontal language area can arrange numbers in rank order and estimate results, but they cannot perform precise calculations;
those with parietal damage are impaired in the opposite direction
Marijuana was the subject of disagreement among researchers because some of them
thought it failed to meet the standard test for addictiveness.
The physical arrangement of the semicircular canals (in vestibular organ)
three loops arranged in different planes of orientation, makes them especially responsive to movement of the head in three directions.
neurotransmitters removed?
to allow frequent responding and to prevent it from affecting nearby synapses
Why is the brain convoluted?
to increase surface area to fit more brain in the skull
Opioids
to indicate that they are not derived from opium, at least not directly.
What is the goal of the human genome project?
to map the location of all the genes on the human chromosomes and to determine the genes' codes (the order of bases within each gene).
The skin senses include
touch, warmth, cold, and pain.
skin senses
touch, warmth, cold, texture, and pain.
What is a bundle of neurons called in the central nervous system (Bundles of axons inside of the CNS)?
tract
Substance P
transmitter in neurons sensitive to pain
Hepatic portal vein
transports products to the liver
Humans are born a ____ too early
trimester, at 3 months brain really starts to function.
Ganglion cell axons form
two optic nerves; blind spot where they exit the retina
Several studies have reported white matter and connectivity reductions in the brains of individuals with ASD, particularly in the corpus callosum and other long-distance connections
underconnectivity is a fundamental characteristic of the disorder. additional research has reported hyperconnectivity.
Sensory neuron form and location
unipolar; outside brain bipolar; outside brain and spinal cord
borderline personality disorder
unstable mood, self image, anxiety, self harm, and anger that leads to impulsive acts due to apparently common events characterized by unstable interpersonal relationships, poor self-image, and impulsivity 8%-10% of individuals with BPD kill themselves, and they are prone to taking medication far beyond the recommended dose in committing suicide Genes linked to BPD include ones responsible for serotonin receptors, serotonin transporters such as 5HTTLPR, dopamine transporters such as DAT1, and enzymes that make neurotransmitters (such as tyrosine hydroxylase), as well as genes that influence neuronal survival (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) and neuronal death
Survey
use a questionnaire to find out whether some women are more aggressive during the premenstrual period
interneurons spinal cord
used to bridge between sensory neurons and motor neurons to produce a reflex.
interneurons brain
used to connect adjacent neurons to carry out the complex processing that the brain is noted for.
Immunocytochemistry
uses antibodies attached to a dye to identify cellular components such as receptors, neurotransmitters, or enzymes.
In situ hybridization
uses radioactive complementary DNA, which docks with messenger RNA, to locate gene activity
Where do motor neuron axons leave the spinal cord?
ventral root
What do the hollow interior of the nervous system become during development?
ventricles
The most prominent structure in the sexual behavior of female rats is the
ventromedial nucleus.
Alcohol withdrawal
very dangerous and may produce a condition known as delirium tremens -hallucinations, delusions, confusion, and in extreme cases, seizures and possible death -You need to ween yourself off
When you take a bite of apple pie, your posterior parietal cortex combines
visual information about the forkful of pie with information about where your arm and hand are in relation to your body, how your head is oriented in relation to your body, and where your eyes are oriented in relation to your head.
What does the retina house?
visual receptors -contains light sensitive photopigments, which break sown in the presence of light -rods = rhodopsin: extremely sensitive to light, function well in dim light and poorly in bright light, distinguish only different levels of light -cons = iodopsin: requires high intensity, cone better in bright light, three varieties used to distinguished color based on wavelength -cones more concentrated in fovea, and that has the highest visual acuity, best detail
Other factors correlated to Alzheimer's
vitamin D deficiency (Killin et al.), sedentary lifestyle, diabetes, obesity, smoking, and hypertension (Baumgart et al., 2015). In addition, studies with combat soldiers, football players, and boxers have established a strong link between traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's-like brain pathology and dementia A meta-analysis found a 5-fold increase in Alzheimer's disease with Chlamydophila pneumoniae bacterial infection and a 10-fold increase with spirochete infection
Most researchers agree that genes determine only the person's vulnerability for the illness; both heredity and environment are needed to explain the etiology (causes) of schizophrenia
vulnerability model, some threshold of causal forces must be exceeded for the illness to occur;environmental challenges combine with a person's genetic vulnerability to exceed that threshold.
Frequency reduction averaged 10 Hz in the frontal cortex; the deficit was greatest in the prefrontal area, and the frequency loss there was correlated with positive and negative symptoms.
we can correlate the patterns of synchrony with the symptoms of schizophrenia; in patients with positive symptoms, for example, oscillation synchrony is enhanced within limited areas but is deficient between areas
Evidence that lesbianism has a biological origin is
weaker than it is for male homosexuality.
Acetaminophen
weakly blocks the same enzymes so it has little anti-inflammatory benefit; its major effect is in the central nervous system.
Independent variable
what is manipulated
dependent variable
what is measured
For some interneurons this can occur...
where the axon appears to be missing! Its not. They are often so short that they are indistinguishable from dendrites.
encapsulated receptors,
which are more complex structures enclosed in a membrane; their role is to detect touch.
Precentral Gyrus
which extends the length of the central sulcus, is the location of the primary motor cortex and controls voluntary (non reflexive) movement.
Moving the head in the opposite direction bends the hairs in the other direction
which hyperpolarizes the neuron and decreases the firing rate.
one of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease
which is caused by degeneration in the basal ganglia, is impaired learning, whether motor behavior is involved or not
General anesthetics
which may be injected or inhaled, render the patient unconscious. They work in the central nervous system, though their mechanism is poorly understood.
Auditory Cortex
which receives sound information from the ears
Atypical antipsychotics block D2 receptors less strongly,
while also targeting non-dopamine receptors; as a result, they produce motor problems only at much higher doses, but they still reduce psychotic symptoms.
Sharp pain makes a good danger signal and motivates you to take quick action
while dull pain hangs around for a longer time to remind you that you have been injured.
Drugs are usually prescribed to control the symptoms of ADHD, and from 2002 to 2010 the prescription rate jumped 46% in the United States
while in Denmark it went up a whopping 630%
Doctors tried chlorpromazine with a wide variety of mental illnesses because it calmed surgical patients, and it turned out to help those with schizophrenia as well.
why chlorpromazine worked, because tranquilizers have little or no usefulness in treating schizophrenia.
we saw that nicotine provides some relief from symptoms of schizophrenia. Nonnicotine ingredients in tobacco smoke also have been found to act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors.
why smoking is so frequent among those with depression and why they have difficulty giving up smoking
Identical twins who did not share a placenta had an 11% concordance rate for schizophrenia, compared with 60% for those who shared a placenta, presumably due to the sharing of infections
winter birth effect refers to the fact that more people who develop schizophrenia are born during the winter and spring than during any other time of the year.
In the course of adding a long column of entries in your checkbook, you have to carry a 6 to the next column. If you forget the number in the process, you're having a problem with
working memory.
Do larger feet correlate to smarter people?
yes because babies have small feet and they are dumb, adults have bigger feet and they are smarter. Correlation does not infer causation
The lens reflects the image upside down and backwords on the retina- evidence of this
you touching the side of your eye through your closed lid- you'll be manually stimulating the retina on one side, but you'll see a flashing spot on the other spot.
Genetic and Epigenetic Influences
•2-7x higher among siblings of homosexuals, and concordance of 18-50% depending on recruitment •Gay men have more gay relatives on mother's side -Focus on X chromosome •7q36 and 7q28 •SSH gene
Psychological Disorders
•25% of adults in U.S. suffer from diagnosable mental illness •46% fall victim during lifetime •Leading cause of disability in U.S. and Canada for those aged 15-44 years •Cost estimated at $467 billion a year in U.S.
Sense of self: Memory
•A sense of self would likely be severely impaired by the loss of long term, but not necessarily short-term, memory •Confabulation suggests the importance of memory to self identity
Determination of Sex: Activation effects
•Activating effects can occur at any time in life •Effects are reversible if hormone removed •Examples -Breast development -Areas of body for fat deposition -Muscle and hair growth -Sexual interest and intimacy
Type 1 alcoholism
•Cautious and emotionally dependent •Drinking began after 25 •Abstinence mixed with binge drinking
Form Vision
•Contrast enhancement and edge detection •Lateral Inhibition by horizontal cells •Ganglion receptive field •Light in center increases firing •Light in surround decreases firing Edge detection involves lateral inhibition. This sharpens the contrast between darker and lighter boundaries.
Dihydrotestosterone deficient
•DHT masculinizes external genitalia before birth •Therefore, deficiency results in feminized external structures DHT - at puberty testosterone production increases, leads to masculinization of external genitalia
Sleep Disorder Drugs
•Drugs used in treatment can be addictive, therefore not cure •Circadian phase delay or advance -Desynchrony between body temperature and sleep period
What does estradiol do to females?
•Estradiol feminizes the female brain -Females reduce sexual interest and receptivity when estrogen level is low
Anxiety Disorders Treatment
•Exposure therapy is a promising alternative to drugs and psychotherapy •Virtual reality and fear erasure are also possibilities •New treatment, D-cycloserine combined with virtual reality therapy, has been shown to reduce PTSD remission by 50% after 6 months
Anxiety Disorders genetic influence
•Family and twin studies show anxiety disorders are genetically influenced -Heritability ranging between 20% and 47%, depending on the disorder -High comorbidity with other disorders •The overlap with mood disorders high •50-60% of patients with major depression also have a history of one or more anxiety disorders •Panic disorder is found in 16% of bipolar patients
Body divided into segments called dermatomes, each served by a spinal nerve
•Flow of sensory information -Enters spinal cord via spinal nerves (or brain via cranial nerves) -Thalamus -Somatosensory cortex (parietal lobes) •Information crosses over from one side of body to opposite brain areas
Androgen insensitivity syndrome
•Genetic absence of androgen receptors •Again, feminized external structures
Form Vision
•High frequency transitions are not very meaningful •Gradual transitions (low frequencies) are more recognizable -Researchers have found cortical cells that respond to light-dark "gratings" containing a specific combination of frequencies Images with only high frequency transitions are not very meaningful. Those with more gradual transitions (low frequencies) are more recognizable. Support for the theory: Researchers have found cortical cells that respond to light-dark "gratings" containing a specific combination of frequencies.
Attention
•How the brain allocates limited resources to focus on some inputs while excluding others •Cheshire cat effect
•There is relatively little research on masculinization in homosexual women
•However, lesbians are like males in two characteristics associated with prenatal androgen exposure: -Smaller index-to-ring finger ratio -Weaker evoked otoacoustic emissions
Type 2 alcoholism
•Impulsive, uninhibited, confident, socially detached •More likely male Bar fights and reckless driving
Congenital Insensitivity to pain (CIPA)
•Inadequate motivation to avoid injury •Causes -Nonfunctional pain neurons (mutation in SCN9A sodium channel) -Reduced number of pain circuit neurons -High levels of endorphins •Nociceptive pain -Hyperactive pain receptors •Neuropathic pain -Damage to the CNS or PNS
Determination of Sex: Organizing effects
•Mostly occur prenatally and shortly after birth •Affect structures and are permanent •Examples -Development and maturation of genitalia -Increase in stature -Increase in sexual behaviors
Parkinson's Disease Symptoms
•Motor tremors, rigidity •Loss of balance and coordination •Difficulty in moving, especially in initiating movements Lewy bodies are evident in neurons in Parkinson's patients. This is an abnormal cluster of proteins, presumably as a result of neurons trying to deal with excess protein.
Female sex organs (default)
•Ovaries •Müllerian ducts develop •External genitalia remain female in appearance
Place cells pt.2
•Place cells are another example of localized storage. •Place memory depends on cells in the hippocampus, which increase their firing when the individual is in a specific location in the environment. •The place fields of these cells form a "spatial map" of an environment, which is then adjusted upon entering a new environment and restored on return to the original location. •The fields depend on cues in the environment. •Humans have place cells too, that are so precise that the investigators could determine the subject's "location" in a virtual environment.
Somatosensory and Posterior Parietal Cortices
•Processing is hierarchical •Somatotopic body map •Cortical area proportional to body part sensitivity •Information flow -Primary somatosensory cortex -Secondary somatosensory cortex -Posterior Parietal Cortex The secondary somatosensory cortex receives input from the left and the right primary somatosensory cortices, so it combines information from both sides of the body. Neurons in this area are particularly responsive to stimuli that have acquired meaning, for instance, by association with reward. The secondary somatosensory cortex connects to the part of the temporal lobe that includes the hippocampus, which is important in learning, so it may serve to determine whether a stimulus is committed to memory.
The rat learns where to find food in the maze's arms. The arms are often enclosed by walls.
•Rats with bilateral hippocampus damage could learn the simple conditioning task of going to any lighted arm for food—a nondeclarative memory task. •But if every arm was baited with food, •the rats could not remember which arms they had visited; •they repeatedly returned to arms where the food had already been eaten. This was a declarative memory task. •Conversely, rats with damage to the striatum could remember which arms they had visited, but could not learn to enter lighted arms. ROLE OF AMYGDALA •The amygdala has a significant role in nondeclarative emotional learning. •This could explain why a person might have an emotional response resulting from an unremembered experience. •The amygdala also strengthens declarative memories about emotional events. •In rats, stimulation of the amygdala activates the hippocampus, which improves performance on a choice maze. •In humans, memory for both pleasant and aversive stimuli is related to the amount of activity in the amygdala while viewing the material.
What does estradiol do to males?
•Testosterone is aromatized to estradiol -Estradiol defeminizes the male brain •Increased male-typical behaviors when testosterone converted into estradiol in neurons through aromatization
Adaptive Hypothesis of Sleep
•The amount of sleep depends on the availability of food and on safety considerations -For example, predators (lions) and animals that can hide (bats) sleep a lot -Vulnerable animals without shelter (cattle) and those that need to spend hours feeding (elephants) sleep very little
Memory Storage
•The brain apparently stores information temporarily in the hippocampal formation. •Then, over time a memory is progressively transferred to cortical areas. •All memories are not stored in a single area, nor is each memory distributed throughout the brain. •Memories appear to be located where the information they are based on was processed. •For example, verbal memories are stored in the left frontal lobe.
Purpose of sleep
•The purpose of sleep is unclear -Restorative hypothesis •Species with higher metabolic rates typically spend more time in sleep Sleep might help brain to cleanse of toxins
Therapies that relieve phantom pain prevent or reverse this reorganization.
•Using a functional prosthesis or the mirror box illusion reverses the cortical reorganization and provides pain relief. •One interpretation of the mirror box effect: •It activates mirror neurons in the area that once served the missing limb. •This activity is interpreted as real touch and movement, and this stimulates reorganization.
Consolidation
•brain forms permanent representation of memory -Short-term (working) memory -Long-term memory -Long-lasting memory
Ablatio penis
•destroyed early in life -Neutral at birth: successful gender reassignment due to the importance of "nurture" in development. -Sexuality at birth: sexuality is determined by prenatal hormones. •Data suggests that those raised as male accepted role -22% raised as female later transitioned
HM, despite his impairments
•had intact non-declarative memory -Improved on mirror drawing task -Learned to solve the Tower of Hanoi problem (The task is to relocate the rings in order onto another post by moving them one at a time and without ever placing a larger ring over a smaller one.) •Nondeclarative memories are memories for behaviors. •They result from procedural (skill) learning, emotional learning, and stimulus-response conditioning.
Schizophrenia Familial disorder
•incidence is higher among the relatives of schizophrenics -Heritability estimated between .60 and .90 -Identical twins 3x likely as fraternal twins
Lithium
•the drug of choice for bipolar disorder, and usually works best in the manic phase -The belief has been that lithium works by stabilizing many transmitters -Recent evidence is that lithium and valproate inhibit protein kinase C, an enzyme that regulates neuron excitability
information processing takes place in four stages, primarily in the parietal and frontal lobes:
(1) After sensory information has been processed in secondary areas, it is passed on to (2) parietal areas, which abstract the information and integrate it, and then (3) these areas interact with frontal areas in problem solving and evaluation. (4) Finally, the anterior cingulate cortex selects the response and inhibits alternative responses.
Activation of Opiate Receptors in the Brain by a Placebo
(a) Activity in cortical and brain stem areas (in red) during opiate drug treatment for pain. (b) A similar pattern of activity occurs during placebo treatment of pain. Pain alone did not produce this result. The blue dots indicate the location of the anterior cingulate cortex, which, as you saw in Chapter 8, is involved in emotional aspects of pain.
Down Chromosomes and Born This Way
(a) Chromosomes of a person with Down syndrome (female). The arrow points to the three 21st chromosomes. (b) Some individuals with Down syndrome are more fortunate than others. The documentary series Born This Way follows seven young people with Down syndrome in southern California as they pursue their various careers and dreams
Receptive fields in the monkey somatosensory system
(a) Excitatory and inhibitory areas of the receptive field of a single touch neuron in the somatosensory cortex. (b) Receptive field of a somatosensory neuron that responded most to a horizontal edge. The recordings to the right indicate the strength of the neuron's response to edges of different orientations. (c) Receptive field of a neuron responsive to movement across the fingertip in one direction but not the other
Participation of Glutamate Receptors in LTP
(a) Initially, glutamate activates the AMPA receptors but not the NMDA receptors, which are blocked by magnesium ions. (b) However, if the activation is strong enough to partially depolarize the postsynaptic membrane, the magnesium ions are ejected. The NMDA receptor can then be activated, allowing sodium and calcium ions to enter. Theta waves - 4 to 7 Hz Seen in Hippocampus during novel situations Activity during theta peak induces LTP
Effect of an Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor on Myasthenia Gravis
(a) Patients often have drooping eyelids, as shown here. This patient also could not move his eyes to look to the side. (b) The same patient one minute after injection of an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. The eyes are open and able to move freely. muscle weakness can be so extreme that the patient has to be maintained on a respirator Treatment typically removal of thymus, which produces antibodies
The Premotor Cortex and the Rubber Hand Illusion
(a) The hidden left hand is stroked in synchrony with the fake hand, which is in full view. (b) After a few seconds, the individual feels that the sensation is coming from the rubber hand and reports a sense of ownership of the rubber hand. Apparently, the touch field and the visual field have become coordinated in the brain (indicated by the light blue outline and the yellow circle). fMRI recording shows that the premotor cortex is active during this illusion (indicated by the red circles).
Receptive Fields of Two Types of Premotor Neurons That Responded to Both Visual and Body Information
(a) The receptive field of a cell that responded when a visual stimulus was in the area outlined near the face. (b) The visual field of the second type of neuron when the arm was out of sight. Middle and right, the visual field as the monkey's arm moved forward and across.
Increased Neurogenesis in the Hippocampus During Antidepressant Treatment.
(a)Antidepressant treatment produced a 60% increase in neurogenesis, compared with administration of inert material (vehicle). (b) Brown dots are new cells (preneurons). Antidepressants, ECT, and Neural Plasticity Have been used to treat depression for more than half a century, though not sure how they work Cell turnover (neurogenesis) may play a role, though the key factor may be increased plasticity.
What is the cortex?
(nickname= bark) the wrinkled outer layer. Made up mostly of the cell bodies of neurons.
Glial cell benefits
- 1. insulating effect of myelin reduces an electrical effect of the membrane (capacitance) -2. Breaks in the myelination mean that the signal is regenerated by an action potential. -3. myelinated neurons use much less energy (less work for the sodium-potassium pump)
Intelligence theorists tend to fall into one of two groups, lumpers or splitters.
- Lumpers claim that intelligence is a single, unitary capability, which is usually called the general factor, or simply g. General factor theorists admit that there are separate abilities that vary somewhat in strength in an individual, but they place much greater weight on the underlying g factor. -Splitters, by contrast, hold that intelligence is made up of several mental abilities that are more or less independent of each other. Therefore, they are more interested in scores on the subtests of standard IQ tests or scores from tests of specific cognitive abilities.
Several environmental influences have been implicated in Parkinson's disease.
- One cause is subtle brain injury; being knocked unconscious once increases the risk by 32%, and the risk rises by 174% for those knocked out several times. - Other research points to a variety of toxins, including industrial chemicals, carbon monoxide, herbicides, and pesticides - Numerous studies show an association between pesticide use and Parkinson's, but the human studies are correlational, and establishing a causal relationship has been difficult - Pesticide exposure produces some of the symptoms of Parkinson's in animals, though with very high dosages.
Broca's Area
- Paul Broca performed an autopsy on the brain of a man who had lost the ability to speak after a stroke. The autopsy showed that damage was limited to an area on the left side of his brain now known as Broca's area.
Diffusion tensor imaging
- a variant of MRI -measures the movement of water molecules; because water moves easily along the length of axons, this technique is useful for imaging brain pathways and measuring their quality.
Photoreceptors
- are filled with light sensitive chemicals called photopigments. - Located at the very back of the eye.
In the mid-1800s studies of brain damaged patients convinced researchers that
- behaviors originated in specific parts of the brain.
Why do we get withdrawal symptoms and what are they?
- due at least in part to the nervous system's having adapted to the drug's effects, so they are typically the opposite of the effects the drug produces - agitation, diarrhea, fever, depression
Zygote
- fertilized egg -undergoes rapid cell division and development on its way to becoming a functioning organism.
Two parents are heterozygous for a dominant characteristic. They can produce a child with the recessive characteristic.
- if the child receives two recessive genes.
Synesthesia
- in which musical tones evoked a sensation of changing colors.
Antagonists
- may reduce release of neuro transmiter or block receptors - Or it may decrease the availability of the neurotransmitter, for example, by reducing its production or its release from the pre synaptic terminals.
Vulnerability
- means that genes contribute a predisposition for a disorder which may or may not exceed the threshold required to produce the disorder. -more genes for a disorder reduces the threshold required to produce it
Neurons are responsible for
- movements -thoughts -memories -emotions
In the study of conditioned tolerance to heroin...
- rats tolerated the drug less in a novel environment
Karl Lashley and Equipotentiality
- the idea that brain functions as undifferentiated module - the extent of damage, not the location, determines how much function is lost.
Behavior results from..
- the interaction of many widespread areas of the brain.
Set point defended by shifting metabolism
-33% of women on restricted diet who didn't lose weight had lower BMRs -prolonged weight change can shift the set point
what charge is threshold
-60mV
Assume that the resting potential is -70mV and that each graded potential individually produces a 5mV change. What is the membrane's voltage after the graded potentials arrive?
-65mV
Biological Hypothesis
-70% of homosexuals remember feeling "different" as early as 4 or 5 years of age -Homosexuals show a high rate of gender nonconformity during childhood: •Mannerisms and dress typical of opposite sex •Engaging in activities usually preferred by the other sex Preferring other-sex companions
Phantom Pain
-80% to 90% of amputees -Neurons from other body areas invade the area that normally receives input from the missing limb -Treatment - functional prosthesis, mirror box (mirror neurons)
Intellectual Disability
-A limitation in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior originating before the age of 18 -The criteria for intellectual disability are an IQ below 70 and difficulty meeting routine needs like self-care •Most cases of disability are due to a combination of genetic and environmental causes •Environmental causes include disease during infancy, prenatal exposure to viruses, and maternal alcoholism
The environment and ADHD
-ADHD incidence increased by •Stress, smoking, drug abuse during pregnancy •Brain injury, stroke, and pregnancy/birth complications •Lead and pesticide exposure -Early ADHD drug treatment might prevent later substance abuse
4 genes confirmed in Alzheimer's disease (50% cases)
-APP: chromosome 21, age of onset 45-66, percent of cases <0.1 -Presenilin 1: chromosome 14, age of onset 28-62, percent of cases 1-2 -Presenilin 2: chromosome 1, age of onset 40-85, percent of cases <0.1 -ApoE4: chromosome 19, age of onset >60, percent of cases >50
biochemical anomalies in autism
-Abnormal levels of serotonin, glutamate, GABA, and oxytocin Neurochemicals involved in autism include: Serotonin: A serotonin reuptake inhibitor and a serotonin receptor blocker are useful for controlling repetitive behavior and aggression. Glutamate antagonists improve social functioning and reduce withdrawal, hyperactivity, and inappropriate speech. Oxytocin, the "sociability molecule" Autistic children have decreased levels of oxytocin. Oxytocin reduces repetitive behavior in adults with autism and Asperger's, increases recognition of facial expressions, and improves social cooperation and trust.
Disorders related to OCD
-Acral Lick syndrome (excessive grooming) and lack of Sapap3 gene The mouse lacking the Sapap3 gene (top) has groomed to the point of creating lesions on the neck and face and even damaging the eye. Some researchers cite trichotillomania (hair pulling) as evidence OCD is a disorder of "excessive grooming." Both are hereditary and hair pullers have a number of relatives with OCD. Both respond to serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
Functions of REM sleep
-Activation-synthesis hypothesis -During REM sleep, forebrain integrates brainstem neural activity with information stored in memory •REM sleep promotes childhood neural development
Forgetting
-Active, adaptive biological process -Enzyme PP1, Rac protein encourage memory loss -May prevent the saturation of synapses
Affective Disorders heredity
-Affective disorders are partially inheritable, with bipolar disorder more heritable than depression -Heritability is 29% in men, 42% in women: genes implicated tend to be gender-specific •Concordance for affective disorders is about 69% in identical twins, compared to 13% in fraternal twins. •In depression, heritability is somewhere around .37, with the number somewhat higher for women than for men. •Different genes may be involved in depression in males and females. •This genetic difference may explain why females more often suffer from depression whereas males are more likely to commit suicide. -Candidate genes include the 5-HTTLPR serotonin transporter gene -VAL66MET allele of the gene for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) •BDNF encourages neuron growth and survival •VAL66MET protects against effects of the 5-HTTLPR gene through epistasis
Sex hormones
-Androgens (testosterone): responsible for male characteristics -Estrogen: responsible for female characteristics and functions; estrus (period of ovulation) -Progesterone: maturation of sex cells
Posterior Parietal Cortex
-Association area for body senses, vision, audition -Orientation in space, the limb location, object spatial location -Specialized for posture, reaching and grasping -Damage or anomalies •Neglect •Body integrity identity disorder •Out-of-body experiences -is an association area that brings together the body senses, vision, and audition. Here the brain determines the body's orientation in space, the location of the limbs, and the location in space of objects. Cells are specialized for functions such as posture and reaching and grasping. Damage to this area can produce neglect. Other anomalies associated with the area are body integrity identity disorder and out-of-body experiences.
Awareness
-Awareness of something more specific than awareness, but easier to study •Prefrontal-parietal network •Synchronized 40-Hz activity between V1 and V5 in cats
Forebrain arousal centers Sleeping and Dreaming
-Basal forebrain area •Produces wakefulness •Disabling leads to anesthetic results -Lateral hypothalamus •Orexin-releasing cell sustain wakefulness •Suppress REM sleep
Addiction research has broad implications for understanding vulnerability and behavioral inheritance
-Behavior results from an interplay between environment and genetics -It is not enough to assign relative roles to environment and heredity; we must then understand the mechanisms - the neurotransmitters, receptors, pathways, enzymes, an so on
Sex
-Biological characteristics that divide individuals into male and female categories
What do the ventral stream and dorsal stream have in common?
-Both systems then proceed to the prefrontal cortex. -Manages information in memory while it is being used. -For example, it integrates information about the body and about objects while planning movements.
Detecting Alzheimer's disease
-Brain scans (PET, MRI) can reveal •Atrophy in temporal and parietal areas -Biomarkers for plaques is much more promising •25% of individuals with plaques contract Alzheimer's within 3 years •Low levels correlate to 2% risk of Alzheimer's
Brain structures Sleep and Dreaming
-Brainstem arousal centers •Send activating signals to brain •Ascending pathway -PPT/LDT fire most during waking and REM sleep -Second branch PPT = pedunculopontine LDT = laterodorsal tegmental nuclei \ second branch includes the locus coeruleus, raphé nuclei, tuberomammillary nucleus, and parabrachial nucleus. A distinction between the two branches is that although they both send projections to the prefrontal cortex, basal forebrain, and lateral hypothalamus, the PPT/LDT also has connections to the thalamus
•Consolidation involves two enzymes
-CaMKII (establishment of LTP) -Protein kinase M zeta (maintains long-term memory)
Body Sense project to
-Cerebellum -Brain stem -Parieto-insular-vestibular cortex (dizziness causing nausea)
Physiological process
-Changes in attention matched with changes in neural activity •Thalamus -Also requires working memory and other brain areas
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
-Characterized by •Impulsiveness -Inability to sustain attention -Learning difficulty Hyperactivity
Pheromone
-Chemical released into environment -Affects another individual (usually of same species) -Menstrual synchrony in women housed in dorms (controversial). -Increased sexual activity when wearing perfume or cologne containing presumed pheromones. -Higher ratings by men of the odor of sweat from women at mid-cycle (ovulating and most likely to conceive) -Amygdala activation when smelling underarm pads worn by first-time skydivers.
Rhythms and affective disorders
-Circadian rhythms and antidepressant therapy •The circadian rhythm is a daily biological rhythm -Readjusting a person's circadian rhythm can relieve depression -Reducing the amount of a person's rapid eye movement (REM) sleep can also reduce depression
46 XX difference in sexual development
-Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) •Adrenal glands produce large amounts of prenatal androgen -Results in masculinization of external structures •Some treatments being developed for use during fetal development
Blindsight
-Damage to V1 causes cortical blindness, BUT -Superior colliculus also connects to striate cortex independently -Therefore, individuals can react unconsciously to stimuli without "seeing" them
Schizophrenia neural connections and synchrony
-Decreased between brain areas •Reduced white matter •Impaired auditory gating -Increased within smaller areas •Hallucinations due to hyper-excitability in sensory areas
Huntington's disease
-Degenerative disorder of the motor system involving cell loss in the striatum and cortex -Motor symptoms (writhing, grimacing) are due to degeneration of neurons in the striatum -Other symptoms include •Cognitive impairment •Depression •Personality changes •Likely caused by cortical neuron deficits -Caused by a dominant mutation in the huntingtin gene •Alters the repetitions of bases -Neuron loss is probably due to accumulation of the gene's protein -The only drug approved for Huntington's reduces excess dopamine -A promising anti-glutamate drug may prevent cell death from overstimulation
Affective Disorders Monoamine hypothesis of depression
-Depression involves reduced activity at norepinephrine and serotonin synapses -Effective antidepressant drugs increase the activity of NE and/or S -Antidepressant classes •Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) block enzymatic destruction of neurotransmitters. •Tricyclic antidepressants block reuptake (like SSRIs) •Atypical (second-generation) antidepressants target a specific neurotransmitter -NMDA receptors •Also play a role if hyperactive •Ketamine (animal tranquilizer and potent dissociative) is an NMDA receptor antagonist, produces almost immediate improvement -Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) •Drugs can be more effective if paired with CBT
Genetic Influences (<10%, early onset)
-Development and programmed death of dopamine-producing neurons -Development of lewy bodies -Diminished ability to metabolize environmental toxins
Consciousness
-Difficult to accurately define -State involving awareness of something •Holds some things in attention while others recede to background •Involves memory •Sense of self •Vary in level (coma to mania)
Schizophrenia environmental origins
-Direct brain damage or injury during early years -Prenatal complications, stress, immune responses, and starvation during pregnancy Interleukin-1b Levels in Schizophrenia Patients and Controls. Elevated levels of this protein at the time of a first schizophrenic episode indicated that strong immune reactions had occurred in the past.
Brain anomalies in autism
-Disorder of brain development •Brain stem, cerebellum, temporal lobes -Lack of amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) coordination •Avoidance of looking at faces •Problems tracking objects -Decreased white matter •Loss of synchronized activity The autistic brain undergoes dramatic growth during the first year of life, with the overgrowth focused in frontal and temporal areas that are important for the social, emotional, and language functions that are impaired in the disorder (Courchesne et al., 2007; Redcay & Courchesne, 2005). The excess growth ends around three to five years of age, but by then the brain has already reached normal adult size. In adulthood, these areas are under-activated during tasks that would ordinarily engage them, for example, when viewing animations that require the viewer to understand the mental state of the actor
Dopamine
-Drugs that increase DA increase sexual activity and orgasmic activity -DA activity in the MPOA is involved in sexual motivation in both sexes and is critical for sexual performance in males. -Drugs that increase DA increase sexual activity in humans. -DA activity parallels behavior during the Coolidge effect. Increasing levels of DA produce erection in males, then ejaculation, and subsequent loss of erection and refractoriness.
Reconsolidation
-During memory retrieval -Opportunity to refine memory, correct errors (PTSD) -Opportunity to create memories that did not occur ("false" memories")
Extinction
-Eliminates useless memories through new learning -Requires activation of NMDA receptors
Social influence hypothesis
-Emphasizes home environment or early same-sex seduction as cause for homosexuality -Little support
Sexsomnia
-Engaging in sexual behavior while asleep -Sufferers twice as likely to admit using illicit drugs
Issues surrounding whether consciousness is controlled by an executive
-Evidence is weak -Many areas involved
COX-2 inhibitor (selective NSAID)
-Examples: Celeboxib -Method of action: decreased inflammation -Side Effects: slight risk of heart attack
Opiates (narcotics)
-Examples: morphine, codeine, hydromorphone, oxycodone, fentanyl -Method of action: stimulates opiate receptors, blocks pain messages in CNS -Side effects: depressed breathing. sleepiness, addiction, tolerance, euphoria
Nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)
-Examples: naproxen, ibuprofen, aspirin -Method of action: decreases swellin in tissues -Side effects: increased risk of bleeding, stomach irritation, allergic reaction
Aceraminophen
-Examples: tylenol -Method of action: blocks pain signals in CNS -Side effects: liver problems
Schizophrenia Dopamine hypothesis
-Excessive dopamine activity in the brain •Higher activity in the striatum •However, anti-dopamine drugs don't help 30% to 40% -First-generation antipsychotics, though effective, often produce tardive dyskinesia (involuntary motor movements) -Atypical antipsychotics •Target D2 receptors less and produce less tardive dyskinesia •Equal to or more effective than anti-dopamine drugs •Help resistant cases through action on serotonin synapses -aberrant salience hypothesis, suggests that heightened levels of dopamine increase attentional and motivational circuits to make ordinary environmental features seem significant
Narcolepsy
-Fall into REM sleep suddenly during waking hours -Cataplexy - sudden experience of atonia •Full body paralysis while fully awake -85% have mutation of HLA-DQ6 gen, which reduces orexin
Hydrocephalus
-Fluid buildup in ventricles, reducing brain tissue amount •Treated by using a shunt to drain excess fluid •50% of hydrocephalics with 5% brain capacity have IQs over 100
Receptor types
-Free nerve endings (warmth, cold, pain) -Encapsulated receptors (touch, pressure, stretch) The density of skin receptors varies throughout the body; sensitivity varies with the density. The lips and the fingertips are the most sensitive. Upper arms and calves of the legs are least sensitive.
Brain anomalies in affective disorder
-Functional connectivity between cortex, corpus callosum, and thalamus in bipolar disorder patients -The ventral prefrontal cortex may be a "depression switch" and the subgenual prefrontal cortex may be a "bipolar switch" Structural and Functional Alterations: There are volume deficits in the hippocampus, dorsolateral cortex, and subgenual prefrontal cortex. The amygdala is increased in volume. Activity is reduced during depression, though unipolars have increases in the amygdala and ventral prefrontal cortex. The ventral prefrontal cortex may be a "depression switch;" its activity varies with the mood state. Activity increases in the subgenual prefrontal cortex at the start of a period of mania, so it may be a "bipolar switch".
Magnocellular system
-Ganglion cells in the periphery -Large, brightness-opponent receptive fields -Fast on, fast off -Brightness contrast and movement
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974)
-Girls have greater verbal ability -Boys excel in visual-spatial ability (mental rotation) -Boys excel in mathematics -Boys are more aggressive People are presented several pairs of drawings like these and asked whether the first could be rotated so that it looks like the second. Males are typically better at this kind of task than females. (In case you're wondering, the answer in this case is no.) Many of these differences have been reduced or eliminated, suggesting the result of experience •However -Much overlap between males and females -Differences are task-specific •Change testosterone or estrogen levels, change resulting behaviors -Changing hormone levels affect sex-specific behavior -Transgenders taking opposite sex hormones become more proficient in that sex's behaviors •Also sex differences in pain tolerance, stress reaction, susceptibility to various psychological disorders
Cells in IT (inferior temporal) cortex of macaque
-Hand-like shapes better than other shapes (top) -Also have face-sensitive cells (bottom) -IT has cells that respond specifically to objects of a particular shape!
Vestibular System
-Head position, movement, balance informs the brain about head position and movement and helps us maintain balance.
Heredity and ADHD
-Heritability averages 76% across studies -Genes involved in •Dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transmission •Synaptic functioning •Neural development and survival •Learning
Affective Disorders Suicide
-High among people with affective disorders, especially bipolar disorder (20%) -High among people with affective disorders, especially bipolar disorder (20%) -Serotonin activity is low, particularly in repeat attempters -Impulsivity and aggression linked to serotonin and BDNF genes Endophenotypes, heritable characteristics that increase risk, include impulsivity and aggression, and linked to genes involving serotonin and BDNF
Brain changes due to PTSD
-Hippocampal volume is reduced -May be a predisposing factor rather than a result -Decreased medial prefrontal cortex activity, maybe hippocampus -Hyperactive amygdala, anterior cingulate, insular cortex Anomalies in Brain Functioning Amygdala hyperactive Anterior cingulate cortex General anxiety, Panic disorder, Phobias Insular cortex Phobias, PTSD
Disorders related to OCD
-Hoarding Tourette syndrome (motor/sound tics, high dopamine activity in the basal ganglia) Tourette's syndrome is also similar to OCD. This is a disorder of motor and phonic tics. Sufferers often have OCD as well and, like OCD, activity is increased in the basal ganglia. However, it is usually treated with dopamine antagonists.
Binding problem
-How the brain combines information from different areas into an integrated experience •Areas it might occur: -Superior temporal gyrus •Receives input from both dorsal and ventral streams -Parietal cortex •Damage causes neglect -Prefrontal areas •Where both streams finally merge and decisions are made
Object Agnosia
-IT cortex damage -Cannot identify objects
Prosopagosia
-IT or FFA damage -Cannot identify people by their faces -Prosopagnosiacs can identify people based on speech, hairstyle or mannerisms, such as walking so not a general memory issue -Roughly 1% of population suffers from congenital form -Genetic link to deficits in frontal and temporal lobes in small number of cases -Greeble study shows the importance of learning
Hubel and Wiesel
-Identified simple cells in cortex •Respond to a line or an edge that is at a specific orientation and at a specific place on the retina
Neural explanations of consciousness
-Identifying structures where damage or stimulation can produce unconsciousness -Salience network Detects significant stimuli that require attention
Associative LTP
-If a weak synapse and a strong synapse on the same postsynaptic neuron are active simultaneously, the weak synapse will be potentiated Initially, the weak synapse produces only a very small excitatory postsynaptic potential. (b) Simultaneous activation of a strong synapse along with activity in the weak synapse induces associative LTP. (c) Following associate LTP, the much larger excitatory postsynaptic potential indicates that the weak synapse has been potentiated.
Hebb Rule
-If an axon of a presynaptic neuron is active while the postsynaptic neuron is firing, the synapse will be strengthened -Long-term potentiation (LTP): synapse becomes stronger over time LTP and LTD in the Human Brain. The graphs show excitatory postsynaptic potentials in response to a test stimulus before and after repeated stimulation. (a) 100-hertz (Hz) stimulation produced LTP. (b) 1-Hz stimulation produced LTD, which blocked the potentiation established earlier. •Lasts a few hours to many months •Mostly studied in hippocampus, though present in most neural tissue. •Long-term depression (LTD) is a decrease in the strength of synapses that occurs when stimulation of presynaptic neurons is insufficient to activate the postsynaptic neurons
Sex cells contain one sex chromosome each
-If fetus gets two X, female child -If fetus gets a Y from the dad, male child •Presence or absence of Y chromosome determines sex of child
Insomnia
-Inability to sleep or obtain quality sleep -Can shorten the lifespan and may contribute to obesity -Affected by stress, most common in people with psychological problems
Place cells
-Increase firing when individual is in a specific location in an environment -Collectively form a "spatial map" -Dependent on environmental cues and landmarks -Also found in humans and primates
Genes that contribute roughly 50% to addiction
-Increase vulnerability -Involved with neurotransmitter systems -Affect how the individual responds to the drug
•Brain anomalies in affective disorder
-Increased activity in ventral prefrontal cortex -Increased volume and activity of amygdala
genes involved in alcohol addiction alter the way the brain functions
-Increased high frequency EEG occurs in alcoholics and their offspring -Alcoholics and their offspring also show a reduction in the normal "dip" in the P300 wave
Structural changes include
-Increased number, enlargement, and growth of dendritic spines -Transport of additional AMPA receptors into the spines
Transgenders
-Individuals believing they are the wrong sex -1-5 per 1,000 people -Genetics (CYP17, AR genes) and development times (brain vs. genitals) differ Third Interstitial Nucleus of the Anterior Hypothalamus (INAH-3) smaller in male-to-female transsexuals. Responses to sex-specific pheromones (AND, EST) also differ The central Bed nucleus of Stria Terminalis (BSTc) is smaller in women and male-to-female transsexuals.
•Reserve hypothesis
-Individuals with greater cognitive or brain capacity can compensate for brain changes due to aging, injury or disorder (like Alzheimer's) Elderly fare better if history of mental and physical activity
Pain causes the release of endorphins during
-Inescapable shock -Physical stress -Acupuncture -Vaginal stimulation (linked to childbirth) -Placebo administration
Secondary Somatosensory cortex
-Integrates both sides of body -Meaning and reward -Connects to hippocampus -receives input from the left and the right primary somatosensory cortices, so it combines information from both sides of the body. Neurons in this area are particularly responsive to stimuli that have acquired meaning, for instance, by association with reward. The secondary somatosensory cortex connects to the part of the temporal lobe that includes the hippocampus, which is important in learning, so it may serve to determine whether a stimulus is committed to memory
Prefrontal Cortex
-Integrates long-term memory with other information -Manages strategies and decision making -Directs working memory traffic in brain Coordinates sensory and motor systems •The delayed match-to-sample task requires the individual to hold information in temporary memory during a delay period; it is a good example of working memory. •Cells in the prefrontal cortex serve this role, continuing to fire during a delay, even in spite of a distracting stimulus. •The prefrontal cortex also acts as a working memory central executive. •It manages behavioral strategies and decision making. •It directs the neural traffic in working memory. •It coordinates activity involved in perception and response.
Examples of psychedelics
-LSD which resembles serotonin and stimulates serotonin receptors -LSD-like drugs from mushrooms, such as psilocybin and psilocin -Mescaline, from the peyote cactus -Ecstasy, which also has stimulant properties -PCP, which increases dopamine and blocks glutamate
Memories
-LTP - forming and recalling memories -Associative LTP - classical conditioning -LTD - forgetting, deleting incorrect information, making space for new memories -"Cells that fire together wire together"
PKU (phenylketonuria)
-Lacks enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine (amino acid) -Avoidance of high phenylalanine foods prevents intellectual impairment is caused by an enzyme deficiency, leading to excess phenylalanine. Avoidance of foods high in phenylalanine can prevent severe to profound intellectual impairment.
Environmental correlates to Alzheimer's
-Lead exposure in childhood -Pesticides (like DDT, still used in some countries) -Chronic stress -And many more...
LTP-initiated growth of hippocampus
-London taxi drivers with extensive spatial memory had larger posterior hippocampal volume than control individuals -Differences increased proportionally to years as a taxi driver
Sleep as a form of consciousness
-Lucid dreamers are aware of when they are dreaming and in some cases can control the nature of the dream -The gradations of sleep lead us to confront the question of what defines consciousness
Rhythms during waking and sleeping
-Many ultradian rhythms, rhythms that are shorter than a day in length •E.g., hormone production, urinary output, alertness -Sleep is an active process •Brain activity during •Brain activity to start and stop
Disorders of Movement: Environmental Influences
-May be caused by subtle brain injury or toxins such as carbon monoxide, herbicides, and pesticides -Caffeine indirectly increases dopamine and acetylcholine, reduces risk by 80% -Smoking may prevent accumulation of neurotoxins, but has more negative health effects
Multiple sclerosis
-Motor disorder with many varied symptoms, caused by deterioration of myelin (demyelination) and neuron loss in the CNS -Demyelination causes slowing or elimination of neural impulses, reducing the speed and strength of movements -Demyelinated neurons die, leaving hardened scar tissue (sclerosis)
Skeletal (striated) muscle
-Moves the body and limbs but can fatigue if overused
Myasthenia gravis
-Muscular weakness: reduced or sensitive acetylcholine receptors Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors increase acetylcholine and give temporary relief
Fragile X syndrome
-Mutated FMRI gene, role in pruning excess synapses. -More likely in males, milder in females is due to a mutated FMRI gene. This gene may be important in pruning excess synapses. The disorder is more likely in males and milder in females
Central pattern generators
-Networks that produce rhythmic motor activity patterns -Involved in walking, swimming, flying, and breathing -In spinal cord or brain -Can be elicited after spinal cord injury to produce rhythmic movements
•Consolidation takes place during sleep
-Neurons in hippocampus and cortical areas repeat firing patterns that occurred during awake learning -Sleep-activated genes play roles in protein synthesis, synaptic modification, memory consolidation
Endorphins
-Neurotransmitter and hormone -Act at opiate receptors -Effect reversed by naloxone (antagonist) -Endorphins allowed him to endure the pain of a lion's attack.
Generalized anxiety, panic disorder, and phobia
-Neurotransmitters •GABA (increased sensitivity) •Serotonin (too little) -Drugs •Benzodiazepines - increase sensitivity of receptors to GABA, but are highly addictive •SSRIs are now the drug of choice as a result People with generalized anxiety disorder experience chronic unease and worry, overreacting to stressful conditions. In panic disorder, the person has a sudden and intense attack of anxiety with rapid breathing, a high heart rate, and feelings of impending disaster. Phobias refer to intense fear and avoidance of particular objects (for example, dogs) and situations (such as heights, crowds, or enclosed spaces).
Schizophrenia Nicotine
-Normalizes auditory gating and improves negative symptoms -80% of schizophrenia patients smoke -Gene for nicotinic acetylcholine receptor implicated in reduced activity of the receptor and symptoms
Non-endorphin pain relief
-Not reversed by naloxone, due to other means -Hypnosis -Acupuncture near pain site
Sleepwalking
-Occurs during slow wave sleep -Most frequent in childhood -Can be triggered by stress, alcohol and sleep deprivation Individual may engage in complex behavior while sleepwalking Vulnerability to sleepwalking is in part genetic, evidenced by family studies Gene in sleepwalking associated with immune system, possible cells important in sleep regulation attacked by own immune cells
These EEG abnormalities are not specific to alcoholism
-Often occur in disorders characterized by behavioral disinhibition, such as conduct disorder, antisocial behavior, and other types of drug abuse
Deep Receptors
-Pacinian corpuscles -Ruffini endings -Stretch, perception of grasped objects
Gate theory
-Pain causes endorphin release from the periaqueductal gray (PAG) -Inhibits substance P release -Pain "gate" closed in spinal cord
Global loss of neurons in brain
-Particularly the temporal/frontal lobes -Enlargement of ventricles -Hippocampus is isolated from the rest of the brain
Parvocellular system
-Parvocellular ganglion cells located in the fovea -Small, color-opponent circular receptive fields -Discrimination of fine detail and color
Effects of aging on intelligence
-Perceptual speed drops after 25 -Numeric memory at 60 -Default mode network is responsible for preparedness for action •Decreased activation with age -Nonphysical causes -Sex hormones can provide protection against the cognitive effects of aging Reduced speed is an important factor in performance loss. Speed of processing accounts for 99% of age-related differences in working memory. Aging brings about a loss of coordination in the default mode network, thought to represent preparedness for action. Losses can be minimized through practice, diet, improved self esteem and, possibly, increased GABA. The sex hormones provide some protection against the effects of aging. Menopausal women can improve memory and decrease Alzheimer's disease risk via use of estrogen. Estrogen is associated with brain excitability, metabolism, and blood flow, as well as responsiveness to acetylcholine. In men, testosterone replacement improves spatial memory. Administered in the form of dihydrotestosterone, it is aromatized to estrogen and improves verbal and working memory.
Chronic pain
-Persists after healing has occurred -Reduced pain threshold increases susceptibility -Loss of gray matter as a result
REM sleep behavior disorder
-Physically active during REM sleep -Often injure themselves or bed partners -Often associated with the presence of neurological disorders •E.g., Parkinson's disease or brain stem tumor
Prefrontal cortex
-Plans actions -Receives info from ventral stream -Integrates auditory and visual information -Planning FOR movement
REM sleep
-Pons: the source of PGO waves •Excitation travels from pons through lateral geniculate to occipital area •PGO waves trigger EEG desynchrony of REM -The pons sends impulses to the magnocellular nucleus to produce REM atonia -Sublaterodorsal nucleus (SLD) - governs switching in and out of REM High-voltage PGO waves, so called because of their path of travel from the pons through the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus to the occipital area, begin about 80 seconds before the start of a REM period and apparently are what initiate the EEG desynchrony of REM sleep \ Occipital activity may account for visual imagery associated with dreaming
Neglect
-Posterior parietal cortex damage (R side) •Input from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory areas •Locate and ATTEND to objects in space •Orient the body in the environment. -Ignores the contralateral world completely (but reports normal vision) Neglect sometimes is called "Unilateral Neglect" Neglect usually results from injury in the right hemisphere. Neglect is not due to any defect in visual processing, but rather to a deficit in attention. Symptoms of neglect can be seen in drawings, which lack detail on the left side.
During LTP
-Postsynaptic nitric oxide release triggers increased presynaptic neurotransmitter release
Melzack and Wall's gate control theory
-Pressure triggers inhibitory message, closing a neural "gate" in pain pathway
The basal ganglia receives information from
-Primary and secondary motor areas -Somatosensory cortex
Alzheimer's disease
-Progressive brain deterioration, declarative memory loss -Language, visuospatial functions, reason, and aggressive problems -Affects 10% of people over 65, 50% of individuals over 85
Korsakoff's syndrome
-Progressive, irreversible brain deterioration almost always caused by chronic alcoholism •Deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B1) •Alcohol reduces absorption of thiamine in the stomach -Cognitive effects •Anterograde Amnesia •Confabulation due to confusion between reality and memory Deficiency leads to damage to mammillary bodies, medial thalamus and abnormalities in frontal lobes •Some Korsakoff's patients show a particularly interesting characteristic in their behavior, called confabulation. •They fabricate stories and facts to make up for those missing from their memories. •Confabulation apparently depends on abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, and confabulating patients usually have lesions there. •Confabulating amnesic patients have more trouble than nonconfabulating patients in suppressing irrelevant information they have learned earlier. •It has been suggested that confabulation is due to an inability to distinguish between current reality and earlier memories.
LTP vs LTD
-Rate of stimulation matters •High-frequency stimulation elicits LTP •Low-frequency stimulation elicits LTD •Long-term depression (LTD) is a decrease in the strength of synapses that occurs when stimulation of presynaptic neurons is insufficient to activate postsynaptic cells. •This may be the way the brain modifies or clears memories to make room for new information. •LTP and LTD are usually induced by stimulating the presynaptic neurons with pulses of electricity for several seconds. •Trains of high frequency stimulation produce LTP. •Trains of low frequency stimulation produce LTD.
Neurotransmitter anomalies in ADHD
-Reduced dopamine pathway activity (impaired reward) •Ritalin (stimulant) -Increases norepinephrine output to the prefrontal cortex -Improves impulse control, working memory, and learning
Schizophrenia Brain anomalies
-Reduced gray matter and limbic area volume, sometimes resulting in increased ventricular size -Hypofrontality, indicated by brain scans and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, is due to disrupted communication between the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex Hypofrontality, a decline in frontal lobe function, is characteristic of schizophrenia. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, which requires reversing strategies, is used to assess hypofrontality. Schizophrenics perform poorly on the task. Their hypofrontality involves a dopamine deficiency in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Amphetamine, which increases dopamine, improves prefrontal blood flow and performance. Dorsolateral prefrontal damage causes symptoms seen in schizophrenia, including flat affect, social withdrawal, and cognitive impairments.
Affective Disorders Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
-Reduces depression by inducing a seizure -Can be more effective than antidepressant drugs, but short-lived Increases synchrony over large brain areas
Homosexual
-Regular activity or continuing preference for same-sex experiences (usually since childhood, 3.5% of population) •Incidences -Same-sex activity since puberty: 8% -Same-sex attraction: 11% -No interest in sex: 1% of the population
Castration
-Removes major source of sex hormones -Loss of sexual motivation -Drug based castration is sometimes elected by male prisoners to control aggression and sexual predation
Declarative
-Requires hippocampus -Rat with Hp lesion could not remember which arms it had visited
Non-declarative
-Requires striatum -Lesioned rats could not associate light at end of arm with food
Aging and Dementia
-Researchers long believed dementia in elderly were inevitable, due to substantial loss of neurons •However, many show little or no memory loss •Deficits usually reflect motivation on memory tests -Reserve hypothesis •Active lifestyle throughout life promotes neurogenesis •In elderly, this reserve of neurons prevents cognitive declines
Autistic savants and high-functioning individuals with ASD
-Savant: 1+ exceptional skills but overall low functioning -High-functioning: impairment overcome with effort (Temple Grandin) -Skill source perhaps due to compromised executive or integrative function The term savant is usually used to describe individuals who have one or more remarkable skills but whose overall functioning is below normal. Half of these individuals are autistic savants. There is some support for the idea that lower levels of processing are freed from executive constraint. Temple Grandin is a high-functioning individual with ASD. She earned a doctorate, teaches animal science, and lectures on her expertise and autism. But her theory of mind is poorly developed and she is baffled by social relationships. FIGURE NOTE: (a) The scan is from a 64-year-old woman with dementia in the left frontal-temporal area, which shows less activity than the right. (b) After the onset of her dementia, she began to do remarkable paintings like the one here.
Glial cell functions
-Scaffolds for migrating neurons in fetal development -respond to injury and disease by removing debris -provide energy and nutrients to neurons -7x more neural connections when glia are present
Sense of self
-Self-recognition, sense of agency -Some animal species demonstrate Agency, the attribution of an action or effect to ourselves rather than to another person or external force.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
-Shifts in consciousness and behavior suggesting distinct personalities -90-95% report childhood abuse -May be a mechanism to cope with stress Increasing incidence raises question of how many cases are "real" Amnesia associated with DID may be state-dependent learning MRI data suggest learning mechanisms may be involved
Schizophrenia Reduced ability to suppress environmental sounds
-Shows up as difference in P50 wave in EEG Two clicks are presented 500 milliseconds apart; the normal group shows a reduced P50 EEG wave to the second click, a sign of gating (a, left), but the group with schizophrenia does not (a, right). After several drug treatments that decrease schizophrenia symptoms, the gating improves (b).
Heredity and autism
-Siblings of ASD children 25 times more likely to develop the disorder •ASD genes expressed in superficial cortex, interfering with connections •Absence of genes in frontal and temporal cortices of ASD individuals indicate a possible epigenetic influence -ASD twice as common in boys
Somatosenses
-Skin senses •Conditions at body surface -Proprioception •Body position and movement -Interoceptive system •Internal organ sensations the skin senses, which tell us about conditions at the surface of our body. proprioception, which provides information about limb and body position and movement.
Treatments for Alzheimer's
-Slow down decline, but cannot reverse effects -5 approved drugs (one not used due to side effects) •Cholinesterase inhibitors (increase available acetylcholine) •Memantine (namenda) reduces levels of glutamate -Stem cell and gene therapy options explored Glutamate can contribute to cell death Drugs that remove plaques and tangles have had mixed results, but mostly ineffective
Function of Non-REM sleep
-Slow wave sleep responds to temperature -Slow wave sleep may promote cerebral recovery
Glutamate receptors necessary for LTP
-Small stimulation triggers AMPA receptors (short-acting) -Large stimulation triggers NMDA receptors (long-lasting)
Basal ganglia functions
-Smooth movements, through the thalamus -Learning movement sequences performed as a unit Involved in ordering muscle contractions/timing. Input from vestibular system integrated for balance and coordination For example, we begin to shape our hand for grasping while the arm is moving toward the target, but a person with cerebellar damage reaches, pauses, and then shapes the hand. A normal individual touches the nose in what appears to be a single, smooth movement; cerebellar damage results in exaggerated, wavering corrections
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
-Social deficits, communication difficulties, and repetitive behaviors -Impaired communication, imagination, and socialization -Lack a theory of mind (infer another's thoughts based on experience) -Lack of empathy may be due to deficient mirror neurons
Gender Role
-Societal set of behaviors society appropriate for a particular sex
•Civil liberties protection only for "inborn" characteristics
-Some fear "disease" or "defective" labels •But this view leads to more positive attitudes -US moral acceptance risen from 40% in 2001 to 60% in 2016 -Currently 61% support same-sex marriage
Schizophrenia The vulnerability model
-Some threshold of causal forces must be exceeded in order for the illness to occur -Environmental challenges combine with a person's genetic vulnerability to exceed that threshold
Pain
-Specific free nerve endings stimulated by intense pressure, temperature, tissue damage, or chemicals -Types •A-delta: large myelinated fibers transmit immediate, localized sharp pain •C: small, unmyelinated fibers transmit slower, diffuse, dull and aching pain
We cycle through stages as we sleep
-Stage 1 is replaced by REM sleep Longer periods of REM sleep as night progresses
Electroencephalogram (EEG) measurement
-Stage 1: Theta waves -Stage 2: Sleep spindles and K complexes -Stages 3 and 4 are slow wave sleep with delta waves
Muscle Spindles
-Stretch receptors -Initiate reflexes that oppose activity in antagonistic partner. Helps maintain posture and respond to sudden changes
Gender Identity
-Subjective feeling of being male or female
Circadian rhythms
-Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is the main "clock" -Zeitgebers: environmental stimuli that regulate sleep/wake cycle -Melatonin: sleep-inducing hormone released by pineal gland •Circadian cyclic slightly longer than 24 hours -Entrainment through zeitgebers
Disorders of self: Split brains
-Surgical separation of the hemispheres -Observe different aspects of consciousness Split-Brain Patient Engaged in the Task Described in the Text. His verbal explanation of his right hand's selection was accurate, but his explanation of his left hand's choice was pure confabulation. •Brain interpreter -Likely located in the left hemisphere -Integrates all cognitive processes
Fiji Study
-TV and western ideals were brought to Fiji in 90s -With exposure to media, made people have eating disorders
Working memory
-Temporary "register" for information -Delayed match-to-sample tests for assessment
Golgi Tendon Organs
-Tension detectors -Prevent stretching that may damage muscles
Male sex organs (if SRY present)
-Testes release Müllerian inhibiting hormone and dihydrotestosterone -These hormones allow Wolffian ducts and male external genitalia develop
Trichromatic theory (Young-helmholtz)
-The primary colors in this theory are red, green, and blue -Observers cannot resolve these colors into separate components -TV and computer screens use this "RGB" processing (Although the circles are identical, they appear to differ in color due to the color contrast with their backgrounds.)
Brain differences in the homosexual brain
-Third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH3) is smaller in gay men -Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is larger in gay men and secretes more vasopressin
Schizophrenia Glutamate Theory
-Too little glutamate to slow down brain activity -PCP mimics schizophrenia by inhibiting NMDA receptors -Increasing glutamate amounts through direct administration of glycine also decreases positive and negative symptoms
Henry Molaison had frequent epileptic seizures
-Treatment removed hippocampal formation, amygdala •Anterograde amnesia: unable to form new memories •Retrograde amnesia: few memories decade before surgery -Amnesia usually affects declarative memory (dates, events, etc.)
46 XY difference in sexual development
-Typical number of chromosomes but sexual development atypical
schizophrenia Environmental influences work in part by epigenetic means
-Upregulating and downregulating gene functioning
Circuits contributing to anxiety
-Ventral attention network •Contributes to excessive stimulus-driven attention -Salience network •Error detection between intended and appropriate responses -Frontoparietal network •Executive control -Default mode network •Self-monitoring, planning, and emotional regulation
Non-REM sleep controls
-Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) -Cells fire faster during non-REM sleep, continue to increase rate during deep sleep The VLPO sends inhibitory signals to the lateral hypothalamus and the second branch of the brain stem arousal network Rats with lesions of the VLPO still sleep about 50% as much as normal rats, which means there must be other sleep centers inhibiting the arousal systems. At least one has been identified; the parafacial zone in the medulla contributes to non-REM sleep by sending inhibition to the parabrachial nucleus
Brain anomalies in affective disorder
-Volume deficits and decreased activity in prefrontal areas, especially the dorsolateral cortex -Also loss in hippocampus
Salience switches back and forth with default mode network
-Wakeful rest and central executive network -Goal and task oriented -Externally directed
What are the major histocompatibility complex differences
-Women prefer odors of men who differ in MHC -Couples similar in MHC are less fertile -Greater sexual satisfaction
Conditioned or learned tolerance
-a learned association between tolerance and the environment in which it develops -when a drug is taken in different setting, it is more likely to result in an overdose
Hypothalamus
-a smaller structure just inferior to the thalamus, plays a major role in controlling emotion and motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity. Emotions and motivations
Concordance Rate
-a useful measure for identifying genetic influence in disorders -frequency that relatives share a characteristics -the concordance rate for schizophrenia is about 17% in fraternal twins, but triples to 48% in identical twins
EPSPs and IPSPs are graded potentials
-accumulate over a short time (temporal summation) -combine inputs from different locations on dendrites and cell body (spatial summation)
Alcohol has negative effects on health
-acute effects include alcohol induced coma or death -chronic effects include liver damage and brain damage associate with korsakoff's syndrome
The action potential follows the all or none law
-always occurs at full strength or not at all -Non decremental: message travels over long distances a the same amplitude -book definition (its size cannot carry information about the intensity of the initiating stimulus
Examples of drugs the enhance or reduce transmitter effects
-antidepressants block reuptake of serotonin (SSRIs) -some prevent neurotransmitter inactivation (MAOIs)
Learned taste aversion
-avoiding foods associated with illness or poor nutrition (people undergoing chemo have an issue with this because they are sick)
Bulimia nervosa
-binge and purge, but usually normal weight -eat large meals, then vomiting food back up -high relapse rates they are 70% of normal body weight, if they are suppose to be 100 pounds they would be 70 pounds
80% of the protein coding DNA is..
-biochemically active -controls the expression of the other genes -translation of their encoded information into the production of proteins -controls their functioning
Neurogenesis
-birth of new neurons -occurs in several areas in adult brain (most extensive in hippocampus and ear lateral ventricles)
Ganglion cell axons form two optic nerves
-blind spot where they exit the retina optic nerves join for a short distance at the optic chiasm -left visual field to right brain -right visual field to right brain Nerves synapse in the lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN)
What examples of characteristics result from a single pair of genes?
-blood type -degenerative brain and disorder (Huntington's disease)
Chromosomes
-body cells: 23 pairs -Sex cells: 22 individual, 1 sex chromosome (XX produces female, XY produces male)
What does a mother's use of alcohol during brain development cause?
-brain smaller and malformed with dislocated neurons -cortical neurons do not migrate correctly into columns -some neurons migrate too far
Helmholtz and the electrical brain
-built off work showing that nerves operated by electricity -demonstrated conduction slower than wires
What do excitatory signals do to the membrane?
-cause a slight depolarization in a small area of the membrane -ligand bindings causes a change in ion balance, which spreads to adjacent membrane -spreading diminishes over distance, so it is often referred to as a local potential -if depolarization reaches threshold and action potential will be triggered
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to external forces
-caused by a blow to the head, penetration, or sudden acceleration or deceleration -even trauma that does not produce concussion can result in brain changes typically seen in Alzheimer's patients
Stroke due to internal forces
-caused by artery blockage (ischemic) or rupture (hemorrhagic) -damage is due to oxygen and glucose deprivation, excitotosis, and edema -leading cause of death and disability in the US
What is resting potential caused by?
-caused by unequal distribution of ions on either side of the membrane -outside contains mostly sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions -inside contains mostly potassium (K+) ions and organic anions (A-) the inside is typically more positive
Light microscope
-cell bodies, dendrites, axons, and large organelles in neurons -limited capability due to the nature of light
Korsakoff's syndrome
-cells in brain are dying because they aren't getting proper nutrients from alcohol (vitamin B specifically). Its like amnesia
Parietal association areas
-combine information from body senses and vision -identify objects by touch, determine the location of the limbs, and locate objects in space
Event related potential
-computer averages the EEG over several stimulus presentations -cancels out the "noise" of the brain's other activity
Lateral Fissure
-contain the auditory cortex, language, auditory and visual association areas -wernicke's area is involved in language comprehension and production -inferior temporal cortex is concerned with visual identification
What are some environmental contributions to Eating Disorders
-cultural emphasis on thinness, as seen in the Fiji study -the incidence is higher in females
Obesity Rates 1975-2014
-doubled in men and tripled in women
Medication for obesity
-drugs that work through increasing serotonin, leptin and insulin, or through decreased fat absorption have been promising but do not work for all patients -all have siginificatn side effects
What happens to the food in the small intestine
-duodenum is where the rest of digestion takes place -transforms components of meal into building blocks
computed tomography
-dye is injected into the blood -a series of x rays from different angles -images reflect the density of blood vessels in each area -a computer combines the x rays into a series of horizontal sections of the brain
Homeostatic drive: Temperature Regulation
-ectotherms: cannot regulate body temperature internally -endotherms: maintain a constant internal temperature (mammal)
Sensory specific satiety
-food is less appealing the more you eat, encouraging variation in choices -area NST of the medulla
Does the order of the nucleotides matter?
-forms the code that carries all our genetic information. -spell out the instructions for every structure and function in your body.
Hunger signaled by low
-glucose (glucoprivic hunger) -fatty acids (lipoprivic hunger) -ghrelin is released when stomach nutrients depleted
Ventral Stream
-handles the "what" of processing -Flows from the visual cortex to the temporal lobes and is dominated by the parvocellular system -Progresses through V1, through V2, and into V4, where color is perceived, then to the inferior temporal cortex which is specialized for object recognition -People with damage in the ventral stream have trouble identifying objects visually but walk around them or reach for them
Dorsal Stream
-handles the "where" of processing -Flows from the visual cortex to the parietal lobes and is dominated by the magnocellular system -Arrives in areas of V1 that respond to orientation, movement and retinal disparity, then proceeds through V2 and V5 (MT), where movement is perceived, then on to the posterior parietal cortex -Patients with damage to this area can identify objects visually but have trouble orienting toward them, reaching for them, and shaping the hand to grasp them. -Perception of movement is complex and although primarily processed by V5, TO and MST, other brain areas also respond to movement. -Activity in MT and MST is suppressed during eye movements.
lipid bilayer
-head attracted to water in and outside the ell, tails repelled by water -creates a double layer membrane semi permeable: small molecules can move through proteins head active transport
proteins
-hold the cells together -controls the environment in and around the cell
Nature Vs Nurture question
-how important are environmental influences (nurture) in shaping behavior? -An increasing number of behaviors are turning out to have some degree of hereditary influence (nature) widely accepted that behavior is a result of BOTH
Genetic Influences on Eating Disorder
-identical twins 3x more concordance than in faternal twins -Heritability: 56% for anorexia, 54-83% for Bulimia, 45% for binge eating disorder -adolescent stress, hormones, and dieting may produce epigenetic changes in genes
Muscle composed of
-individual cells (muscle fibers) -Myosin and actin filaments -Motor neuron releases acetylcholine, depolarizing the muscle fiber and opening calcium channels -Myosin pulls on the actin, shortening/contracting the muscle
"We inherit dispositions, not destinies"
-influence of genes is only partial
The neuron acts as___
-information integrator (summation) -decision maker (excitatory and inhibitory inputs combine algebraically, fires when above threshold)
Stem cell therapy
-injecting stem cells (before differentiation) into damaged part of brain -cells presumably differnetiate and form new structures in the brain -some patients developed leukemia -others developed tumors or cells migrates to other areas
Behavioral traits that fall under genetic influence...
-intelligence -(partially hereditary) alcoholism, drug addiction, schizo, major mood disorders, anxiety -personality and sexual orientation
Correlation
-is the degree of relationship between 2 variables -measured on a scale between 1.0 and +/-1.0
Regeneration (def, problem, myelin)
-is the growth of severed axons -problem: it does not happen in us, lizards grow back tails we do not grow back fingers -Myelin provides a guide tube for the neurons to grow through and the axon is guided to its destination much as in development
Gene therapy has raised ethical concerns
-it has led to at least one death -there is some concern that gene therapy could affect reproductive cells and change the genome of offspring -some believe that gene therapy will be used for purposes other than disease treatment, such as enhancing strength, beauty, or intellect -one clinic offers parents the chance to "design" their babies
Leptin
-leptin increase metabolism and targets fat -leptin not effective in many cases because only 5-10% of obese people deficient
Thalamus
-lies just below the lateral ventricles where it receives info from all the sensory systems except olfaction (smell) and relays it to the respective cortical projection areas. sensory processing arousal
Parietal lobe
-located superior to the lateral fissure and between the central sulcus and the occipital lobe. -important fro body sensations, attention, perception, and spatial localization
What does it mean for the alleles if one parents is heterozygous for the blood type B allele?
-means that the two alleles are different
Effects on brain and mind of Marijuana
-mildly addictive -memory, cognitive, IQ deficits -hippocampus, amygdala reductions (possible) -impaired prefrontal functioning in offspring when smoked during pregnancy
Opiate's history
-morphine was extracted from opium poppies at the beginning of 1800s -heroin was synthesized from morphine.
Frontal Lobe
-movement and complex human abilities -motor cortex found on the precentral gyrus controls voluntary movement -broca's area is important for speech production -prefrontal cortex involved in planning, impulse control, and decision making, adjusting behavior in response to rewards and punishments
Antagonistic muscle
-muscles that produce opposite movements at a joint -For example, the bicep muscle flexes the arm, and the triceps extends it -These muscles work together to produce smooth movements and to maintain a position, as in standing
Rods and cones
-named for their shapres - The human eye contains about 92 million rods and 4.6 million cones. Both function similarly but their chemical components and their neural connections give them different specializations.
Possibilities for repair
-neuron growth enhancers -providing guide tubes or scaffolding -counteracting regrowth inhibitors
Brain cells compostion
-neurons (50%) -glial cell (50%)
Animal research
-nonhuman animals have important advantages (provide more control) -activists have raised concern about animal research and treatment -animal care and use guidelines have been strengthened and monitoring has been increased
Obesity and Addiction
-obese people share several characteristics with addicts -reduced D2 receptors and prefrontal metabolism -peptides that induce eating target dopamine neurons
Where is huntington's gene located?
-on chromosome 4 -near two marker genes
Homeostatic drive: Thirst
-osmotic thirst: when fluid in cells drop, cells take water from bloodstream; organum vasculosum lamina terminalis OVLT of hypothalamus signals median preoptic nucleus to trigger drinking (dry mouth) -hypovolemic thirst: when blood volume drops; kidneys release renin, increasing angiotensin I; subfornical organ (SFO) then signals median preoptic nucleus (don't have enough blood)
Electron Microscopes
-pass beams of electrons through thin slice of tissue onton detector -high resolution, magnifying objects up to 250,000 times -Can reveal objects in 3D (scanning electron microscope)
Tolerance
-person becomes less responsive to the drug, requiring increasing amounts of the drug to produce the same results -is a significant reason for overdose
Cardinal Rules of research ethics
-plagiarism is the theft of another's work or ideas -fabrication (faking results) is more serious than plagiarism because it introduces erroneous information into the body of scientific knowledge
Learned taste preference
-preference for the flavor of a food that contains a needed nutrient -often counteracted by tasty, high calorie foods
How can addiction be identified?
-preoccupation with obtaining a drug -compulsive use of the drug in spite of adverse consequences -a high tendency to relapse after quitting
What part of the brain regulates temperature
-preoptic area of the hypothalamus receives temperature signals from the blood/skin; contains separate warmth sensitive and old sensitive cells
How do neurons communicate with one another?
-presynaptic neuron transmits the signal - synaptic cleft between the two -postsynaptic cell receives the signal
What do glial cells do?
-prevent transmitter from spreading to other synapses -absorb and recycle transmitter for the neuron's reuse -release glutmate to regulate presynaptic transmitter release
Barbiturates
-previously drug of choice for treating anxiety and insomnia -prescribed doses not addictive, but tolerance may lead to increased consumption -can open chloride channels without GABA
Smooth Muscle
-produce rhythmic contractions of internal organs
Why is heroin particularly dangerous?
-produces intense euphoria -crosses the blood brain barrier -tolerance develops rapidly
Addiction in Rats
-rats will self inject morphine into the ventral tegmental area, which indicates the area is involved in addiction; however, blocking opiate receptors there does not produce withdrawal -rats will not press a lever to inject morphine into the periventricular gray, so it is not involved in addiction; but once rats are addicted, blocking opiate receptors in the periventricular gray produces signs of withdrawal
Midbrain (function and areas of the brain included)
-secondary roles in vision, audition, movement -superior colliculi -inferior colliculi -reticular formation -Substantia nigra -ventral tegmental area
Pain detection
-several receptor types •Mechanical: unknown •Chemical: TRPA1 receptor -Tear gas, tobacco smoke, foods such as garlic and wasabi •Thermal: TRP receptors -TRPV1 heat pain receptor capsaicin (found in chili peppers) alleviates pain in joints by fatiguing the receptors -TRPM8 coolness receptor (menthol) two TRP receptors respond to painful heat. Best known is the TRPV1 heat pain receptor, which responds to capsaicin, found in chili peppers. Capsaicin alleviates pain in joints by fatiguing the receptors. Menthol creams are useful for treating muscle pain and skin irritations, because they stimulate the TRPM8 coolness receptor.
Heredity: destiny or predisposition?
-sexual reproduction increases variability in offspring and does not create clones -inheritance of genes is not the only factor that determines phenotypic outcomes -genes can be turned on or off based on development and experiences
Reorganization
-shift in connections that changes the area's function -provides compensation for peripheral changes -reorganization is not always beneficial -functions are taken over by other, more distant areas -typically by cells in an adjacent area, but may involve the other hemisphere
What are the three kinds of drugs?
-some mimic natural transmitter and stimulate receptors themselves (agonists) -some block neurotransmitter receptors (antagonists) -Some enhance or reduce transmitters effects
Alcohol has many effects on behavior
-stimulant by turning off cortical inhibition, reducing social constraints and anxiety -higher doses produce sedative and hypnotic effects
Satiety and cessation of eating?
-stomach stretch receptors stimulated -when food enters duodenum, intestines release: Cholecystokin, CCK, which inhibits NST and lateral hypothalumus, LH. Peptide YY 3-365, PYY, which inhibits arcuate nucleus -Leptin(releaed by fat cells) inhibit hunger on a long term basis
Environmental influences
-stress, social pressure, drug exposure
Circuit pruning
-synaptic plasticity (active synapses strengthened, inactive ones removed) -decreases with age
What does marijuana cause?
-temporary memory, cognitive, and IQ deficits -impaired prefrontal functioning
Neurotoxins affect ion channels involved in the action potential
-tetrodotoxin blocks sodium channels -Scorpion venom opens sodium channels, prolonging the action potential
Correlational Study
-the researcher does not control an IV but makes observation to determine whether two variables are related to each other.
Multiple Sclerosis and myelin
-this disease destroys myelin and once it is lost. The capacitance rises and it reduces the distance that graded potentials can travel before dying out.
Gene
-transmits inherited characteristics -directs cellular processes -found on chromosomes -biological unit that directs cellular processes and transmits inherited characteristics.
HACNS1
-unique to humans -turns on genes in the 'forearm' and 'thumb' -important dexterity of the human thumb
the neurons has a selectively permeable membrane
-water and gases pass freely through -other substances are barred from entry -others pass through protein channels in the membrane under certain circumstances (active transport)
Men's brains are 11% larger on average than women's, yet men and women score equally on intelligence tests. Men may have a size advantage, but women apparently compensate with a different structural organization. They have a greater ratio of gray matter to white matter than do men
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The correlation between IQ scores and school grades typically falls in the range of .40 to .60 However, IQ is also related to job performance, income, and socioeconomic level and, negatively, to juvenile delinquency.
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The first intelligence test was devised by Alfred Binet in 1905, to identify French schoolchildren who needed special instruction (Binet & Simon, 1905).
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individuals with mild intellectual disability (IQs between 50 and 70) require 20% more neural activity to perform an attention-demanding task than do individuals with IQs of 115 or higher
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that the brain has a specialized mechanism for numbers by pointing to evidence that even infants and lower primates seem to have an inborn ability to estimate quantities.
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If we all had identical genes, the estimated heritability for a characteristic would be
0%
Parkinson's affects about
0.3% of the population in industrialized countries and 1% of people over the age of 60 years
the spinal cord contains
1 billion neurons
what is the minimum photon for the eye to detect
1 photon can generate an action potential
Neural Networks...
1) are groups of neurons that function together. 2)are where the most complex work of the brain occurs. 3) must connect at least two brain areas to be considered a network. 4)Not all of these are true. (THIS IS THE RIGHT ANSWER).
What are the 3 steps of hunger?
1) nucleus of solitary tract, NST, of medulla signaled by liver 2) Arcuate nucleus -monitors nutrient levels -releases NPY and AgRP which excite... 3) Paraventricular nucleus, PVN, and lateral hypothalamus, LH, trigger eating
Identical twins share
100% of their genes (develop from the same fertilized egg) monozygotic
the higher brains area contains
17 billion neurons
SDN of MPOA
5x larger in male rats, size is related to prenatal exposure to testosterone and male sexual activity level
How long can your brain go without oxygen?
6-7 minutes
the cerebellum accounts for
69 billion neurons
How long will you crave cocaine if you quit?
7 years
it has even been said that intelligence is 100% hereditary and 100% environmental, because both are necessary.
A second problem is that environmental influences are often hopelessly confounded with genetic effects. For example, family conditions such as socioeconomic level and parental education are moderately related to the offspring's intelligence
One of these studies has identified a genetic variant associated with brain size
A second study identified 24 genetic variations on six genes, which were related to the structural integrity of major brain pathways; some of these were associated with intelligence, and individuals with multiple of these variants scored several points higher than others on intelligence tests
If the spectrum disorders are due to the same genes, then classifying these individuals as nonschizophrenic means that the genes will not appear to distinguish between schizophrenia and normality.
A second problem is that schizophrenia apparently involves the cumulative effects of multiple genes, each of which has a small effect by itself.
Increase in Dendritic Spines Following LTP
A single synaptic spine on a dendrite (white) and a presynaptic terminal (red). (b) The same spine split into two following LTP. •Learning also triggers dopamine release, which awakens previously silent synapses, and triggers the formation of new synaptic terminals. •Also triggers hippocampal neurogenesis, increasing neurons that can participate in learning later on.
Gastric Bypass Procedure
A small area of the stomach is isolated from the rest. Then the small intestine is severed, and the cut end is attached to the pouch, reducing the length of the intestine and the amount of nutrient absorption.
Similarly, children with the highest levels of prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos scored 2.7 points lower in IQ and 5.3 points lower on a test of working memory
A study in a north Manhattan, New York, community designed to identify risk factors for stroke found that people with multiple risk-associated pathogens also had lower cognitive ability
Epigenetic studies of schizophrenia are in their infancy. Though they have produced interesting results, our knowledge is based on small numbers of subjects and tissues taken from widely varying brain locations.
According to one group of reviewers, some of the current results may be harder to interpret than early small-sample gene association studies
The monetary cost in terms of treatment and lost wages amounts to $467 billion a year in the United States and $2.5 trillion globally
According to the World Health Organization (2008), mental disorders are the leading cause of disability among people aged 15 to 44 in the United States and Canada
dopamine hypothesis, that schizophrenia involves excessive dopamine activity in the brain.
According to the theory, blockade of the D2 type of dopamine receptors is essential for a drug to have an antipsychotic effect, and a drug's effectiveness is directly related to the drug's blocking potency.
Combined trichromatic theory and opponent process theory
According to their theory, excitation of "red" receptors activates red-green ganglion cells to produce the experience of red; excitation of "green" receptors inhibits the same ganglion cells, resulting in an experience of green. A sensation of yellow occurs when "red" and "green" receptors stimulate yellow-blue ganglion cells equally. Inhibition of those ganglion cells by "blue" receptors produces a sensation of blue. Direct evidence for three photopigments in cones; genetic evidence from closeness of red-green compared to blue; color-opponent cells found in monkeys •Three receptors -Red -Green -Blue •Three ganglion types -Yellow/blue -Red/green -Black/white
The ventral prefrontal area may also be a "depression switch," because activation comes and goes with bouts of depression. The amygdala continues to be active between episodes and returns to normal only after the remission of symptoms.
Activity in the amygdala corresponds to the trait of depression—the continuing disorder— whereas activation of the ventral prefrontal area indicates the state of depression, which subsides from time to time in some individuals
Firing Rates in Brain Stem Arousal Centers During Waking and Sleep
Activity in the locus coeruleus; (b) activity in the raphé nuclei. Note that these nuclei are most active during waking, relatively quiet during non-REM sleep, and (unlike the PPT/LDT) almost silent during REM sleep. AW, alert waking; QW, quiet waking; DRO, drowsy; SWS, slow-wave sleep; pre-REM, 60 seconds before REM; post-REM, first second after REM ends.
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Activity increases during copulation. Important for receptivity to male advances.
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Addictive through activating dopamine pathways Inhibits glutamate receptors, causing "model psychosis," with significant implications for theories of schizophrenia
Adoption has a better chance of demonstrating any environmental influences on intelligence, because it alters the child's entire environment
Adopted children's IQs are more highly correlated with the intelligence of their biological parents than with the intelligence of their adoptive parents but this does not mean that the children's IQs do not go up or down according to the adoptive environment.
Concordances for Schizophrenia Among Relatives
Adopting a child out of a schizophrenic home provides no protection from developing the disorder. Discordance in identical twins means that some other factor must play a role. However, risk is the same in the offspring of the affected and unaffected members of a discordant pair. This suggests that the genes are not expressed in the unaffected twins.
Schizophrenia is a psychosis, which simply means that the individual has severe disturbances of reality, orientation, and thinking. Schizophrenia is the most severe of the mental illnesses, and it is particularly feared because of the bizarre behavior it produces in many of its victims.
All social classes are equally vulnerable; though patients themselves "drift" to lower socioeconomic levels, when they are classified by theirparents'socioeconomic level, the classes are proportionately represented
when researchers used a drug instead of X radiation to block neurogenesis, antidepressant effect was not diminished
All three of the antidepressant drugs used increased dendritic remodeling and synaptic contact; this led the researchers to conclude that antidepressant drugs work by enhancing plasticity rather than by promoting neurogenesis.
Integrative Model of Borderline Personality Disorder.
Although environmental support can prevent the imbalances that result in epigenetic changes to plasticity genes resulting in borderline personality disorder (green), poor environmental features turn on genes that result in impulsivity and poor emotional control, which leads to the poor behavioral choices characteristic of the disorder (red).
This gene appears to change how neurons develop and migrate by disrupting a messenger system in neurons in areas involved in learning, memory, and mood
Although many genes such as DISC1 have been linked to schizophrenia, they have small individual effects and together may account for less than 5% of the variability in susceptibility.
Acute symptoms develop suddenly and are typically more responsive to treatment; the prognosis is reasonably good despite brief relapses. Symptoms that develop gradually and persist for a long time with poor prognosis are called chronic.
Among patients studied 20 years after their first psychiatric admission, 22% were fully recovered, another 43% were improved, and the symptoms of the remaining 35% had remained the same or worsened; 56% were fully employed
Neural abnormalities
Amyloid plaques (a) interfere with neural transmission Soluble ADDL causes memory and LTP failure in mice Neurofibrillary tangles (b) associated with neural death
After new cell development was blocked by X radiation, antidepressants no longer had an effect in mice, suggesting that neurogenesis is required for antidepressant action
An increase in cell numbers is not the basis, however, because cell death also accelerates; some researchers have suggested that the therapeutic effect is due to the greater plasticity of new cells
The FMR1 gene normally contains between 6 and 45 repetitions of the nucleotide sequence C, G, G. If the number of CGG repeats reaches 200, the gene is turned off, and no protein is made. Fragile X syndrome is the result, with IQs typically below 75.
An intermediate number of CGG repeats results in reduced protein production, accompanied by a slight increase in the chance of intellectual disability. Males are affected more often, and when fragile X does occur in females, the symptoms are usually milder.
One solution is to increase the effect size by targeting a limited group of subjects; a gene location on chromosome 3 was identified only when researchers limited their search to patients with severe depression
Another approach is to limit the search to the genes known to be involved in a relevant pathway; knowledge that the immune system is dysregulated in depression led researchers to discover several candidate immune system genes
PET Scans of Brain Activity During Sleep Following Learning
Areas previously active during learning are also more active during sleep in the trained subjects, but not in the untrained subjects
Hippocampal activity in the human brain during retrieval
As participants tried to recall visually presented words that had been poorly learned (35% recall rate), the prefrontal and visual areas, but not the hippocampi, were highly activated compared with the baseline condition. (b) However, the successful recall of well-learned words (79% recall rate) activated both hippocampal areas.
A common characteristic of depression is disruption of the circadian (day-night) cycle, which is controlled by numerous genes
At last count, at least 11 circadian genes were disrupted in patients with major depression
Brain Areas Involved in the Sense of Agency
Attributing an effect (movement of a computer cursor) to oneself activated the insula (a); attributing the movement to another person activated the angular gyrus in the inferior parietal cortex (b).
What is considered obese?
BMI of 30 or higher -over 40 is morbidly obese
Hindbrain(function and areas of the brain included)
Basic functions: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure -medulla -pons (contain centers related to sleep and arousal. Part of the reticular fromation) -cerebellum
Why are there so many receptors just for touch?
Because touch is a complex sense that conveys several types of information.
In fact, there is a much higher genetic correlation between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia (68%) than mood disorders (43%)
Bipolar disorder is more heritable than either depression or schizophrenia, with estimates of 85% and 93%
An indication of the tissue deficits seen in schizophrenia is ventricular enlargement; this is because the ventricles expand to take up space normally occupied by brain cells
Both deficiencies are usually subtle, on the order of less than a tablespoonful increase in ventricular volume and a 2% decrease in brain volume
Most researchers agree that schizophrenia is a disorder of early development
Brains show problems in migration of cells in the temporal and frontal lobes; a deficiency of Reelin, a protein that functions as a "stop" signal for migrating cells, particularly in the hippocampus and prefrontal areas; gray matter deficits and ventricular enlargement at the time of diagnosis. Behavioral evidence from home movies suggest that symptoms are present long before diagnosis is made. There is also evidence for severe pruning of synapses during adolescence involving both dopamine and glutamate pathways.
One man with autism said that people seem to have a special sense that allows them to read other people's thoughts, and an observant autistic youth asked, "People talk to each other with their eyes. What is it that they are saying?"
But 80% of children with autism with an average mental age of nine answered that Sally would look in the box
So how do we treat drug-resistant forms of depression?
Cognitive-behavioral therapy is generally about as effective as antidepressants, and when it was added to the usual treatment in resistant patients, depression scores improved by 50% or more in 46% of patients, compared with 22% in those who remained in typical treatment
Reduced Response to Betrayal of Trust Following Oxytocin
Compared with subjects receiving a placebo, those who received nasally administered oxytocin responded less to betrayal of trust in an investment simulation. Areas of comparatively reduced activity (shown in yellow) were the caudate nucleus (Cau), amygdala (Amy), and midbrain (MB
The increase in frontal activity is in proportion to decreases in other areas, which supports the idea that the shift serves a compensatory function
Compensation may not be limited to frontal activity; it has also been observed in the parahippocampal area during a memory recognition task
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Complex: excitatory centers, inhibitory surrounds Feature detectors for orientation, direction of movement, shape, and texture
Treating pregnant Ts65Dn females with these proteins eliminates the developmental delays that would ordinarily be seen in their offspring
Conceivably this strategy could be used with pregnant women when amniocentesis (genetic testing of the amniotic fluid) reveals that the fetus has a third 21st chromosome.
Areas of Impairment Leading to a Diagnosis of Intellectual Disability
Conceptual, social, and practical
schizophrenia is one of the few psychological disorders that appear to be on the decline.
Critics have attributed the apparent reduction to methodological flaws in studies, but a study of all people born in Finland between 1954 and 1965 found a significant decline in each successive age- group, totaling 29% for women and 33% for men
Atypical (second-generation) antidepressants affect a single neurotransmitter; for example, Prozac (fluoxetine) is one of several selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
Cymbalta (duloxetine) is one of several serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors.
ADHD is considered a childhood disorder, in a 13-year-long study of 2,040 twins in the United Kingdom, 22% of the children diagnosed with ADHD continued to meet criteria at age 18
DSM-5 diagnostic criteria require onset during childhood, but 68% of the 18 year olds who met diagnostic criteria without regard to age of onset had not done so in any of the four previous screenings.
These genes are in the pineal gland (which secretes the sleep-inducing hormone melatonin), the pituitary gland (which controls hormone levels in the body), and most important, the anterior cingulate cortex
Despite similarities between depression and bipolar disorder, they are genetically independent of each other
This result would not have occurred unless the normal twins were carrying genes for schizophrenia.
Discordance does raise the question, however, of whether some environmental factors determine whether the person's schizophrenic genes will remain "silent."
When do most of the genes linked to memory consolidation increase their activities?
During sleep.
In menopausal women, estrogen replacement therapy reduces the decline in verbal and visual memory as well as lowering the risk of Alzheimer's disease
During the part of the month when estrogen is high, women perform higher on verbal tasks; then during menstruation estrogen drops and so does performance on the verbal tasks, but spatial performance improves
The disadvantage of ECT is that its benefit is often short term, but the patient can usually be maintained on drug therapy once a round of ECT has been completed.
ECT is effective with depression, mania, and schizophrenia, which suggests that its effects are complex, and research bears this out.
Brain scans and autopsies of patients and actual cell counts in animal subjects show no evidence of brain damage following ECT
ECT is usually reserved for patients who do not respond to the medications or who cannot take them due to extreme side effects or because of pregnancy.
In a recent analysis of 13 studies that compared ECT with antidepressant drugs, 79% of patients responded to ECT, compared with 54% of patients treated with antidepressants
ECT works especially well when depression or mania is accompanied by psychosis, and it works rapidly, which is beneficial to suicidal patients who cannot wait for weeks while a drug takes effect
Most neurons fire spontaneously all the time so...
EPSPs will increase the rate of firing IPSPs will decrease the rate of firing
The A and B alleles are dominant over the O allele which results in what?
Each blood type (A,B,AB,O) has an equal chance (one in four) of occurring in an offspring.
Sleep and Wake Periods During Isolation From Time Cues
Each dark bar indicates the timing and length of sleep during a day. During the unscheduled period (without time cues), the subject's activity assumed a 25-hr rhythm and began to advance around the clock. When light-dark periods were scheduled, he resumed a normal sleep and activity rhythm.
Association areas
Each lobe contains this and it carries out further processing beyond what the primary area does, often combining info from other senses.
Serotonin
Ejaculation is accompanied by increases in S in the lateral hypothalamus, also contributing to the refractory period. Drugs that increase S impair sexual ability in men and women.
Reduction in Gray Matter in Elderly Depressed Patients
Elderly patients with depression exhibited significant declines in gray matter in the amygdala (a), orbitofrontal cortex (b), and hippocampus (b, c). Yellow indicates severity of loss compared to elderly patients without depression.
In extreme cases of treatment nonresponse or because of suicidal behaviors, an alternative is electroconvulsive therapy.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) involves applying 70-130 volts of electricity to the head of an anesthetized patient, which produces a seizure accompanied by convulsive contractions of the neck and limbs and lasting about a half minute to a minute
Treatment resistance and the delay required for drugs to take effect are serious issues, especially if the patient is suicidal.
Experiments with ketamine, which was developed as an anesthetic but gained infamy as a club drug, suggest that these problems might be avoidable.
What are some psychoactive drugs?
-opiates -depressants -stimulants -psychedelics -marijuana
Anterograde amnesia means that the patient has trouble remembering events that occurred
since the brain damage.
Traits determined by
single pair of alleles
Color blindness
-Color deficiency -Helped researchers understand color vision processes -People who lack one or more cone types
Unipolar neuron
single short stalk from the cell body that divides into two branches.
Superficial Receptors
-Meissner's corpuscles -Merkel's discs -Texture and fine detail
Stimulants
-increased arousal and alertness -euphoria
Psychedelics
-perceptual distortions and hallucinations
Who was the first "neuroscientist"?
Helmholtz
What are the two subtypes of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
What has a co-morbidity with bulimia?
depression
Ablation
removal of brain tissue
What is the somatic nervous system involved in?
voluntary movements