BLI

Using the Indirect Approach for Negative Messages

1. Open with a buffer 2. Build up the reasons for the situation or decision 3. Present the negative news 4. Offer additional information or solution that will help the audience 5. Close on a respectful tone Opening with a Buffer Open with a neutral statement Establish common ground Express Appreciation Assure the Readers You Understand Their Needs Be Relevant and Sincere Continuing with a clear statement of the bad news To Handle Bad News Carefully: De-emphasize the Bad News -In middle of message -Using parenthetical expression Use a Conditional Statement Tell What you Did, Not What you Didn't Close on a Respectful Note Find a Positive Angle Avoid and Uncertain Conclusion Manage Future Correspondence Express Optimism Be Sincere

Using the Direct Approach for Negative Messages

1. Open with the bad news 2. Give reasons for the situation or decision 3. Offer additional information or a solution that will help the audience 4. Close on a respectful tone Opening with a clear statement of the bad news State the bad news at the beginning Maintain a Calm, Professional Tone Focus of the News, Not on Individuals Explain or Remind the Reader Why Your Writing Providing Reasons and Additional Information Explain Why the News Is Negative Consider the Nature of the News Assess Your Relationship with the Reader Determine Whether to Apologize Factors for Determining whether to Apologize Deliver the Apology from the Right Person in the organization Only Apologize if it is Sincere Deliver the Apology Quickly Close On A Respectful Note Consider Alternatives Include Positive Statements Communicate How Future Mistakes Will Be Avoided

Using the Direct Approach for Negative Messages- Book

A negative message using the direct approach opens with the bad news, proceeds to the reasons for the situation or the decision, and ends with a positive statement aimed at main- taining a good relationship with the audience. Depending on the circumstances, the mes- sage may also offer alternatives or a plan of action to fix the situation under discussion. Stating the bad news at the beginning can have two advantages: It makes a shorter message possible, and it allows the audience to reach the main idea of the message in less time. Use the direct approach when your negative answer or informa- tion will have minimal personal impact. Opening with a clear statement of the bad news No matter what the news is, come right out and say it, but maintain a calm, professional tone that keeps the focus on the news and not on individual failures or other personal factors. Also, if necessary, explain or remind the reader why you're writing. Providing Reasons and Additional Information In most cases, follow the direct opening with an explanation of why the news is negative. The extent of your explanation depends on the nature of the news and your relationship with the reader. For example, if you want to preserve a long-standing relationship with an important customer, a detailed explanation could well be worth the extra effort such a message would require. However, you will encounter some situations in which explaining negative news is neither appropriate nor helpful, such as when the reasons are confidential, excessively complicated, or irrelevant to the reader. To maintain a cordial working relationship with the reader, you might want to explain why you can't provide the information. Should you apologize when delivering bad news or responding to negative situations? The answer isn't quite as simple as one might think, partly because the notion of apology is hard to pin down. To some people, it simply means an expression of sympathy that something negative has happened to another person. At the other extreme, it means admitting fault and taking responsibility for specific compensations or corrections to atone for the mistake. Some experts have advised that a company should never apologize, even when it knows it has made a mistake, because the apology might be taken as a confession of guilt that could be used against the company in a lawsuit. However, several states have laws that specifically prevent expressions of sympathy from being used as evidence of legal liability. In fact, judges, juries, and plaintiffs tend to be more forgiving of companies that express sympathy for wronged parties. Moreover, a sincere, effective apology can help repair—and even improve—a company's reputation.2 Creating an effective apology involves four key decisions.3 First, the apology should be delivered by someone whose position in the organization corresponds with the grav- ity of the situation. The CEO doesn't need to apologize for a late package delivery, but he or she does need to be the public face of the company when a major problem occurs. Second, the apology needs to be real. Don't say "I'm sorry if anyone was offended." The conditional if implies that you're not sorry at all and that it's the other party's fault for being offended.4 Third, apologies need to be delivered quickly, particularly in the social media age. A fast response makes the message more meaningful to the affected parties, and it helps the company maintain some control over the story, rather than reacting to social media outrage. Fourth, media and channel choices are crucial. The right choice can range from a private conversation to a written message posted or distributed online to a public press conference, depending on the situation. Note that you can also express sympathy with someone's plight without suggesting that you are to blame. For example, if a customer damaged a product through misuse and suf- fered a financial loss as a result of not being able to use the product, you can say something along the lines of "I'm sorry to hear of your difficulties." This approach demonstrates sen- sitivity without accepting blame. The amount of detail you should provide depends on your relation- ship with the audience. Apologies can have legal ramifica- tions, but refusing to apologize out of fear of admitting guilt can damage a company's relation- ships with its stakeholders. Closing on a respectful note After you've explained the negative news, close the message in a manner that respects the impact the news is likely to have on the recipient. If appropriate, consider offering your readers an alternative solution if you can and if doing so is a good use of your time. Look for opportunities to include positive statements, but avoid creating false hopes or writing in a way that seems to suggest to the recipient that something negative didn't happen. Ending on a false positive can leave readers feeling "disrespected, disregarded, or deceived."5 In situations where you're responding after a mistake was made, an important aspect of a respectful close is describing the actions being taken to avoid similar mis- takes in the future. Offering such explanations can underline the sincerity of an apology because doing so signals that the person or organization is serious about not repeating the error.

Buffer

A neutral opening statement in an indirect negative message that establishes common ground with the reader without revealing the main idea

Framing Your Arguments

AIDA Model Attention Interest Desire Action I came across an article in the New York Times this morning highlighting a recent trend: subscription boxes. Customers receive a box full of goods once a month for a flat fee typically ranging from $10-$30, depending on wh at kinds of products are in the box. The products in the box are centered around a theme (books, cosmetics, snacks, food, etc.) and are curated by industry experts. Consumer s are loving this concept and asking for more. However, most of these businesses face a barrier w hen it comes to expansion. Since subscription box ideas are usually started by a couple of passionate people, they are personally packaging goods in small numbers and cannot keep up with the demand. Many of these companies have waiting lists because they simply cannot serve all the interested consumers. This is where we grasp the opportunity. As a company specializing in distribution logistics, we can sell our services to these subscription box companies. I have done some research (attached) and found that with our services, subscriptions box companies will enjoy anywhere from 30% to 60% growth within the first year alone. Not only will they be buying our services, but we can negotiate a deal taking a percentage of their increased profits. I suggest that we meet later this week to put to get her a business proposal for this venture and start a task force to take on this project immediately. I will be happy to lead the charge.

ROUTINE REQUEST 2: ASKING FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

Ask Permission Organize your request using the Direct Approach State the purpose of the Recommendation Remind the reader how you know each other Include details of how you demonstrate desired qualities or skills Close with an expression of appreciation

Avoiding Common Mistakes in Persuasive Communication

Avoid Using a Hard Sell Don't Resist Compromise Avoid Relying Solely on Great Arguments Don't Use a One Shot Approach

Avoiding Faulty Logic

Avoid these Mistakes: Hasty Generalizations Circular Reasoning Attacking an Opponent Oversimplifying a Complex Issue Mistaken Assumption of Cause and Effect Faulty Analogies Illogical Support

Reinforcing your Position

Believable Evidence Logical Appeal -Analogy -Inductive Reasoning -Deductive Reasoning Examine Your Language Audience Benefits Emotional Appeal

Starting with the main idea

By opening routine and positive messages with the main idea or good news, you're pre- paring your audience for the details that follow. Make your opening clear and concise. Although the following introductory statements make the same point, one is cluttered with unnecessary information that buries the purpose, whereas the other is brief and to the point: Instead of This I am pleased to inform you that after careful consideration of a diverse and talented pool of applicants, each of whom did a thorough job of analyzing Trask Horton Pharmaceuticals's training needs, we have selected your bid. Write This Trask Horton Pharmaceuticals has accepted your bid to provide public speaking and presentation training to the sales staff. With the direct approach, open with a clear and concise expres- sion of the main idea or good news. The best way to write a clear opening is to have a clear idea of what you want to say. Ask yourself, "What is the single most important message I have for the audience?"

Effective Apology

CANDOR/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: I was wrong to interrupt you during your portion of the presentation and to respond to questions in ways we had not discussed ahead of time. REGRET/REMORSE: I'm sorry that, on several occasions, I have taken over our joint presentations. RESPONSIBILITY: I should have recognized that I was deviating from our plan. COMMITMENT TO CHANGE: In the future, I'll follow our plans for the presentation. I won't speak up during your portion of the presentation unless you give me a cue to do so. GOODWILL/FUTURE FOCUS: Thanks, Scott, for letting me share my thoughts with you. I look forward to our next presentation.

