BMD 114 Exam 2 Study Guide

Differentiate between Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Dendritic ( Langerhans) Cells, and Tactile (Merkel) Cell based upon cellular function and skin layer

* Keratinocytes - Produces fibrous protein called Keratin - Continuously divide in the deepest Epithelial Layer. - As cells are pushed upwards, they produce keratin which eventually dominates their cell contents - When they reach skin surface they are dead, scale-like structure; Keratin-filled plasma membranes *Melanocytes - Produce the pigment melanin - Located in deepest epithelial layer - Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound granules then is taken up by nearby keratinocytes. - Melanin Granules accumulate on the apical (sun-exposed) side of the keratinocyte nucleus - Melanin Granules form a pigment shield protecting the nucleus from damaging UV radiation in sunlight * Dendritic (Langerhans) Cells - Arise from bone marrow & migrate to epidermis - Have slender cellular processes that extend among Keratinocytes forming a network - Ingest foreign substances - Key activators of our immune system *Tactile (Merkel) Cells - Function as touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings - Tactile Cell + Nerve Ending = Tactile (Merkel) Cell - Located at the epidermal-dermal junction

Given a type of tissue, match it with its capacity to regenerate.

- Extremely Well: Epithelium, Areolar Connective Tissue, Dense Irregular Connective Tissue, Bone, Blood-Forming Tissue. -Moderate: Dense Regular Connective Tissue, Smooth Muscle -Weak: Cartilage, Skeletal Muscle -Virtually None: Cardiac Muscle, Nervous tissue in brain & Spinal Cord

Differentiate between Cutaneous, Mucous, and Serous Membranes:

-Cutaneous Membranes: Skin; unlike other epithelial membranes, it is exposed to the air & dry -Mucous Membranes: Moist membranes that line all body cavities that open to the outside of the body. -Serous Membrane: Moist double-layer membranes found in closed ventral body cavities

Identify the structural characteristic of a nail

-Free edge -Hyponychium- Below free edge -Nail Body- Visible attached portion, Lunule- White Crescents -Nail Root- Part embedded in skin - Nail Bed- Deeper layers of epidermis underneath the nail. - Nail Matrix- Thickened proximal portion of nail bed where nail grows - Nail Folds- Overlapping skin folds - Eponychium (Cuticle)- Proximal nail fold that projects onto nail body

Differentiate between appositional and interstitial cartilage growth patterns.

1. Appositional Growth- Cartilage-forming cells in perichondrium secrete new matrix on the outside of existing cartilage. (Thickness) 2. Interstitial Growth- Chondrocytes in lacunae divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from the inside.

Explain how bones grow in width

1. Appositional Growth- Growth from the outside; causes long bones to widen. 2. Unequal processes produce thicker ,stronger bone - Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix on external bone surface - Osteoclasts remove bone - Normally, slightly more building up than breaking down

Differentiate between the axial and appendicular skeleton.

1. Axial Skeleton - Forms long axis of body - Functions- Protects, Supports, or Carries other body parts - Includes skull, Vertebral Column, & Rib Cage 2. Appendicular Skeleton - Bones attached to axial skeleton - Functions- Locomotion & Manipulation of environment - Includes upper/lower limb bones, shoulder bones,& hip bones

Describe the three major types of skin cancer and their characteristic.

1. Basal Cell Carcinoma - Most common, least malignant skin cancer. - Stratum basale cells proliferate then invade dermis & hypodermis. - Shiny, dome-shaped nodules that later. develop a central ulcer with a pearly, beaded edge. - Occurs mostly on sun-exposed areas of the face. - Slow growing & do not metastasize often. -99% of cases can be cured by surgical removal. 2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma - Second most common skin cancer - Develops from Stratum Spinosum Keratinocytes. - Scaly reddened papule (Small,rounded elevation) most often seen on scalp, ears, lower lip, or hands - Grows rapidly & metastasizes if not removed - Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically. 3. Melanoma - Least common, most dangerous skin cancer. - Cancer of melanocytes; can begin wherever there is pigment; 1/3 develop from preexisting moles. - Appears as spreading brown to black patch. - Highly metastatic & resistant to chemotherapy. - Treated by wide surgical excision with immunotheraphy; key to survival is early detection; poor prognosis if > 4mm thick

Define the following

1. Bone Remodeling- Process of bone formation & bone resorption at surfaces of periosteum & endosteum. 2. Bone Deposit- Occurss when 1) Bone is injured or 2) added bone strength is required (^ mechanical stress) - Osteoblasts deposit a seam of osteoid - After about a week, Hydroxyapatite crystals form 3. Bone Resorption- Occurs when 1) ionized calcium levels drop in the blood or 2) bones are subjected to less mechanical stress or gravity. - Osteoclasts- Resorb Bone

Define the following terms:

1. Cancer- Occurs through a logical, coordinated process in which a precise sequence of tiny alterations changes a normal cell into a cancer cell. 2. Carcinogen- Agents that can cause genetic mutations; changes in DNA alter the expression of certain genes; most carcinogens are removed by peroxisomal or lysosomal enzymes or by the immune system. 3. Proto- oncogenes- are benign forms of genes that code for proteins essential for cell division, growth,& cellular adhesion 4. Oncogenes- Disrupt normal cellular activity leading to abnormal cell growth & division. 5. Tumor Suppressor Gene- Suppress Cancer - Inactivate Carcinogens - Aid DNA Repair - Enhance Immune System 6. Apoptosis- Process of controlled cell death.

Differentiate between collagen, elastic, and reticular fiber.

1. Collagen (white) fibers- Extremely tough fibers that provide high tensile strength. 2. Elastic (yellow) fibers- Long, thin fibers of elastin that form branching networks; allow for stretch; pull connective tissue back to normal length & shape. 3. Reticular Fibers- Short, fine collagenous fibers that branch forming delicate networks; Surround small blood vessels & support the soft tissue of organs.

Describe the common types of bone fractures.

1. Comminuted- Bone fragments into three or more pieces. 2. Spiral- Ragged break when bone is excessively twisted. 3. Depressed- Broken bone portion pressed inward . 4. Compression- Bone is crushed (Spongy Bone). 5. Epiphyseal- Epiphysis seperated from diaphysis along epiphyseal plate. 6. Greenstick- Incomplete fracture where one side of bone breaks and other side bends.

Differentiate between compact bone and spongy bone.

1. Compact Bone- Smooth & solid dense outer layer 2. Spongy Bone- Internal honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces called trabeculae

Name the fundamental cells (mature and immature) of each of the four classes of connection tissue.

1. Connective Tissue Proper: -Immature Cells- Fibroblast - Mature Cells - Fibrocyte 2. Cartilage: - Immature Cells- Chondroblast - Mature Cells- Chondrocyte 3. Bone: - Immature Cells- Hematopoetic Stem Cell - Mature Cells- Erytyhrocytes, Leukocyte, etc

Describe the four main classes of connective tissue.

1. Connective Tissue Property 2. Cartilage 3. Bone 4. Blood

Explain the causes for alterations in skin color.

1. Cyanosis- Blue color due to poorly oxygenated blood; caused by heart failure & serve respiratory disorder. 2. Erythema- Redness caused by embarrassment (Blushing), Fever, Hypertension (High Blood Pressure), inflammation, or allergy. 3. Pallor or Blanching- Paleness caused by fear, anger, & certain other types of emotional distress, anemia (too few red blood cells), low blood pressure 4. Jaundice- Yellow skin tone caused by liver problem 5. Bronzing- Bronze, almost metallic hue caused by Addison's Disease; Inadequate amounts of certain steroid hormones or certain pituitary gland tumors 6. Black & Blue Marks- Bruises; caused by clotted blood under the skin

Define the following terms

1. Dermal Papilla- Peg-like projections on superior surface of dermis. 2. Dermal Ridge- Large dermal mounds in thick skin. 3. Epidermal Ridge- Ridges in epidermis caused by underlying dermal ridges 4. Friction Ridge- Dermal+Epidermal Ridges - Increase gripping ability of fingers & feet - Fingerprints- Genetically determined

Classify (name) glands based on where product is released and number of cells making up the gland.

1. Endocrine Glands- Ductless glands that produces hormones. - Secrets hormones through exocytosis into extracellular space. - Hormones enter blood or lymphatic fluid & travels to target organs. - Hormones prompts organ to respond in a characteristic way. 2. Exocrine Glands- Glands that secrete product onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities. - Secretes through exocytosis (unicellular) or ducts (mulitcellular). - Includes Mucus, Sweat, Oil, & Salivary Glands, The Liver, The Pancreas, and many others. - Can be Unicellular or Multicellular.

Describe the relative location and tissue makeup of skin epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.

1. Epidermis: Superfical regions (surface); Avascular, Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium 2. Dermis: Underlying region, Mostly dense irregular connective tissue; Vascular 3. Hypodermis: Not part of the skin, but shares of skin's protective function, Mostly Adipose Tissue; Thickens when a person gains weight, Anchors skin to underlying tissues, mostly muscles, Absorbs shock, Insulates

Differentiate between epiphyseal plate and epiphyseal line.

1. Epiphyseal Plate- Plate of hyaline cartilage at the junction of the diaphysis & epiphysis that provides for growth of long bones 2. Epiphyseal Line- At the end of adolescence, the bone of the epiphysis & diaphysis fuses forming the epiphyseal line; Longitudinal bone growth ends.

Describe the four types of tissue and associated functions.

1. Epithelial Tissue- Forms covering of all body surface; lines body cavities & hollow organs. 2. Connective Tissue- Binds structures together; supportive ( most diverse) 3. Muscle Tissue- Contracts to cause movement. 4. Nervous Tissue- Coordinates & controls many body. ( least diverse)

Explain what causes the following:

1. Gigantism- Caused by hypersecretion of growth hormones in children 2. Dwarfism- Caused by deflicts of growth hormones or thyroid hormones in children. 3. Osteogenesis Imperfecta- Genetic disorder characterized by bones that break easily with little or no apparent cause - Also called Brittle Bone Disease - Bone matrix contains inadequate amounts and/or quality of collegen - Mistaken for child abuse

Define the terms Glands and Secretion

1. Glands- consists of one or more cells that make and secretes a particular product 2. Secretion- Product secreted by a gland; usually aqueous (water based) but some are lipids- or steroid rich. Or the process of making and releasing that product

Identify the three main structural elements of connective tissue.

1. Ground Substance- Gel like or liquid substance. 2. Fiber- ground substance + fibers= extracellular matrix 3. Cells

Describe the stages of bone repair.

1. Hematoma Forms - Torn blood vessels hemorrhage - hematoma forms at fracture site - Site becomes swollen, painful,& inflamed 2. Fibrocartilage callus forms - Phagocytic cells clear debris - Capillaries grow into the hematoma - Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends - Chondroblasts secrete cartilage - Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone - Mass of repair tissue now called Fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus 3. Bony callus forms - New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus - A firm union occurs in about 2 months - Similar to endochondral ossification 4. Bone remodeling occurs - Excess material on bone shaft exterior and in medullary canal is removed. - Compact bone is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls. - Final structure of the remodeled area resembles that of the original unbroken bony region because it responds to the same stressors.

Explain the causes of Hirsutism, Alopecia, and True (Frank) Baldness.

1. Hirsutism- Excessive hairiness in females 2. Alopecia- Hair thinning in both sexes 3. True (Frank) Baldness - Most common type is male pattern baldness; Caused by response of hair follicles to a metabolite of testosterone

Explain the two control loops for bone remodeling.

1. Hormonal Mechanism- A negative feedback loop that maintains blood Ca2+ homeostasis - Calcium- A critical ion necessary for nerve transmission, muscle contraction, & blood coagulation (clotting) - Hormonal control loop maintains blood calcium within a very narrow range. 2. Mechanical Mechanism- Involves responses to mechanical & gravitational forces acting upon the skeleton, stimulating stronger bone at stressed areas

Differentiate between Hyaline Cartilage, Elastic Cartilage, and Fibrocartilage based upon structure and body location.

1. Hyaline Cartilage - Most abundant skeletal cartilage - Looks like frosted glass when freshly exposed - Spherical chondrocytes; Fine collagen fibers Location - Articular Cartilage- Cover ends of most bones movable joints - Costal Cartilage- Connect ribs to sternum - Respiratory Cartilage- Make up larynx; reinforce other air passages - Nasal Cartilage- Supbport the external nose 2. Elastic Cartilage - Similar to hyaline cartilage but contain more elastic fibers - Can endure repeating bending Location - External Ear (Pinna) - Epiglottis 3. Fibrocartilage - Parallel rows of chondrocytes alternating with thick collagen fibers. - Endures both pressure & stretch Location - Intervertebral discs - Pubic symphysis - Menisci of knee joints

Explain the steps in tissue repair.

1. Inflammation 2. Organization 3.Regeneration

Explain the two processes of fetal bony skeleton formation and the main steps in each process.

1. Intramembranous Ossification- Bone develops from a fibrous membrane 2. Endochondral Ossification- Bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage models - All bones below base of skull except clavicles - Also occurs during long bone lengthening & fracture repair. - Complex Process- Hyaline Cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds.

Describe the general shapes of the following bones:

1. Long Bones: Longer than wide with cylinder shaft & two ends Example: Humerus, Metacarpals, Phalanges 2. Short Bones: Roughly cube-shaped/ Roughly wide then long. Example: Wrist Bones, Ankle Bones 3. Flat Bones: Thin, Flattened & curved Example: Sternum, Scapulae 4. Irregular Bones: Complicated Shapes Example: Vertebrae, Hip Bones

Differentiate between loose and dense connective tissue.

1. Loose Connective Tissue: More cells, fewer fibers. - Areolar Connective Tissue - Adipose (fat) tissue - Reticular Connective Tissue 2. Fewer cells, more fibers; often referred to as fibrous connective tissue - Dense Regular Connective Tissue - Dense Irregular Connective Tissue - Elastic Connective Tissue

Describe features of the three skin color pigments.

1. Melanin- Formed in skin - more melanin=darker color=greater sun protection. 2. Carotene- yellow to orange pigment from foods like carrots. - Most obvious in palms & soles of feet 3. Hemoglobin- Reddish pigment in oxygenated red blood cells. - responsible for pinkish hue of fair skin.

Differentiate between Merocrine, Holocrine, and Apocrine Glands.

1. Merocrine- Products are secreted by exocytosis; most common. 2. Holocrine- Accumulate products until they rupture. 3. Apocrine- Accumulate products just beneath free surface; apex of cell pinches off from apical surface.

Differentiate between Osteogenic (Stem) Cell, Osteocytes, Bone-lining Cells, and Osteoclasts.

1. Osteogenic (Stem) Cell- Mitotically active stem cells. Located in Periosteum and endosteum 2. Osteocytes- Mature bone cells that occupy lacunae 3. Osteoclasts- giants multinucleate cells that resorb (Breaks Down) bone. 4. Bone-Lining Cells- Cells found on bone surfaces where bone remodeling (breaking down & building) is not occurring.

Explain the causes of Osteomalacia, Rickets, and Osteoporosis.

1. Osteomalacia- Bones are poorly mineralized so bones are soft & weak; also called adult rickets or late rickets 2. Rickets- Disease characterized by overpopulation & deficient calcification of osteoid tissue; occurs in children 3. Osteoporosis- a group of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposition; bone mass declines; bones become porous & light - Spongy bone of spine is affected the most; neck of femur becomes susceptible to fracture.

Describe the following

1. Osteon- Structural unit of compact bone 2. Lamella- Single column- like tube; calcified matrix containing many collagen fiber; arrangement of fibers resists twisting 3. Central (Haversian) Canal- Channel running down the center of an osteon; contains blood vessels and nerves. 4. Perforating (Volkmann's) Canal- Channels lying at right angles to the long axis of the bone. - Connects blood & nerve supply of the periosteum to the central canal and medullary cavity 5. Lacuna- Small cavities containing osteocytes 6. Canaliculus- Hair-like canals connecting lacunae to each other & central canal 7. Trabecula- A thin plate of bone; a tiny bone "strut" - Align along lines of stress, helping bones resist stress. - Only a few cells thick - No Osteons

Describe the general structure of the papillary layer and the reticular layer of the dermis

1. Papillary Layer: Areolar Connective Tissue with collagen & elastic fibers; highly vascular. 2. Reticular Layer: Dense Irregular Connective Tissue with collagen & elastic fibers - 80% of dermal thickness

Classify the following bone fractures:

1. Position of the bone ends after fracture - Nondisplaced- Bone ends retain their normal position. - Displaced- Bone ends are out of normal alignment. 2. Completeness of the break - Incomplete- Bone is not broken all the way through. - Complete- Bone is broken all the way through. 3. Bone orientaton to long axis - Linear- Fracture is parallel to bone long axis. - Transverse- Fracture is perpendicular to bone long axis 4. Skin penetration by bones ends - Simple(closed)- Bone ends do not penetrate skin - Compound (Open)- Bone ends penetrates skin

List the major functions of the Integumentary System.

1. Protection- Forms chemical, physical, & biological barrier 2. Body Temperature Regulation 3. Cutaneous Sensation- Cutaneous sensory receptors sense touch & pain 4. Metabolic- Synthesized vitamin D precursor 5. Blood Reservoir- Dermal blood vessels store up to 5% of body' s blood volume 6. Excretion- Eliminates small amounts of nitrogenous wastes in sweat.

Differentiate between Red Bone Marrow and Yellow Bone Marrow.

1. Red Bone Marrow- Hematopoietic tissue (forms blood cells). Location- Within trabecular cavities of spongy bone in long bone & diploe of flat bones - Infant- Medullary cavity of diaphysis & all spongy bone - Adults- Heads of femur & humerus diploe of flat bones some irregular bones 2. Yellow Bone Marrow- Fat (Adipose Tissue) Location- Medullary cavity of long bones - Can revert to red marrow if person becomes very anemic

List the functional zones of the epiphyseal plate. Explain what occurs in each zone

1. Resting (Quiescent) Zone- Relatively inactive cartilage on side of epiphyseal plate facing epiphysis. 2. Proliferation (Growth) Zone- Cartilage cells divide rapidly, pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis; lengthens bone. 3. Hypertrophic Zone- Older chondroctes hypertrophy (enlarge), lacunae erode & enlarge leaving large interconnecting spaces. 4. Calcifiaction Zone- Surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies causing chondrocytes to die & deteriorate. 5. Osteogenic Zone- Cartilage spicules are replaced with new bone

List characteristic of skeletal cartilage. Describe the Perichondrium.

1. Skeletal Cartilage - White, semi-opaque connective tissue - Lacks nerve fibers & blood vessels - Chondrocytes are typically found in small groups within cavities called Lacunae - Extracellular Matrix contains jellylike ground substance & fibers 2. Perichondrium - Layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds all cartilage except fibrocartilage - Resists outward expansion of cartilage when compressed - Contains blood vessels ( Nutrient delivery)

Arrange the five epidermal layers given a starting orientation. ( Base to Surface)

1. Stratum Basale (Base/ Deepest) 2. Stratum Spinosum 3. Stratum Granulosum 4. Stratum Lucidum 5. Stratum Corneum (Surface/ Superficial)

Describe the structural and functional characteristic of each of the five epidermal layers

1. Stratum Basale: Deepest epidermal layer; firmly attached to dermis; wavy boundary with dermis. Single row of youngest Keratinocytes. 10-25% of cells are melanocytes 2. Stratum Spinosum: Several cells layers thick; more mature Keratinocytes. Cell contain web-like system of intermediate filament (mainly pre-keratin) attached to desemosomes. (Anchors the cells). Has a spiny appearance 3. Stratum Granulosum: 3 to 6 cell layer; cells above this layer die because they are too far from capillaries in the dermis ( Epithelium is nonvascular). Dramatic change in keratinocyte appearance; Keratinization of cells begins. Cells fallten, Nuclei & organelles begin to disintegrate, and 2 types of granules accumulate: Keratohyaline Granules, Lamellar Granules 4. Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer): Thin, translucent band superficial to Stratum Granulosum. Eleidin (by-product of keratohyalin) does not stain. 2 or 3 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes. Only visible in thick skin. 5. Stratum Corneum (Cornified Layer): 20 to 30 layers of keratinized cells. Waterproofing, Abrasion & Laceration, Barrier. Thickest Layer

Explain the General functions of bones

1. Support 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Mineral Storage 5. Blood Cell Formation 6. Triglyceride ( Fat) Storage 7. Hormone Production

Define the terms Tissue and Histology.

1. Tissue- Groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function. 2. Histology- Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissue.

List the Organic and Inorganic components of bone

1.Organic Components - Bone Cells- Osteogenic Cells, Osteoblast, Osteocytes, Bone-lining cells & Osteoclasts Osteoid- Ummineralized, Organic bone matrix composed of ground substance & collagen; 1/3 of matrix; made and secreted by osteoblasts 2. Inorganic Components - Hydroxyapaties (Mineral salts) - 65% of bone by mass - Mainly calcium phosphate crystals - Account for bone's hardness & its ability to resist compression.

Classify burns based on degree of epidermal damage and appearance.

1st Degree Burns- Only epidermis is damaged 2nd Degree Burns- Damaged epidermis & upper dermis 3rd Degree Burns- Full skin thickness damage

Explain the ABCD rule for melanoma.

A- asymmetry; two sides of pigmented area do not match. B- border is irregular and scalloped. C- color; pigmented area contains several colors. D- diameter is larger than 6mm

Give Description, Function, and Location of the following Connective Tissue :

A. Areolar Connective Tissue: Gel-Like matrix with all 3 types that are loosely arranged; cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells, & fat cells. Function: Supports & binds other tissues- Fibers, Holds body fluids- Ground Substance; excess fluid causes edema, Defends against infection- white blood cells & macrophages, Stores nutrients- Fat cells. Location: Widely distributed under epithelia, Present in mucous membrane as lamina propria. B. Adipose Connective Tissue: Closely packed adipocytes; Scanty matrix similar to areolar connective tissue matrix; richly vascularized. Function: Energy Storage, Insulates against heat loss, Supports organ, Protects organ from shock. Location: Found under skin (subcutaneous); serves general nutrient needs of the entire body, Around organ with high energy needs like the heart, lymph nodes, some muscles, & bone marrow, Surrounds the kidneys, Behind the eyeballs, Found in genetically determined fat depots such as abdomen & hips, In breast. C. Reticular Connective Tissue: Delicate network of reticular fibers in a loose ground substance; reticular cells (fibroblasts) are scattered throughout network. Function: Forms stroma (Internal Framework) of organs; supports many free blood cells. Location: Lymphoid Organs- Lymph Nodes, Bone Marrow, Spleen. D. Dense Regular Connective Tissue: Closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction, Parallel to the direction of pull; wavy arrangement allows tissue to stretch a bit; a few elastic fibers; few cells other than fibroblasts. Function: Withstands tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction, Attaches muscles to bone, muscles to muscles, or bone to bone. Location: Tendon- Cord attaching muscle to bone, Ligament- Connects bone to bone, Aponeurosis- Sheet-like tendon, Fascia- Fibrous wrapping around muscles, blood vessels,& nerves E. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: Thick bundles of collagen fibers that are irregular arranged; forms tough sheets where tension is exerted in different direction; major cell type is fibroblast. Function: Withstands tensile stress when pulling force is applied in many directions. Location: Found in skin as the dermis, Fibrous joint capsules, Fibrous covering some organs. F. Elastic Connective Tissue: Dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers. Function: Allows recoil of tissue following stretching, Maintains pulsatile flow of blood (pulse) through arteries, Aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration. Location: Within certain vertebral ligaments, Walls of large arteries,Within bronchial tube G. Hyaline Cartilage: Glassy matrix composed of evenly distributed collagen fibers; major cell type is chondrocytes. Function: Supports & reinforces, Cushions, Resists compression. Location: Forms most of the embryonic skeleton, Covers the ends of long bones, Costal cartilage of ribs, Tip of nose, Trachea & larynx. H. Elastic Cartilage: Has more elastic fibers in matrix. Function: maintains shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility. Location: Supports external ear (pinna), Epiglottis- flap that covers the respiratory tract when we swallow; prevents food & fluid from entering the lungs. I. Fibrocartilage: Rows of chondrocytes ( a feature of cartilage) alternate with rows of thick collagen fibers. Function: Provides strong support, Withstand heavy pressure. Location: Invertebral discs- cushion between bony vertebrae, Pubic Symphysis, Menisci- Discs of knee joint. J. Bone: Hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; Osteocytes lie in lacunae; very well vascularized. Function: Supports & protects body structures, Provides levers for muscles to act on, Stores Calcium, Minerals,& Fat, Forms blood in its bone marrow. Location: Bones K. Blood: Red and white cells surrounded by a fluid matrix called blood plasma. Function: Transport respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, & many other substances. Location: Contained within blood vessels

Recall Structural/Functional characteristics and products of the following glands:

A. Eccrine Sweat Glands: - Structure- Simple, coiled tubular glands; ducts connects to a pore on skin's surface. -Function- produces sweat, prevents overheating B. Apocrine Sweat Glands: -Structure- Merocrine glands; ducts empty into hair follicles -Function- Produces product similiar to sweat plus fatty substances & proteins; precise function is unknown; increased activity during pain, stress, sexual arousal, & phases of menstrual cycle; causes of "Body Odor" C. Ceruminous Sweat Glands: -Structure- Modified apocrine glands -Function- Produce a substance that helps form cerumen (carwax); deters insects & blocks entry of foreign material D. Mammary Glands: - Structure- Specialized sweat glands -Function- Secrets milk to nourish a newborn baby E. Sebaceous (oil) Glands: -Structure- Simple Branched Alveolar Glands that develop mostly from hair follicles; holocrine glands -Function- Secrete an oily substance called Sebum (Softens & Lubricates hair & skin) -Slows water loss from skin - Kills bacteria -Production increases at puberty

Describe the structure, function, and location of the following epithelial:

A. Simple Squamous Epithelium- Single layer of flattened cells with disc shaped central nuclei; sparse cytoplasm. Function- Absorption, Secretion, & Filtration. Locations- In the Kidney Glomeruli- Urine formation, Walls of alveoli - Air sacs in lungs; Gas exchange, Endothelium- Slick, friction- reducing lining in lymphatic vessels, heart lining, & blood vessels, Mesothelium- In serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity & covering organs. B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium- Single layer of cube-like cells with large, sperical, central nuclei. Functions- Secretion & Absorption. Location- Kidney Tubules, Ducts & Secretory portions of small glands, & Ovary surface. C. Simple Columnar Epithelium- Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; