Blood

natural killer cells

Among the innate defenses, _____________ are part of the 2nd line of defense. They make up a small part of the lymphocyte population and defend against viruses and cancer cells. They secrete substances that lyse external membranes.

protein, heme

As the damaged red blood cells rupture as they pass through the liver and spleen, hemoglobin is broken down into ______ and ______.

DNA synthesis

B-complex vitamins are necessary for _____________.

Type AB

Both antigens A and B=

liver, spleen

Damaged red blood cells rupture as they pass through the _____ and ______.

thymus, T-cells, 70-80, lymph nodes, spleen, B-cells, 20-30

During fetal development, unspecified lymphocytes to 1 of 2 things: They are released from the bone marrow and sent to the _______ where they become _______. _______% leave the thymus to become circulating lymphocytes. The remaining 20-30% stay in the ________ and _________. OR they will remain the bone marrow and become ________ where ______% leave and become circulating lymphocytes. The remaining ones go to the lymphatic tissues with the T-cells.

cytokines

During the humoral immune response, a non-self antigen is presented to a helper T cell, causing activation. Then the activate helper T cells come into contact with a B cell. The helper T cells then release ________.

nucleotides

Either ingested or from internal sources; components of DNA and RNA.

erythroblasts

Erythropoietin causes stem cells to divide and differentiate into __________.

1

In the cellular fraction, white blood cells make up about __%.

agranulocytes

Monocytes and Lymphocytes are all ____________ (WBC type)

Type O

Neither antigens A or B=

mechanical

Of the 6 innate body defenses, which is the only one considered the body's first line of defense?

positive chemotaxis

Phenomenon where damaged cells release chemicals. These chemicals attract white blood cells.

proteins

Plasma _______ are the most abundant substances in plasma (except water.) They always remain in the blood because, due to their size, they cannot diffuse through the vessels, which, in turn, creates osmotic pressure. They are not used for an energy source.

thromboxane

Platelets function to help repair the damage to the lining of blood vessels (stick to the broken surfaces; part of the clotting system that produce a "patch.") They create a clot over a damaged lining in a blood vessel (produce _________, a lipid compound that causes platelets to aggregate; also causes new platelets to be formed.

activated, antigen presenting cell

T-cells must be ______ so they can respond to an antigen. Fragments of an antigen are attached to the surface of another cell. This cell is termed an ___________________.

mechanical, chemical, natural killer cells, inflammation, phagocytosis, fever

There are 6 innate body defenses. Name them all.

antigen

_________ is any substance that can cause an immune response.

antibodies

proteins that are specific to a foreign material; bind to the foreign material so it can be eliminated.

memory T cells

After activation, cytotoxic T cells divide into either more cytotoxic T cells or __________. These do not respond to the initial exposure of the non-self antigen, but held in reserve for subsequent exposures. If ever exposed again, these T cells divide immediately in cytotoxic T cells and destroy cells with the same SPECIFIC non-self antigen. They also divide into more of themselves.

red bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells

All of our blood cells are developed in the ______________ and originate from _______________________.

platelets

Also called thrombocytes, are fragments of a larger cell. They develop from stem cells in the bone marrow stimulated by the hormone thrombo. Stem cells become megakaryocytes (these fragment into small sections of cytoplasm). The fragments become ________ as they pass through the capillaries of the lungs.

phagocytosis

Among the innate defenses, _________ is part of the 2nd line of the body's defenses. It functions to remove foreign particles and dead cells. Monocytes are attracted by chemotaxis and they become macrophages when they leave the blood and enter the tissue. They can engulf up to 100 bacteria.

inflammation, neutrophils, monocytes, fibrinogen, fibroblasts

Among the innate defenses, ___________ is part of the 2nd line of the body's defenses. Redness occurs with increase blood flow to the site, swelling occurs due to the leakage of fluid into the site, and heat occurs due to the increased blood flow from deeper parts of the body. ________ arrive 1st, _________ arrive 2nd and become macrophages, increased fluid contains _______ which is converted to fibrin, _______ arrive which produce connective tissue fibers, and the fibrin and CT fibers are used to "wall off" the infected area (i.e. abscess.)

pathogen

An agent that causes disease

interleukin-1

Another 2nd line of defense among the innate defenses is fever. It is produced by lymphocytes when they release a substance called _________. It raises the thermoregulatory set point in the hypothalamus. The increased temperature causes the spleen and liver to pull iron from the blood as bacteria and fungi need it for metabolism, so this can slow or even stop the growth. It also increases phagocytosis by macrophages.

enzymes, defensins

Another chemical innate defense are _______ in body fluids that kill pathogens. Also, _______ are produce by neutrophils and make holes in the outer membranes of pathogens.

collectins

Another innate chemical defense are groups of proteins called _________. They provide broad protection against bacteria, yeasts, and some viruses. They bind to the sugars that are found on the outer membranes of pathogens, which makes phagocytosis of pathogens easier.

light chains, heavy chains

Antibodies are composed of 4 amino acids, 2 identical smaller chains, called ___________, and 2 identical large chains, called __________.

direct attack

Antibodies react to antigens in 3 ways. The first of these is __________. They bind to the antigen, cause them to clump (agglutinate) and makes phagocytosis easier.

activates complement proteins

Antibodies react to antigens in 3 ways. The second of these is _________________________. Extra proteins coat the antibody-antigen complex, makes phagocytosis easier, attracts macrophages and neutrophils (another form of chemotaxis) and ruptures membranes of foreign cells.

promotes inflammation

Antibodies react to antigens in 3 ways. The third of these is __________________. Antibodies usually attach to mast cells which cause the release of histamine and heparin.

inflammation

Basophils release histamine and heparin; histamine causes dilation of small blood vessels and the very smallest vessels to become "leaky." This increases blood flow to the area (becomes red). Fluid leaks into the interstitial spaces (swelling). Swelling delays the microorganisms from spreading to other areas. When bacteria, WBC's, and damaged cells accumulated in the inflamed area, it produces a thick, "soupy" fluid, called pus. Heparin prevents blood from clotting and allows blood flow to the area to remain high.

infection

Condition when a Pathogen invades and multiplies itself (reproduces) in a tissue of the body.

absent

Following birth, an individual will produce antibodies to the ______ antigen.

Rh negative

If an individual's RBCs lack all of the Rh antigens, their blood is referred to as _________.

Rh positive

If any of the Rh antigens are present on an individual's RBC's, their blood is referred to as _________.

humoral

If the immune response is B-cell mediated, then it is referred to as ________ immune response because something the B-cells produce will do the work.

cellular

If the immune response is T-cell mediated, then it is referred to as ________ immune response because the cell itself will do the work.

toxins, metabolic by-products

Immunity is resistance to specific pathogens, _______ of the specific pathogen (i.e. tetanus, botulism, cholera), or ______________ of the specific pathogen. (pneumonia, kidney infections, PID)

oxygen

In a sample of blood, it is often necessary to determine the cellular fraction compared to the fluid fraction because it gives an indication of ________ carrying capacity, or the body's ability to produce ATP.

variable region, constant region

In antibodies, each of the 4 amino acid chains has a _________ and a __________.

MHC

In step one of the cellular immune response, bacteria is taken up by macrophages and digested in its lysosomes. The antigens from the bacteria are combined with the cell's _______. These are then presented on the cell membrane of the cell. T-cells that come into contact with the cell recognize the antigen as non-self. This activates the T-cells.

Rh

In the _____ blood group, it includes several red blood cell surface proteins. In humans, the most common is antigen D.

intrinsic, factor XII, prothrombin activator

In the _______ clotting mechanism, all of the components are from within blood, unlike those in the extrinsic pathway. This pathway is started when blood comes into contact with a foreign substance in the absence of tissue damage (i.e. plaque). This activates _________ which starts a series of reactions. The series causes platelets to produce and release ________________. From this point, the pathway is the same as the extrinsic clotting mechanism.

thrombin, thrombin, fibrinogen, fibrin

In the blood, prothrombin is converted into _________. The now active _______ acts upon another circulating plasma protein called _________, which is fragmented into multiple segments. These segments rejoin, but now in long protein threads called ______.

tissue thromboplastin

In the extrinsic clotting mechanism, the damaged tissue that has released biochemicals is called _______________. Blood comes into contact with this and it activates a series of clotting factors found in blood. This leads to the production and release of a substance from the platelets.

natural, live

In the practical classification of immunity, the _______ acquired active immunity is immunity from a primary response to a ______ pathogen (i.e. being exposed to a virus when someone coughs on you.)

artificial, modified

In the practical classification of immunity, the _______ acquired active immunity is immunity from a primary response to a _________ (artificial) pathogen (i.e. vaccine)

passive

In the practical classification of immunity, the artificial acquired ________ immunity is an injection of a pre-made to an antigen, which is given after known exposure to an antigen. A person's own body does not make the antibodies (i.e. chicken pox, rabies)

passive

In the practical classification of immunity, the natural acquired ________ immunity obtains antibodies through a natural process. A person's own body does not make these antibodies. (i.e. pregnancy, breastfeeding)

hemoglobin

Iron is necessary for the synthesis of ___________.

vessel spasm

Mechanism of hemostasis that is ignited by the autonomic, sympathetic nervous system. Vasoconstriction occurs to decrease the blood flow and can last up to 30 minutes. Direct stimulation of the smooth muscle cells in the tunica media by substances released from damaged cells.

platelet plug formation

Mechanism of hemostasis where platelets adhere to the exposed ends of damaged vessels and other platelets, which forms a "patch" over the damaged area, which decreases blood flow. It can control blood loss from small breaks (larger breaks usually require a blood clot.)

granulocytes

Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are all ___________ (WBC type)

Type A

Only the antigen A =

Type B

Only the antigen B=

phagocytosis

Process where cells engulf damaged or foreign material.

prothrombin

Prothrombin activator acts upon a constantly circulating plasma protein called _________. (made by the liver)

erythropoietin, kidneys

Red blood cell production occurs in the red bone marrow and is stimulated by _________, which is secreted from the _______ in response to low oxygen.

erythrocytes, biconcave, nuclei, glycolysis

Red blood cells are also called __________. They are _______ in shape, have no ______ when mature, and only use ________ for ATP.

Albumin, globulins, fibrinogen

The 3 mains groups of plasma proteins are: ______, ______, and _______.

alpha, beta, gamma

The 3 types of globulins are: ______ (produced in the liver and used to transport lipids and vitamins), _______ (produced in the liver and used to transport lipids and vitamins), and _______ (formed by B-lymphocytes; type of antibody).

dominant

The DNA code for the red blood cell surface proteins in the ABO blood group is inherited as a __________ trait (you only need one gene to produce the protein, from mother or father)

immune response

The _________ is the body's ability to distinguish self from non-self.

helper

The activation of B cells occurs if they come into contact with non-self antigens of if they're stimulated by _____ T cells.

T-lymphocyte, B-lymphocyte

The adaptive defenses are the body's 3rd line of defense. The immune response can be _______ mediated or _______ mediated.

immunity

The body's adaptive defenses is also commonly called ________.

40, 60

The cellular to fluid ratio is ___% cellular and ___% fluid and other substances.

interferons

The chemical innate defense is a second line of defense when ________ (hormone-like peptides) that are produced by lymphocytes and monocytes respond to viruses or tumor cells. They are released by affected cells and bind to unaffected cells. The unaffected cells make proteins that block the synthesis of viruses. They also stimulate phagocytosis and other cells to resist infection.

hemostasis

The stoppage of bleeding. This occurs when virtually any blood vessel is damaged and there are several mechanisms employed to stop blood loss.

prothrombin activator

The substance released from the platelets during extrinsic clotting is called ____________.

ABO, Rh

The two main blood groups are the ______ blood group and the ______ blood group.

helper, cytotoxic, memory

There are 3 types of T cells involved in the cellular immune response: _______, ________, and ________.

isograft, autograft, allograft, xenograft

There are 4 main types of transplants. What are they?

IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE

There are five major types of immunoglobulins, based on their heavy chain structure. Name them all.

practical classification of immunity, allergic reactions, transplant and tissue reactions, autoimmunity

There are four types of immune responses. What are they?

innate, adaptive

There are two types of body defenses: ________ and _______.

fibrin

These long protein threads stick to the damaged vessels in a mesh-like structure resulting in trapped blood cells and platelets. This produces a blood clot.

oxygen and carbon dioxide

These two gases are the most abundant in the blood.

ABO, antigens

This blood group is based on the presence or absence of 2 major red blood cell surface proteins called ________.

leukotrienes

This causes smooth muscle constriction in the air passageways, resulting in difficulty breathing.

nitrogen

This gas is also found in the body in considerable amount, but there's no known physiological function.

simple sugars

This nutrient is formed from the breakdown of complex carbohydrates, which are either ingested or from internal sources.

amino acids

This nutrient is formed from the breakdown of proteins that are either ingested or from an internal source.

lipids

This nutrient is from multiple sources but must be transported by carrier proteins.

globulins

This plasma protein is named due to its spherical shape. It comprises 36% of plasma proteins.

fibrinogen

This plasma protein is the largest by size. It comprises ~4% of all the plasma proteins and is synthesized by the liver. It aids in blood coagulation and functions as a precursor to fibrin, which is the major component in the formation of a blood clot, along with platelets.

albumin

This plasma protein is the smallest by size. It comprises ~60% of all plasma proteins and is synthesized by the liver. It aids in keeping water within the blood vessels. (important in determining osmotic pressure; because it cannot leave the plasma, it "pulls" water into the blood vessels and helps control the normal fluid volume of blood.)

major histocompatibility complex

This protein is found on the cell membranes of cells so the cells can recognize themselves as "self."

variable region

This region of the amino acid chains in an antibody is the part that binds to a specific antigen, termed the antigen-binding site.

constant region

This region of the amino acid chains in an antibody is the part that is the same in all antibodies (anchor.)

hematocrit

This test is used to determine the percentage of red blood cells in the blood. (percentage by volume)

helper T cells

This type of T cell becomes activated when presented with a non-self antigen. It also activates the cytotoxic T cells and stimulates B cells to produce antibodies to the non-self antigen.

lymphocytes

This type of agranulocyte contains no granules, is slightly smaller than red blood cells, and the nuclei almost fills the cytoplasm. They normally represent 25-33% of all white blood cells. They function in immunity and the two major types are T-cells and B-cells.

monocytes

This type of agranulocyte is the largest of all the blood cells. It has no granules and the nuclei are oval, kidney shaped, or lobed. They normally represent 3-9% of all WBC's. They function to leave the blood to become macrophages.

innate

This type of defense always functions the same way regardless of what the pathogen is and how many times it's been exposed to a certain pathogen.

adaptive

This type of defense is very precise and targets a specific pathogen. The response is to only a single pathogen (specific).

basophils

This type of granulocyte has cytoplasm with coarse granules that appear deep blue and have nuclei usually with only a few lobes. They normally represent ~1% of all WBC's. They migrate to damaged tissue, promote an increase in blood flow, and release histamine and heparin.

eosinophils

This type of granulocyte has cytoplasm with coarse granules that appear deep red and have nuclei usually with only 2 lobes. They normally represent 1-3% of all WBC's. They react to moderate allergic reactions and defend against parasitic worms.

neutrophils

This type of granulocyte has cytoplasm with fine granules that appear light purple, nuclei are lobed (2-5 sections) and they're the first to arrive at an infection. They normally represent 54-62% of all WBC's. They function by phagocytosis.

mechanical

This type of innate body defense is considered the body's first line of defense and it consists of the largest organ, the skin, and the mucous membranes lining passageways.

cellular

Transplantation and tissue rejection resemble _______ immune response. It's a reaction against a transplanted tissue's antigens.

cytotoxic T cells

When activated by the helper T cells, increase in number rapidly. They function to combine to the cells with the non-self antigen then destroy the non-self cells.

leukocytes

White blood cells are also called _________. They function to protect against disease.

interleukins

White blood cells are developed from hematopoietic stem cells which are stimulated by hormones, more specifically the _______ group.

granulocytes, agranulocytes

White blood cells fall into two categories: ___________ and ___________.

IgG, basophils, histamine, heparin, leukotrienes

With an immediate reaction allergy (type I) a person tends to over-produce ____ antibodies. After the initial exposure (primary immune response) IgE attach to mast cells and ________. Subsequent exposure causes rapid reaction, releasing large amounts of ________ and ________ and also _________. These result in a severe inflammatory response. (i.e. hives, itching, asthma, hay fever)

capillaries

With time, red blood cells become fragile and damaged with repeated passage through the _________, especially in the skeletal muscle.

extrinsic

_______ clotting mechanism is a mechanism started by blood coming into contact with damaged blood vessels and/or tissue outside blood vessels. This contact exposes the blood to biochemicals released from the damaged tissues.

hapten

________ is a small molecule that, by itself, can not cause an immune response, but when combined with a larger molecule, can cause an immune response. (i.e. drugs, chemicals, dust particles, animal dander)

cytokines

_________ function to stimulate B cells to rapidly divide, they attract macrophages and other white blood cells into the inflamed tissue (form of chemotaxis) and it helps keep the immune cells there.

antibodies, immunoglobulins

___________ are proteins found circulating in plasma. These plasma proteins are the gamma globulins found in plasma called ___________.

autoimmunity

___________ is failure to distinguish self from non-self. It produces auto-antibodies and cytotoxic T cells that attack the body's tissues.

white blood cells

_______________ function to protect against infections by phagocytosis, producing antibodies, inflammation, and others.

allergic reactions, allergens

________________ are an immune response to a non-harmful substance, but can still damage tissues and cells. Antigens that cause this type of reaction are called ________.

anaphylactic shock

___________________ is the worst form of Type I allergic response. The face, tongue, and larynx may swell, can cause breathing to stop, and death can occur in 5-6 minutes. Immediate treatment of epinephrine.

secondary

During the _________ immune response, when an identical antigen is encountered in the future, memory B cells respond rapidly by producing IgG. In the blood, antibodies can be detected within 1-2 days after exposure.

primary

During the __________ immune response, activation of B cells and T cells after the 1st encounter of an antigen, plasma cells release antibodies into lymph fluid (IgM followed by IgG), antibodies are transported to the blood, then the body. In the blood, antibodies can be detected 5-10 days after exposure and it can last for several weeks.

plasma cells, memory B cells

During the humoral immune response, stimulated B cells rapidly divide and the new copies become either __________ which produce antibodies to the non-self antigen, or ____________. These do not respond initially but are put on reserve. They respond rapidly to future exposures but only to the exact same non-self antigen.

120

The limited life span of a red blood cell is approximately ____ days

extracellular matrix

The material surrounding the cells in connective tissues is called ____________.

blood coagulation

The most effective mechanism in hemostasis. It is for the formation of a blood clot and occurs through a series of reactions. Each reaction activates the next, referred to as a cascade.

diapedesis

The movement of white blood cells through the walls of very small blood vessels; allows white blood cells to leave through the circulation and move to the area of infection.