Negative Message Direct

CONTRACT Dear Mr. Allred: For the past five years, our company has used Midwes t Sparkleen for our interior and exterior cleaning. You know that I have had some co ncerns about service and security over the past few months. According to my records, I've called your company: • Six times to remind your workers to take care of sp ills and other messes • Three times to remind your workers not to leave tox ic chemicals in public areas • Two times to discuss the continual decline of servi ce The 11 instances cited above have given me mounting cause for concern, and an episode last week convinces me that a change is overdue. La st Thursday, the cleaning crew forgot to lock the lobby door and left our entire facility vulnerable to theft from midnight until 8 A.M. Friday morning. As a fellow business owner, you realize the importa nce of making sure that you can count on the service providers with whom you've contracte d. As you know, our company's annual cleaning contract is set to be renewed next month. Given our recent experience and the inability to resolve past issues, PolicyPlan will not be renewing our contract with Midwest Sparkleen. If you need to make special arrangements in the com ing weeks to remove tools and supplies stored at our facility, please call me at (414) 555-7898.

Key Elements of Issuing an Apology

Candor -Admit to problem/mistake -Brief Explanation -Audience-focus Remorse -Apologize if at fault -One time Commitment to change -Present a solution or intention to resolve -Future focus

Requesting and justifying your request

Close your message with three important elements: (1) a specific request that includes any relevant deadlines, (2) information about how you can be reached (if it isn't obvious), and (3) an expression of appreciation or goodwill. When you ask readers to perform a specific action, ask for a response by a specific date or time, if appropriate (for example, "Please send the figures by May 5 so that I can return first-quarter results to you before the May 20 conference."). Conclude your message with a sincere thanks. To review, see "Checklist: Writing Routine Requests." Close request messages with -A request for some specific action -Information about how you can be reached -An expression of appreciation

Resolving Conflict

Conflict in team activities can arise for a number of reasons: competition for resources, disagreement over goals or responsibilities, poor communication, power struggles, or fundamental differences in values, attitudes, and personalities.20 Although the term conflict sounds negative, conflict isn't necessarily bad. It can be constructive if it forces important issues into the open, increases the involvement of team members, and generates creative ideas for solving a problem. Teamwork isn't necessarily about happiness and harmony; even teams that have some interpersonal friction can excel with effective leadership and team players who are committed to strong results. As the teamwork experts Andy Boynton and Bill Fischer put it, "Virtuoso teams are not about getting polite results."21 In contrast, conflict is destructive if it diverts energy from more important issues, destroys the morale of teams or individual team members, or polarizes or divides the team.22 Destructive conflict can lead to win-lose or lose-lose outcomes, in which one or both sides lose, to the detriment of the entire team. If you approach conflict with the idea that both sides can satisfy their goals to at least some extent (a win-win strategy), you can minimize losses for everyone. For a win-win strategy to work, everybody must believe that (1) it's possible to find a solution that both parties can accept, (2) cooperation is better for the organization than competition, (3) the other party can be trusted, and (4) greater power or status doesn't entitle one party to impose a solution. The following seven measures can help team members successfully resolve conflict: Proactive behavior. Deal with minor conflict before it becomes major conflict. In team settings, conflict between two people can spread if it isn't addressed early. Communication. Get those directly involved in a conflict to participate in resolving it. These participants should choose their words and nonverbal gestures carefully in order to maintain focus on the problem at hand and to avoid further inflaming an already uncomfortable situation. Openness. Get feelings out in the open before dealing with the main issues. Research. Seek factual reasons for a problem before seeking solutions. Flexibility. Don't let anyone lock into a position before considering other solutions. Fair play. Insist on fair outcomes; don't let anyone avoid a fair solution by hiding behind the rules. Alliance. Get opponents to fight together against an "outside force" instead of against each other. Conflict in teams can be either constructive or destructive Destructive conflict can lead to win-lose or lose-lose outcomes

Balancing Emotional and Logical Appeals

Consider Four Factors: Actions you hope to motivate Readers' exceptions Degree of resistance Position in the power structure of the organization

Five Goals of Negative Communication

Convey the Bad News Gain Acceptance of the Bad News Maintain Audience's Goodwill Maintain Good Image for Organization Reduce the Need for Future Correspondence

Direct of Indirect Approach

Direct Do You Need to Get the Reader's Attention? What is the Audience's Preference? Indirect How Important is the News to the Reader? Will the Bad News Come as a Shock?

Recognizing Various Types of Listening

Effective listeners adapt their listening approaches to different situations. The primary goal of content listening is to understand and retain the information in the speaker's message. Because you're not evaluating the information at this point, it doesn't matter whether you agree or disagree, approve or disapprove—only that you understand. Try to overlook the speaker's style and any limitations in the presentation; just focus on the information.51 The goal of critical listening is to understand and evaluate the meaning of the speaker's message on several levels: the logic of the argument, the strength of the evidence, the validity of the conclusions, the implications of the message, the speaker's intentions and motives, and the omission of any important or relevant points. If you're skeptical, ask questions to explore the speaker's point of view and credibility. Be on the lookout for bias that could color the way the information is presented, and be careful to separate opinions from facts.52 The goal of empathic listening is to understand the speaker's feelings, needs, and wants so that you can appreciate his or her point of view, regardless of whether you share that perspective. By listening with empathy, you help the individual vent the emotions that prevent a calm, clear-headed approach to the subject. Avoid the temptation to jump in with advice unless the person specifically asks for it. Also, don't judge the speaker's feelings, and don't try to tell people they shouldn't feel this or that emotion. Instead, let the speaker know that you appreciate his or her feelings and understand the situation. After you establish that connection, you can help the speaker move on to search for a solution.53 No matter what mode they are using at any given time, effective listeners try to engage in active listening, making a conscious effort to turn off their own filters and biases to truly hear and understand what the other party is saying. They ask questions to verify key points and encourage the speaker through positive body language. Listening actively means making the effort to turn off your internal "filters" and biases to truly hear and understand what the other person is saying To be a good listener, adapt the way you listen to suit the situation.

Selecting Emotional or Logical Appeals

Emotional Feelings Emotions Sympathies Logical Analogy Induction Deductive

Responding to Rumors and Countering Negative Information

Engage Early, Engage Often Monitor the Conversation Evaluate Negative Messages Respond Appropriately

Conducting and controlling to efficient meetings

Everyone in a meeting shares the responsibility for making the meeting productive. If you're the leader, however, you have an extra degree of responsibility and accountability. The following guidelines will help leaders and participants contribute to more effective meetings: Keep the discussion on track. A good meeting draws out the best ideas and information the group has to offer. Good leaders occasionally need to guide, mediate, probe, stimulate, summarize, and redirect discussions that have gotten off track. Follow agreed-on rules. The larger the meeting, the more formal you need to be to maintain order. Formal meetings use parliamentary procedure, a time-tested method for planning and running effective meetings. The best-known guide to this procedure is Robert's Rules of Order. Encourage participation. You may discover that some participants are too quiet and others are too talkative. Draw out nonparticipants by asking for their input. For the overly talkative, you can say that time is limited and others need to be heard. Participate actively. Make a point to contribute to the progress of the meeting and the smooth interaction of participants. Use your listening skills and powers of observation to size up the interpersonal dynamics of the group, then adapt your behavior to help the group achieve its goals. Speak up if you have something useful to say, but don't talk or ask questions just to demonstrate how much you know about the subject at hand. Use mobile devices respectfully. Tweeting key points from a convention speech or using your phone or tablet to jot down essential ideas and follow-up questions can be productive and respectful ways to use a device during a meeting. Checking Facebook or working on unrelated tasks is not. If you intend to use your device to take notes during a meeting, consider letting the meeting leader know that's what you're doing. Close effectively. At the conclusion of the meeting, verify that the objectives have been met or arrange for follow-up work, if needed. Summarize the general conclusion of the discussion and any actions that need to be taken. Make sure all participants have a chance to clear up any misunderstandings.

ANNOUNCING GOOD NEWS

External Messages News Releases Direct-to-Consumer Releases Social Media Releases

Strategies for Persuasive Business Messages

Four Essential Strategies: Framing Your Arguments Balancing Emotional and Logical Appeals Reinforcing Your Position Anticipating Objections

Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening

Good listeners look for ways to overcome potential barriers throughout the listening process. You may not be able to control some factors, such as conference room acoustics or poor phone reception. You can control other factors, however, such as not interrupting speakers and not creating distractions that make it difficult for others to pay attention. And don't think you're not interrupting just because you're not talking. Such actions as texting or checking your watch can interrupt a speaker and lead to communication breakdowns. Selective listening is one of the most common barriers to effective listening. If your mind wanders, you may stay tuned out until you hear a word or phrase that gets your attention again. But by that time, you're unable to recall what the speaker actually said; instead, you remember what you think the speaker probably said. One reason listeners' minds tend to wander is that people think faster than they speak. Most people speak at about 120 to 150 words per minute, but listeners can process audio information at up to 500 words per minute or more. Consequently, your brain has a lot of free time whenever you're listening, and if left unsupervised, it will find a thousand other things to think about. Make the effort to focus on the speaker and use the extra time to analyze and paraphrase what you hear or to take relevant notes. Overcoming interpretation barriers can be difficult because you may not even be aware of them. As Chapter 1 notes, selective perception leads listeners to mold messages to fit their own conceptual frameworks. Listeners sometimes make up their minds before fully hearing the speaker's message, or they engage in defensive listening—protecting their egos by tuning out anything that doesn't confirm their beliefs or their view of themselves. Even when your intentions are good, you can still misinterpret incoming messages if you and the speaker don't share enough language or experience. When listening to a speaker whose native language or life experience is different from yours, try to paraphrase that person's ideas. Give the speaker a chance to confirm what you think you heard or to correct any misinterpretation. If the information you hear will be important to use later, write it down or otherwise record it. Don't rely on your memory. If you do need to memorize, you can hold information in short-term memory by repeating it silently or organizing a long list of items into several shorter lists. Four techniques can help to store information in long-term memory: (1) associate new information with something closely related (such as the restaurant in which you met a new client), (2) categorize the new information into logical groups (such as alphabetizing a list of names), (3) visualize words and ideas as pictures, and (4) create mnemonics such as acronyms or rhymes. For a reminder of the steps you can take to overcome listening barriers, see "Checklist: Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening." Your mind can process informa- tion much faster than most speak- ers talk, so you need to focus to listen effectively. Good listeners actively try to overcome barriers to successful listening.

ASKING FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

Hello Professor Graves, I've hope you had a lovely holiday season with your family and loved ones! Your BLI class was my favorite class last semester, and you are one of my favorite Professors, hands down, at SMU. I was nomi nated for the Hyer Society's Junior Achievement Award, and I was wonde ring if you could write a letter of recommendation for me? The award seeks to recognize a student who is in en thusiastic pursuit of knowledge and commitment to excellence.The letter s hould be sent directly to Marie Frantz Wallmark ( [email protected] ) or via campus mail, box 221, no later than January 15th. Let me know if this is not enough time or if you wo uld like to send you my resume or anything else you might need. Thanks agai n Professor Graves for everything. Much love,

Making claims and requesting adjustments

If you're dissatisfied with a company's product or service, you can opt to make a claim (a formal complaint) or request an adjustment (a settlement of a claim). In either case, it's important to maintain a professional tone in all your communication, no matter how angry or frustrated you are. Keeping your cool will help you get the situation resolved sooner. Open with a clear and calm statement of the problem along with your request. In the body, give a complete, specific explanation of the details. Provide any information the recipient needs to verify your complaint. In your close, politely request specific action or convey a sincere desire to find a solution. And, if appropriate, suggest that the business relationship will continue if the problem is solved satisfactorily. Be prepared to back up your claim with invoices, sales receipts, canceled checks, dated correspondence, and any other relevant documents. Send copies and keep the originals for your files. If the remedy is obvious, tell your reader exactly what you expect to be done, such as exchanging incorrectly shipped merchandise for the right item or issuing a refund if the item is out of stock. However, if you're uncertain about the precise nature of the trouble, you could ask the company to assess the situation and then advise you on how the situation could be fixed. Supply your full contact information so that the company can discuss the situation with you, if necessary. Compare the ineffective and effective ver- sions in Figure 10.3 on page 271 for an example of making a claim. To review the tasks involved in making claims and requesting adjustments, see "Checklist: Making Claims and Requesting Adjustments." When writing a claim or requesting an adjustment Explain the problem and give details Provide backup information Request specific action Be prepared to document any claims you make with a company. Send copies and keep the original documents.

Putting Meeting Results to Productive Use

In most cases, the value of a meeting doesn't end when the meeting ends. For example, problems or opportunities brought up during a meeting need to be addressed, any action items assigned during the meeting need to be acted on, and key decisions and announcements should be distributed to anyone who is affected but was unable to attend. Having a written, audio, or video record of a meeting also gives the participants a chance to verify their impressions and conclusions. The conventional method of recording meetings is through written minutes, a summary of the important information presented and the decisions made. One person is usually assigned to keep notes as the meeting progresses and then to share them afterward. The specific format of the minutes is less important than making sure you record all the key information, particularly regarding responsibilities that were assigned duringthe meeting. Typical elements include a list of those present and a list of those who were invited but didn't attend, followed by the times the meeting started and ended, all major decisions reached at the meeting, all tasks assigned to meeting participants, and all subjects that were deferred to a later meeting. In addition, the minutes objectively summarize important discussions, noting the names of those who contributed major points. Any handouts, slides, or supporting documents can be attached to the minutes when they are distributed. Depending on the meeting technologies at your disposal, you may have software specifically designed to record, distribute, and store meeting minutes (see Figure 2.5). Some systems automatically forward action items to each employee, record audio discussions for future playback, and make all the relevant documents and files available in one convenient place.

Norms

Informal standards of conduct that group members share and that guide member behavior

Strategy for Routine Requests

Jill Duffy (profiled in the chapter-opening Communication Close-Up) helps business professionals deal with a vital aspect of communication in today's digital workplace— how to productively handle the many routine messages that need to be sent or responded to day in and day out. Routine messages fall into two groups: routine requests, in which you ask for information from or action by another party, and a variety of routine and positive messages. Chapter 11 covers messages in which you need to convey negative information, and Chapter 12 addresses persuasive messages. Making requests is a routine part of business, and in most cases your audience will be prepared to comply. By applying a clear strategy and tailoring your approach to each situation, you'll be able to generate effective requests quickly. Like all other business messages, a routine request has three parts: an opening, a body, and a close. Using the direct approach, open with your main idea, which is a clear state- ment of your request. Use the body to give details and justify your request. Finally, close by requesting specific action. For routine requests and positive messages -State the request or main idea -Give necessary details -Close with a cordial request for specific action

Strategy for Routine and Positive Messages

Just as you'll make numerous requests for information and action throughout your career, you'll also respond to similar requests from other people. When you are responding posi- tively to a request, sending routine announcements, or sending a positive or goodwill mes- sage, you have several goals: to communicate the information or the good news, answer all questions, provide all required details, and leave your reader with a good impression of you and your firm. Readers receiving routine replies and positive messages will generally be interested in what you have to say, so use the direct approach. Put your main idea (the positive reply or the good news) in the opening. Use the body to explain all the relevant details, and close cordially, perhaps highlighting a benefit to your reader. Use a direct approach for routine replies and positive messages.

Challenges of Sending and Receiving Negative Messages

Legal Compliance Impact of Negative Message on Recipient Managing Emotions of Both Sender and Recipient Appropriately Timing the message

Understanding the Listening Process

Listening is a far more complex than most people think—and most of us aren't very good at it. People typically listen at no better than a 25 percent efficiency rate, remember only about half of what's said during a 10-minute conversation, and forget half of that within 48 hours. Furthermore, when questioned about material they've just heard, they are likely to get the facts mixed up. Why is such a seemingly simple activity so difficult? The reason is that listening is not a simple process, by any means. Listening follows the same sequence as the general communication process model described in Chapter 1 (page 10), with the added challenge that it happens in real time. To listen effectively, you need to successfully complete five steps: 1. Receiving. You start by physically hearing the message and acknowledging it. Physical reception can be blocked by noise, impaired hearing, or inattention. Some experts also include nonverbal messages as part of this stage because these factors influence the listening process as well. 2. Decoding. Your next step is to assign meaning to the words and phrases, which you do according to your own values, beliefs, ideas, expectations, roles, needs, and personal history. Decoding is also influenced by the circumstances, the speaker's tone, facial gestures, and other nonverbal signals. For example, if someone says, "Well, that's just lovely," a sarcastic tone signals that the intended meaning is the opposite of the literal meaning of the words. 3.Remembering. Before you can act on the information, you need to store it for future processing. As you learned in Chapter 1, incoming messages must first be captured in short-term memory before being transferred to long-term memory for more permanent storage. 4. Evaluating. The next step is to evaluate the message by applying critical thinking skills to separate fact from opinion and evaluate the quality of the evidence. 5. Responding. After you've evaluated the speaker's message, you react. If you're communicating one-on-one or in a small group, the initial response generally takes the form of verbal feedback. If you're one of many in an audience, your initial response may take the form of applause, laughter, or silence. Later, you may act on what you have heard. If any one of these steps breaks down, the listening process becomes less effective or may even fail entirely. As both a sender and a receiver, you can reduce the failure rate by recognizing and overcoming a variety of physical and mental barriers to effective listening. Listening involves five steps: receiving, decoding, remembering, evaluating, and responding.

Selective listening

Listening to only part of what a speaker is saying; ignoring the parts one doesn't agree with or find interesting

Critical listening

Listening to understand and evaluate the meaning of the speakers message

Content listening

Listening to understand and retain the speakers message

Emphatic listening

Listening to understand the speaker's feelings, needs, and wants so that you can appreciate his or her point of view

Active Listenting

Making a conscious effort to turn off filters and biases to truly hear and understand what someone is saying

Virtual meetings

Meetings that take place online rather than in person

Assuming Team Roles

Members of a team play various roles, which fall into three categories. Members who assume self-oriented roles are motivated mainly to fulfill personal needs, so they tend to be less productive than other members. "Dream Teams" comprising multiple superstars often don't perform as well as one might expect because high performing individuals can have trouble putting the team's needs ahed of their own. IN addition, highly skilled and experienced people with difficult personalities might not contribute, for the simple reason that other team members may avoid interacting with them. Far more likely to contribute to team goals are members who assume team-maintenance roles to help everyone work well together and those who assume task-oriented roles to help the team reach its goals Each member of a group plays a role that affects the outcome of the group's activities.

Asking for information and action

Most simple requests can be handled with three message points: What you want to know or what you want your readers to do Why you're making the request Why it may be in your readers' interests to help you For simple requests, using the direct approach gets the job done with a minimum of fuss. In more complex situations you may need to provide more extensive reasons and justification for your request. If applicable, point out any benefits to the reader of com- plying with your request. Naturally, be sure to adapt your request to your audience and the situation (see Figure 10.1 on the next page). Routine requests can be handled with simple, straightforward messages, but more complicated requests may require additional justification and explanation.

Making Your Meetings More Productive

Much of your workplace communication will occur during in-person or online meetings, so your ability to contribute to the company—and to be recognized for your contributions—will depend to a large degree on your meeting skills. Well-run meetings can help companies solve problems, develop ideas, and identify opportunities. Meetings can also be a great way to promote team building through the experience of social interaction. As useful as meetings can be, though, they can be a waste of time if they aren't planned and managed well. You can help ensure productive meetings by preparing carefully, conducting meetings efficiently, and using meeting technologies wisely.

Improving Your Nonverbal Communication Skills

Nonverbal communication can supplement or even replace verbal messages (those that use words) Nonverbal communication is the interpersonal process of sending and receiving information, both intentionally and unintentionally, without using written or spoken language. Nonverbal signals play a vital role in communication because they can strengthen a verbal message (when the nonverbal signals match the spoken words), weaken a verbal message (when nonverbal signals don't match the words), or replace words entirely. For example, you might tell a client that a project is coming along nicely, but your forced smile and nervous glances will send an entirely different message.

Routine Request

OPEN: STATING YOUR REQUEST UP FRONT Pay attention to Tone Assume Audience Compliance Be specific BODY: EXPLAINING AND JUSTIFYING YOUR REQUEST Smooth and Logical Explanation Show Benefit to the Reader Ask the Most Important Question First Breakdown Complex Requests CLOSE: REQUESTING SPECIFC ACTION IN A COURTEOUS MANNER Specific Request and Deadline Contact Information Expression of Appreciation

IN-CLASS: REQUEST RECOMMENDATION

One of your colleagues, Katrina Vander, was recentl y promoted to department manager and now serves on 3B's strategic planning committee. At its monthly meeting next week, the committee wi ll choose an employee to lead an important market research project that will help define the company's product portfolio for the next five years. You worked side by side with Katrina for five years, so she knows your abilities well and has complimented your business i nsights on many occasions. You know that because she has only rece ntly been promoted to manager, she needs to build credibility among her p eers and will therefore be cautious about making such an important recommendat ion. On the other hand, making a stellar recommendation for such an i mportant project would show that she has a good eye for talent-- an essent ial leadership trait. Write an email to Katrina, telling her that you are definitely interested in leading the project and asking her to put in a good word for you with the committee. Congratulations on your promotion, Katrina. I understand the strategic planning committee will be choosing someone to lead the new market research initiative next month. This challen ge aligns well with my skills and experience, and I would be grateful if you could pu t in a word for me with the committee. I have acquired a breadth of industry-specific knowl edge during my time in the electronics field. I also have three years of experience in cust omer support, giving me firsthand knowledge of customer satisfaction and quality issu es. Plus, my engineering background allows me to better understand the technological as pects of product design. As you know personally from working with me for five years, I present a strong candidacy. Further, as you can see from my annual evaluations that I have always been a consistent and motivated contributor, with a rating of "Excell ent" or "Exceptional" in every category. Aside from direct project leadership, I have also i nitiated and organized the company's environmental programs for the past three years. Katrina, you have an exceptional eye for talent, so assuming you are comfortable in supporting my candidacy, I will work diligently to solidify that reputation. If you need any further information on my abilities to lead the mar ket research team, please let me know.

Overcoming Resistance

One particular type of conflict that can impede progress is resistance to change. Sometimes this resistance is clearly irrational, such as when people resist any kind of change, whether the change makes sense or not. Sometimes, however, resistance is perfectly logical. A change may require someone to relinquish authority or give up comfortable ways of doing things. Whenever you encounter resistance, your first instinct might be to argue even more forcefully for the proposed change. However, this approach is often counterproductive because it doesn't get at the roots of the resistance, and the other party is likely to dig in even deeper. Rather than pushing harder, stop talking and start listening. Apply the active listening skills discussed on page 52, and let people express their reservations about the change. Make sure the other party knows you are listening, too, by choosing your nonverbal gestures carefully and by expressing interest in and sympathy for their concerns. Listening encourages others to open up about their worries, which can help you address them, and it can unveil legitimate issues that you have failed to consider. With a line of communication open, recognize that your primary goal is not to win the argument but rather to build a relationship that can lead to solving the dilemma at hand.24 Even if you have the authority to force the change, if you rely on force alone you'll create resentment and probably fail to get the level of emotional agreement needed for true success. As you establish a comfortable working relationship, continue to be aware of elements of resistance that remain unspoken. For example, employees who bring up technical reasons for resisting a plan to improve efficiency may be worried deep down that the company will get so efficient it will no longer need them. Through the various types of active listening described later in the chapter, you can get a better idea of what's really behind the reluctance to change. Ask questions to make sure you understand the resistance and to confirm your understanding of it, then acknowledge the other party's concerns. With a better understanding of the resistance, the next step is to move toward a resolution through collaborative effort. Resisters will be more likely to listen to your reasoning after you've shown a willingness to listen to theirs, so calmly explain again why the change is in the organization's best interests. Even if you pursue the original plan without modification, those who initially resisted will now be more likely to cooperate and contribute. When you encounter resistance or hostility, try to maintain your composure and address the other person's emotional needs.

Using Nonverbal Communication Effectively

Paying attention to nonverbal cues makes you a better speaker and a better listener. When you're talking, be more conscious of the nonverbal cues you could be sending. Are they effective without being manipulative? Consider a situation in which an employee has come to you to talk about a raise. This situation is stressful for the employee, so don't say you're interested in what she has to tell you and then spend your time glancing at your computer or checking your watch. Conversely, if you already know you won't be able to give her the raise, be honest in your expression of emotions. Don't overcompensate for your own stress by smiling too broadly or shaking her hand too vigorously. Both nonverbal signals would raise her hopes without justification. In either case, match your nonverbal cues to the tone of the situation. Also consider the nonverbal signals you send when you're not talking—the clothes you wear, the way you sit, the way you walk (see Figure 2.8). Are you talking like a serious business professional but dressing like you belong in a dance club or a frat house? Whether or not you think it is fair to be judged on superficial matters, the truth is that you are judged this way. Don't let careless choices or disrespectful habits undermine all the great work you're doing on the job. When you listen, be sure to pay attention to the speaker's nonverbal cues. Do they amplify the spoken words or contradict them? Is the speaker intentionally using nonverbal signals to send you a message that he or she can't put into words? Be observant, but don't assume that you can "read someone like a book." Nonverbal signals are powerful, but they aren't infallible, particularly if you don't know a person's normal behavioral patterns.64 For example, contrary to popular belief, avoiding eye contact and covering one's face while talking are not reliable clues that someone is lying. Even when telling the truth, most people don't make uninterrupted eye contact with the listeners, and various gestures such as touching one's face might be normal behavior for particular people.65 Moreover, these and other behaviors may be influenced by culture (in some cultures, sustained eye contact can be interpreted as a sign of disrespect) or might just be ways of coping with stressful situations.66 If something doesn't feel right, ask the speaker an honest and respectful question; doing so may clear everything up, or it may uncover issues you need to explore further. See "Checklist: Improving Nonverbal Communication Skills" for a summary of key ideas regarding nonverbal skills. Work to make sure your nonverbal signals match the tone and content of your spoken communication.

Task-oriented roles

Productive team roles directed toward helping a team reach its goals

Team-maintenance roles

Productive team roles directed toward helping a team reach its goals

6 Common examples of Routine and Positive Messages

Requests (or answers) for information or action Granting claims or requests Providing recommendations Sharing routine information Announcing good news Fostering goodwill -Thank you notes! -Congratulations/condolences

Adjustment

Settlement of a claim

Routine Request 1: ASKING FOR INFORMATION AND ACTION

State Request Cleary Support Why You're Making the Request Appeal to Readers' Interest if Applicable

Negative Message Indirect

Subject Line: Change in Employee Benefits Since its formation, Purix has been able to boast s uperior benefits that include the highly valued childcare and tuition reimbursement programs as a w ay of rewarding and thanking our loyal long- term employees. Currently, financial constraints are threatening the viability of the company. In response to these external factors and as a way of preserving your he alth benefits, the "Family Benefit Package" will be phased out over the next five years. Therefore, Purix will pay 40% of childcare costs and 16% of college tuition expenses next year and then reduce the benefit by 20% each year until it expires altogether in five years. While we are sorry for the impact this change may h ave on you and your families, we are committed to helping you find alternatives. We are negotiatin g discounts at local childcare facilities and will hold college financial aid seminars. It is the integrity, passion, and loyalty of our em ployees that has built this firm into what it is tod ay, and the market downturns have no effect on that. We 'd like to extend our sincere appreciation for your commitment to Purix, whether you are a new int ern or a tenured employee. If you have any questions or concerns regarding thi s change in policy, please feel free to come by my office to discuss them.

Allowing for Team Evolution

Teams typically evolve through a number of phases on their way to becoming productive. A variety of models have been proposed to describe the evolution toward becoming a productive team Teams typically evolve through a variety of phases, such as orientation, conflict, brainstorming, emergence, and reinforcement. 1. Orientation. Team members socialize, establish their roles, and begin to define their task or purpose. Team-building exercises and activities can help teams break down barriers and develop a sense of shared purpose. For geographically dispersed virtual teams, creating a "team operating agreement" that sets expectations for online meetings, communication processes, and decision making can help overcome the disadvantages of distance. 2. Conflict. Team members begin to discuss their positions and become more assertive in establishing their roles. Disagreements and uncertainties are natural in this phase. 3. Brainstorming. Team members air all the options and fully discuss the pros and cons of each. At the end of this phase, members begin to settle on a single solution to the problem. Note that although group brainstorming remains a highly popular activity in today's companies, it may not always be the most productive way to generate new ideas. Some research indicates that having people brainstorm individually and then bring their ideas to a group meeting is more successful. 4. Emergence. Consensus is reached when the team finds a solution that all members are willing to support (even if they have reservations). 5.Reinforcement.The team clarifies and summarizes the agreed-on solution. Members receive their assignments for carrying out the group's decision, and they make arrangements for following up on those assignments.

Ending with a courteous close

The close of routine replies and positive messages is usually short and simple because you're leaving things on a neutral or positive note and not usually asking for the reader to do anything. Often, a simple thank you is all you need. However, if follow-up action is required or expected, use the close to identify who will do what and when that action will take place. For a quick reminder of the steps involved in writing routine replies and positive messages, see "Checklist: Writing Routine Replies and Positive Messages." In the close, make sure audience members understand what to do next and how that action will benefit them (if applicable).

Preparing for Meetings

The first step in preparing for a meeting is to make sure the meeting is really necessary. Meetings can consume hundreds or thousands of dollars of productive time while taking people away from other work, so don't hold a meeting if some other form of communication (such as a blog post) can serve the purpose as effectively.If a meeting is truly necessary, proceed with these four planning tasks: Define your purpose. Meetings can focus on exchanging information, reaching decisions, or collaborating to solve problems or identify opportunities. Whatever your purpose, define the best possible result of the meeting (such as "we carefully evaluated all three product ideas and decided which one to invest in"). Use this hoped-for result to shape the direction and content of the meeting. Select participants for the meeting. The rule here is simple: Invite everyone who really needs to be involved, and don't invite anyone who doesn't. For decision-making meetings, for example, invite only those people who are in a direct position to help the meeting reach its objective. The more people you have, the longer it will take to reach consensus. Meetings with more than 10 or 12 people can become unmanageable if everyone is expected to participate in the discussion and decision making. Choose the venue and the time. Online meetings (see page 50) are often the best way—and sometimes the only way—to connect people in multiple locations or to reach large audiences. For in-person meetings, review the facility and the seating arrangements. Is theater-style seating suitable, or do you need a conference table or some other layout? Pay attention to room temperature, lighting, ventilation, acoustics, and refreshments; these details can make or break a meeting. If you have control over the timing, morning meetings are often more productive because people are generally more alert and not yet engaged with the work of the day. Set the agenda. The success of a meeting depends on the preparation of the participants. Distribute a carefully written agenda to participants, giving them enough time to prepare as needed (see Figure 2.4 on the next page). A productive agenda answers three key questions: (1) What do we need to do in this meeting to accomplish our goals? (2) What issues are of greatest importance to all participants? (3) What information must be available in order to discuss these issues? To ensure a successful meeting, decide on your purpose ahead of time, select the right participants, choose the venue and time, and set a clear agenda.

Using the Indirect Approach for Negative message

The indirect approach helps prepare readers for the bad news by presenting the reasons for it first. However, the indirect approach is not meant to obscure bad news, delay it, or limit your responsibility. Rather, the purpose of this approach is to ease the blow and help readers accept the situation. When done poorly, the indirect approach can be disrespectful and even unethical. But when done well, it is a good example of audience-oriented com- munication crafted with attention to ethics and etiquette. Showing consideration for the feelings of others is never dishonest. Use the indirect approach when some preparation will help your audience accept your bad news. Opening with a buffer Messages using the indirect approach open with a bu er: a neutral statement that estab- lishes common ground with the reader without revealing the main idea (refer to Figure 11.1). A good buffer can express your appreciation for being considered (if you're respond- ing to a request), assure the reader of your attention to the request, or indicate your understanding of the reader's needs. A good buffer also needs to be relevant and sincere. In contrast, a poorly written buffer might trivialize the reader's concerns, divert atten- tion from the problem with insincere flattery or irrelevant material, or mislead the reader into thinking your message actually contains good news. Consider these possible responses to a manager of the order-fulfillment department who requested some temporary staffing help from your department (a request you won't be able to fulfill): Our department shares your goal of processing orders quickly and efficiently. A well-written buffer establishes common ground with the reader. Providing Reasons and additional information An effective buffer serves as a transition to the next part of your message, in which you build up the explanations and information that will culminate in your negative news. An ideal explanation section leads readers to your conclusion before you come right out and say it. In other words, the reader has followed your line of reasoning and is ready for the answer. By giving your reasons effectively, as Hailo did in its email message (see page 294), you help maintain focus on the issues at hand and defuse the emotions that always accom- pany significantly bad news. As much as possible, avoid hiding behind company policy to cushion your bad news. If you say, "Company policy forbids our hiring anyone who does not have two years' supervisory experience," you imply that you won't consider anyone on his or her individ- ual merits. By sharing the reasons behind the policy (if appropriate in the circumstances), you can give readers a more satisfying answer. Consider this response to an applicant: Because these management positions are quite challeng- ing, the human resources department has researched the qualifications needed to succeed in them. The findings show that the two most important qualifications are a bachelor's degree in business administration and two years' supervisory experience. This paragraph does a good job of stating reasons for the refusal: ● It provides enough detail to logically support the refusal. ● It implies that the applicant is better off avoiding a program in which he or she might fail. ● It shows that the company's policy is based on experience and careful analysis. ● It doesn't offer an apology for the decision because no one is at fault. ● It avoids negative personal expressions (such as "You do not meet our requirements"). Even valid, well-thought-out reasons won't convince every reader in every situation. However, if you've done a good job of laying out your reasoning, you've done everything you can to prepare the reader for the main idea, which is the negative news itself. Don't hide behind "company policy" when you deliver bad news; present logical answers instead. Well-written reasons are • Detailed • Tactful • Individualized • Unapologetic if no one is at fault • Positive Continuing With a Clear State of the Bad News After you've thoughtfully and logically established your reasons and readers are prepared to receive the bad news, you can use three techniques to convey the negative information as clearly and as kindly as possible. First, deemphasize the bad news: ● Minimize the space or time devoted to the bad news—without trivializing it or with- holding any important information. ● Subordinate bad news in a complex or compound sentence ("My department is already shorthanded, so I'll need all my staff for at least the next two months"). This construction presents the bad news in the middle of the sentence, the point of least emphasis. ● Place bad news in the middle of a paragraph or use parenthetical expressions ("Our profits, which are down, are only part of the picture"). Keep in mind, however, that it's possible to abuse deemphasis. For instance, if the primary point of your message is that profits are down, it would be inappropriate to mar- ginalize that news by burying it in the middle of a sentence. State the negative news clearly, and then make a smooth transition to any positive news that might balance the story. Second, if appropriate, use a conditional (if or when) statement to imply that the audience could have received, or might someday receive, a favorable answer ("When you have more managerial experience, you are welcome to reapply"). Such a statement could motivate applicants to improve their qualifications. However, avoid any suggestion that you might reverse the decision you've just made, and refrain from any phrasing that could give readers false hope. Third, emphasize what you can do or have done rather than what you cannot do. Say "We sell exclusively through retailers, and the one nearest you that carries our merchan- dise is . . ." rather than "We are unable to serve you, so please call your nearest dealer." Also, by implying the bad news, you may not need to actually state it, thereby making the bad news less personal ("Our development budget for next year is fully committed to our existing slate of projects"). By focusing on the facts and implying the bad news, you make the impact less personal. When implying bad news, however, be sure your audience will be able to grasp the entire message—including the bad news. Withholding negative information or overempha- sizing positive information is unethical and unfair to your reader. If an implied message might lead to uncertainty, state your decision in direct terms. Just be sure to avoid overly blunt statements that are likely to cause pain and anger: Instead of This I must refuse your request.We must deny your application.I am unable to grant your request.We cannot afford to continue the program. Much as I would like to attend . . .We must turn down your extension request. Write This I will be out of town on the day you need me. The position has been filled.Contact us again when you have established . . . The program will conclude on May 1. Our budget meeting ends too late for me to attend. Please send in your payment by June 14. To handle bad news carefully Deemphasize the bad news visually and grammatically Use a conditional statement, if appropriate Tell what you did do, not what you didn't do Don't disguise bad news when you emphasize the positive. Closing on a Respectful Note As with the direct approach, the close in the indirect approach offers an opportunity to emphasize your respect for your audience, even though you've just delivered unpleasant news. Express best wishes without ending on a falsely upbeat note. If you can find a positive angle that's meaningful to your audience, by all means consider adding it to your conclusion. However, don't try to pretend that the negative news didn't happen or that it won't affect the reader. Suggest alternative solutions if such information is available and doing so is a good use of your time. If you've asked readers to decide between alternatives or to take some action, make sure that they know what to do, when to do it, and how to do it. Whatever type of conclusion you use, follow these guidelines: ● Avoid an uncertain conclusion. If the situation or decision is final, avoid statements such as "I trust our decision is satisfactory," which imply that the matter is open to discussion or negotiation. ● Manage future correspondence. Encourage additional communication only if you're willing to discuss the situation further. (If you're not, avoid statements such as "If you have further questions, please write.") ● Express optimism, if appropriate. If the situation might improve in the future, share that with your readers if it's relevant. However, don't suggest the possibility of a posi- tive change if you don't have insight that it might happen. ● Be sincere. Steer clear of clichés that are insincere in view of the bad news. (If you can't help, don't say, "If we can be of any help, please contact us.") Keep in mind that the close is the last thing audience members have to remember you by. Even though they're disappointed, leave them with the impression that they were treated with respect. A positive close Builds goodwill Offers a suggestion for action Provides a look toward the future

Routine Message Outline

The informative subject line alerts the audience to an important request The opening explains the context of the message, then gets to the point of the request The body explains the benefit of responding to the request The close provides a clear deadline, then concludes in a courteous manner

Group Dynamics

The interactions and processes that take place among the members of a team Productive teams tend to develop norms, informal standards of conduct that members share and that guide behavior. Group dynamics are influenced by several factors; the roles team members assume, the current phase of team development, the team's success in resolving conflict, and the team's success in overcoming resistance

Common Examples of Routine Requests

The most common types of routine messages are asking for information or action, asking for recommendations, and making claims and requesting adjustments

Characteristics of Effective Teams

The most effective teams have a clear objective and shared sense of purpose, have a strong sense of trust in each other, communicate openly and honestly, reach decisions by consensus, think creatively, know how to resolve conflict, and believe that their work matters. Teams that have these attributes can focus their time and energy on their work, without being disrupted by destructive conflict "Effective teams have a clear sense of purpose, open and honest communication, consensus-based decision making, creativity, and effective conflict resolution." In contrast, teams lacking one or more of these attributes can get bogged down in conflict or waste time and resources pursuing unclear goals. Common reasons for dysfunctional team efforts include management expectations that are either unclear or not accepted by all team members, a reluctance by team members to prioritize team goals over their personal goals, reward systems that don't recognize team contributions, and leadership that tolerates negative and counterproductive behaviors

Asking for recommendations

The need to inquire about people arises often in business. For example, before awarding contracts, jobs, promotions, or scholarships, companies often ask applicants to supply references. Companies ask applicants to list people who can vouch for their ability, skills, integrity, character, and fitness for the job. Before you volunteer someone's name as a refer- ence, ask permission. Some people don't want you to use their names, perhaps because they don't know enough about you to feel comfortable writing a letter or because they or their employers have a policy of not providing recommendations. Requests for recommendations and references are routine, so you can organize your inquiry using the direct approach. Open your message by clearly stating why the recom- mendation is required (if it's not for a job, be sure to explain its purpose) and that you would like your reader to write the letter. If you haven't had contact with the person for some time, use the opening to trigger the reader's memory of the relationship you had, the dates of association, and any special events or accomplishments that might bring a clear and favorable picture of you to mind. Close your message with an expression of appreciation and the full name and address (email or physical address) of the person to whom the message should be sent. When asking for an immediate recommendation, you should also mention the deadline. For printed letters, always be sure to enclose a stamped, preaddressed envelope as a convenience to the other party. Figure 10.2 on the next page provides an example of a request that follows these guidelines. Always ask for permission before using someone as a reference. Refresh the memory of any potential reference you haven't been in touch with for a while.

Effective Request for a Recommendation

The opening states the purpose of the letter and makes the request, assuming the reader will want to comply The body refers to the enclosed resume and mentions experience that could set the applicant apart from other candidates- information the professor could use in writing the recommendation The close is warm and respectful

Using Meeting Technologies

Today's companies use a number of technologies to enhance or even replace traditional in-person meetings. Holding virtual meetings can dramatically reduce costs and resource usage, reduce wear and tear on employees, and give teams access to a wider pool of expertise (see Figure 2.6). Instant messaging (IM) and teleconferencing are the simplest forms of virtual meetings. Videoconferencing lets participants see and hear each other, demonstrate products, and transmit other visual information. Telepresence (see Figure 2.7) enables realistic conferences in which participants thousands of miles apart almost seem to be in the same room.42 The ability to convey nonverbal subtleties such as facial expressions and hand gestures makes these systems particularly good for negotiations, collaborative problem solving, and other complex discussions.43 The most sophisticated web-based meeting systems combine the best of real-time communication, shared workspaces, and videoconferencing with other tools, such as virtual whiteboards, that let teams collaborate in real time. Such systems are used for everything from spontaneous discussions among small groups to carefully planned formal events such as press conferences, training sessions, sales presentations, and webinars (webbased seminars).44 One of the newest virtual tools is online brainstorming, in which a company can conduct "idea campaigns" to generate new ideas from people across the organization. Conducting successful virtual meetings requires extra planning beforehand and more diligence during the meeting. Recognizing the limitations of the virtual meeting format is a key to using it successfully.45 Because virtual meetings offer less visual contact and nonverbal communication than in-person meetings, for example, leaders need to make sure everyone stays engaged and has the opportunity to contribute. Participants have a responsibility to pay attention and avoid the temptation to work on other tasks. To keep everyone focused, make sure the meeting time is dedicated to discussion and interaction, rather than getting everyone up to speed on the issues. Distribute background information before the meeting so that participants can join the meeting ready to collaborate Conducting successful virtual meetings requires extra planning and more diligence during the meeting

Self-oriented roles

Unproductive team roles in which people are motivated mainly to fulfill personal needs

Persuasive Requests for Action

Use the Direct Approach for Anticipated Requests Use the Indirect Approach or AIDA for Unanticipated Requests Open with an Attention Getting Device Goals Gain Credibility Convince Your Readers You Will Help Solve a Problem

EXPLAINING AND JUSTIFYING YOUR REQUEST

Use the body of your message to explain your request, as needed. Make the explanation a smooth and logical out-growth of your opening remarks. If complying with the request could benefit the reader, be sure to mention that.If you have multiple requests or questions, ask the most important questions first and deal with only one topic per question. If you have an unusual or complex request, break it down into specific, individual questions so that the reader can address each one sepa- rately. This consideration not only shows respect for your audience's time but also gets you a more accurate answer in less time.

Providing necessary details and explanation

Use the body to explain your point completely so that your audience won't be confused about or doubt your meaning. As you provide the details, maintain the supportive tone established in the opening. This tone is easy to continue when your message is entirely positive, as in this example: Your educational background and internship have impressed us, and we believe you would be a valuable addition to Green Valley Properties. As discussed during your inter- view, your salary will be $4,300 per month, plus benefits. Please plan to meet with our benefits manager, Paula Sanchez, at 8 a.m. on Monday, March 21. She will assist you with all the paperwork necessary to tailor our benefit package to your family situation. She will also arrange various orientation activities to help you get on board with the Green Valley team. However, if your routine message is mixed and must convey mildly disappointing information, put the negative portion of your message into as favorable a context as possible: Instead of This No, we no longer carry the HealthTrakk Model V fitness watch. Write This The new HealthTrakk Optima has replacedthe HealthTrakk Model V. The Optima model features a wider range of band colors and new tracking features, including GPS for outdoor fitness activities. Try to embed any negative infor- mation in a positive context. In this example, the more complete description is less negative and emphasizes how the recipient can benefit from the change. Be careful, though: Use negative information in this type of message only if you're reasonably sure the audience will respond positively. Other- wise, use the indirect approach (discussed in Chapter 11). If you are communicating with a customer, you might also want to use the body of your message to assure the person of the wisdom of his or her purchase (without being condescending or self-congratulatory). Using such favorablecomments, often known as resale, is a good way to build cus-tomer relationships. These comments are commonly includedin acknowledgments of orders and other routine announce-ments to customers, and they are most effective when theyare short and specific: The KitchenAid mixer you ordered is our best-selling model. It should meet your cooking needs for many years.

Stating Your Request Up Front

With routine requests, you can make your request at the beginning of the message. Of course, getting right to the point should not be interpreted as license to be abrupt or tactless Pay Attention to tone. Instead of demanding action ("Send me the latest version of the budget spreadsheet"), show respect by using words such as please and I would appreciate. Assume that your audience will comply. You can generally assume that your readers will comply with routine requests, so you don't need to devote a lot of time or energy toward trying to convince them to do so. Be specific. State precisely what you want. For example, if you request the latest mar- ket data from your research department, be sure to say whether you want a 1-page summary or 100 pages of raw data. Take care that your direct approach doesn't come across as abrupt or tactless

Strategies for Persuasive Business Messages-Text

Within the context of the three-step process, effective persuasion involves four essential strategies: framing your arguments, balancing emotional and logical appeals, reinforcing your position, and anticipating objections. (Note that all the concepts in this section apply as well to marketing and sales messages, covered later in the chapter.) Framing Your Arguments As noted previously, most persuasive messages use the indirect approach. Experts in per- suasive communication have developed a number of indirect models for such messages. One of the best known is the AIDA model, which organizes messages into four phases (see Figure 12.2): Attention. Your first objective is to encourage your audience to want to hear about your problem, idea, or new product—whatever your main idea is. Be sure to find some common ground on which to build your case. Interest. Provide additional details that prompt audience members to imagine how the solution might benefit them. ● Desire. Help audience members embrace your idea by explaining how the change will benefit them and answering potential objections. ● Action. Suggest the specific action you want your audience to take. Include a deadline, when applicable. The AIDA model is tailor-made for using the indirect approach, allowing you to save your main idea for the action phase. However, you can also use AIDA for the direct approach, in which case you use your main idea as an attention-getter, build interest with your argument, create desire with your evidence, and reemphasize your main idea in the action phase with the specific action you want your audience to take. When your AIDA message uses the indirect approach and is delivered by memo or email, keep in mind that your subject line usually catches your reader's eye first. Your challenge is to make it interesting and relevant enough to capture the reader's attention without revealing your main idea. If you put your request in the subject line, you might get a quick no before you've had a chance to present your arguments: Instead of This Request for development budget to add automated IM response system Write This Reducing the cost of customer support inquiries With either the direct or indirect approach, AIDA and similar models do have limita- tions. First, AIDA is a unidirectional method that essentially talks at audiences, not with them. Second, AIDA is built around a single event, such as asking an audience for a deci- sion, rather than on building a mutually beneficial, long-term relationship.8 AIDA is still a valuable tool for the right purposes, but as you'll read later in the chapter, a conversational approach is more compatible with today's social media environment. The AIDA model is a useful approach for many persuasive messages:• Attention • Interest • Desire • Action The AIDA model is ideal for the indirect approach. The AIDA approach does have limitations:• It essentially talks at audiences, not with them• It focuses on one-time events, not long-term relationships Balancing Emotional and Logical Appeals Imagine you're sitting at a control panel with one knob labeled "logic" and another labeled "emotion." As you prepare persuasive messages, carefully adjust each knob, tuning the message for maximum impact (see Figure 12.3). Too little emotion, and your audience might not care enough to respond. Too much emotion, and your audience might think you are ignoring tough business questions or even being irrational. In general, persuasive business messages rely more heavily on logical than on emo- tional appeals because the main idea is usually to save money, increase quality, or improve some other practical, measurable aspect of business. To find the optimum balance, con- sider four factors: (1) the actions you hope to motivate, (2) your readers' expectations, (3) the degree of resistance you need to overcome, and (4) your position in the formal and informal power structure of the organization. Emotional appeals attempt to connect with the reader's feelings or sympathies. As its name implies, an emotional appeal calls on audience feelings and sympathies rather than on facts, figures, and rational arguments. For instance, you can make use of the emotion surrounding certain words. The word freedom evokes strong feelings, as do words such as success, prestige, compassion, security, and comfort. Such words can help put your audience members in a positive frame of mind and help them accept your message. However, emotional appeals in business messages aren't usually effective by themselves because the audience wants proof that you can solve a business problem. Even if your audi- ence members reach a conclusion based primarily on emotions, they'll look to you to provide logical support as well. Logical Appeals A logical appeal calls on reasoning and evidence. The basic approach with a logical appeal is to make a claim based on a rational argument, supported by solid evi- dence. When appealing to your audience's logic, you might use three types of reasoning: ● Analogy. With analogy, you reason from specific evidence to specific evidence, in effect "borrowing" from something familiar to explain something unfamiliar. For instance, to convince the executive committee to hire leadership coaches for newly promoted managers, you might say it's like hiring a nutritionist or a personal trainer to help one develop positive habits and healthy routines. ● Induction. With inductive reasoning, you work from specific evidence to a general conclusion. To convince your team to change to a new manufacturing process, for example, you could point out that every company that has adopted it has increased profits, so it must be a smart idea. ● Deduction. With deductive reasoning, you work from a generalization to a specific conclusion. To persuade your boss to hire additional customer support staff, you might point to industry surveys that show how crucial customer satisfaction is to corporate profits. Every method of reasoning is vulnerable to misuse, both intentional and uninten- tional, so verify your rational arguments carefully. For example, in the case of the manu- facturing process, are there any other factors that affect the integrity of your reasoning? What if that process works well only for small companies with few products, but your firm is a multinational behemoth with 10,000 products? To guard against faulty logic, follow these guidelines: Avoid hasty generalizations. Make sure you have plenty of evidence before drawing conclusions. ● Avoid circular reasoning. Circular reasoning is a logical fallacy in which you try to support your claim by restating it in different words. The statement "We know tem- porary workers cannot handle this task because temps are unqualified for it" doesn't prove anything because the claim and the supporting evidence are essentially identical. It doesn't prove why the temps are unqualified. ● Avoid attacking an opponent. If your persuasive appeal involves countering a compet- itive appeal made by someone else, make sure you attack the argument your opponent is making, not his or her character or qualifications. ● Avoid oversimplifying a complex issue. Make sure you present all the factors and don't reduce a wide range of choices to a simple "either/or" scenario if that isn't the case. ● Avoid mistaken assumptions of cause and e ect. If you can't isolate the impact of a specific factor, you can't assume that it's the cause of whatever effect you're discuss- ing. You lowered prices, and sales went up. Were lower prices the cause? Maybe, but the sales increase might have been caused by a better advertising campaign, changes in the weather, or some other factor. Logical appeals are based on the reader's notions of reason; these appeals can use analogy, induc- tion, or deduction. ● Avoid faulty analogies. Be sure that the two objects or situ- ations being compared are similar enough for the analogy to hold. For instance, explaining that an Internet firewall is like a prison wall is a poor analogy because a firewall keeps things out, whereas a prison wall keeps things in. ● Avoid illogical support. Make sure the connection between your claim and your support is truly logical and not based on a leap of faith, a missing premise, or irrel- evant evidence. Logical appeals are based on the reader's notions of reason; these appeals can use analogy, induc- tion, or deduction. Using logical appeals carries with it the ethical responsibility to avoid faulty logic. Logical Proposal to boost productivity and reduce absenteeism Emotion Proposal to improve employee satisfaction and work/life balance Reinforcing Your Position Choose your words carefully to trigger the desired responses. After you've worked out the basic elements of your argument, step back and look for ways to strengthen your position. Are all your claims supported by believable evidence? Would a quotation from a recognized expert help make your case? Next, examine your language. Can you find more powerful words to convey your mes- sage? For example, if your company is in serious financial trouble, talking about ghting for survival is a more powerful emotional appeal than talking about ensuring continued operations. As with any other powerful tool, though, use vivid language and abstractions carefully and honestly. In addition to examining individual word choices, consider using metaphors and other figures of speech. If you want to describe a quality-control system as being designed to detect every possible product flaw, you might call it a "spider web" to imply that it catches everything that comes its way. Similarly, anecdotes (brief stories) can help your audience grasp the meaning and importance of your arguments. Instead of just listing the number of times the old laptop computers in your department have failed, you could describe how you lost a sale when your computer broke down during a critical sales presentation. Beyond specific words and phrases, look for other factors that can reinforce your position. When you're asking for something, your audience members will find it easier to grant your request if they stand to benefit from it as well. Anticipating Objections Even the most compelling ideas and proposals can be expected to encounter some initial resistance. The best way to deal with audience resistance is to anticipate as many objec- tions as you can and address them in your message before your audience can even bring them up. For instance, if you know that your proposal to switch to lower-cost materials will raise concerns about product quality, address this issue head-on in your message. If you wait until people raise the concern after reading your message, they may gravitate toward another firm before you have a chance to address their concerns. By bringing up such potential problems right away, you also demonstrate a broad appreciation of the issue and imply confidence in your message.11 This anticipation is particularly important when you're not delivering a message in person and won't have the opportunity to detect and respond to objections on the spot. To uncover potential audience objections, try to poke holes in your own theories and ideas before your audience does. Then find solutions to the problems you've uncovered. If possible, ask your audience members for their thoughts on the subject before you put together your argument; people are more likely to support solutions they help create. Keep two things in mind when anticipating objections. First, you don't always have to explicitly discuss a potential objection. You could simply mention that the lower-cost materials have been tested and approved by the quality-control department. Second, if you expect a hostile audience—one biased against your plan from the beginning—present all sides of the story. As you cover each option, explain the pros and cons. You'll gain additional credibility if you present these options before presenting your recommenda- tion or decision. Even powerful persuasive mes- sages can encounter audience resistance If you expect to encounter strong resistance, present all sides of an issue.

Minutes

Written summary of the important information presented and the decisions made during a meeting

Recognizing Nonverbal Communication

You've been tuned in to nonverbal communication since your first contact with other human beings. Paying special attention to nonverbal signals in the workplace will enhance your ability to communicate successfully. Moreover, as you work with a diverse range of people in the global marketplace, you'll also need to grasp the different meanings of common gestures, expressions, and other signals in various cultures. Six types of signals are particularly important: Facial expression. Your face is the primary vehicle for expressing your emotions; it reveals both the type and the intensity of your feelings.60 Your eyes are especially effective for indicating attention and interest, influencing others, regulating interaction, and establishing dominance. Gesture and posture. The way you position and move your body expresses both specific and general messages, some voluntary and some involuntary. Many gestures—a wave of the hand, for example—have specific and intentional meanings. Other types of body movement are unintentional and express more general messages. Slouching, leaning forward, fidgeting, and walking briskly are all unconscious signals that can reveal whether you feel confident or nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive or passive, powerful or powerless. Vocal characteristics. Voice carries both intentional and unintentional messages. A speaker can intentionally control pitch, pace, and stress to convey a specific message. For instance, compare "What are you doing?" and "What are you doing?" Unintentional vocal characteristics can convey happiness, surprise, fear, and other emotions (for example, fear often increases the pitch and pace of your speaking voice). Personal appearance. People respond to others on the basis of their physical appearance, sometimes fairly and other times unfairly. Although an individual's body type and facial features impose some limitations on appearance, you can control grooming, clothing, accessories, piercings, tattoos, and hairstyle. To make a good impression, adopt the style of the people you want to impress. Many employers also have guidelines concerning attire, body art, and other issues, so make sure you understand and follow them. Touch. Touch is an important way to convey warmth, comfort, and reassurance—as well as control. Touch is so powerful, in fact, that it is governed by cultural customs that establish who can touch whom and how in various circumstances. Even within each culture's norms, however, individual attitudes toward touch vary widely. A manager might be comfortable using hugs to express support or congratulations, but his or her subordinates could interpret those hugs as a show of dominance or sexual interest. Touch is a complex subject. The best advice: When in doubt, don't touch. Time and space. Like touch, time and space can be used to assert authority, imply intimacy, and send other nonverbal messages. For instance, some people try to demonstrate their own importance or disregard for others by making other people wait; others show respect by being on time. Similarly, taking care not to invade private space, such as standing too close when talking, is a way to show respect for others. Keep in mind that expectations regarding both time and space vary by culture. Nonverbal signals include facial expression, gesture and posture, vocal characteristics, personal appearance, touch, and time and space.

Improving your listening skills

Your long-term career prospects are closely tied to your ability to listen effectively. In fact, some 80 percent of top executives say listening is the most important skill needed to get things done in the workplace.47 Plus, today's younger employees place a high premium on being heard, so listening is becoming even more vital for managers.48 Effective listening strengthens organizational relationships, alerts the organization to opportunities for innovation, and allows the organization to manage growing diversity both among the workforce and among the customers it serves.49 Companies whose employees and managers listen effectively are able to stay informed, up to date, and out of trouble. Conversely, poor listening skills can cost companies millions of dollars per year as a result of lost opportunities, legal mistakes, and other errors. Effective listening is also vital to the process of building trust between organizations and between individuals.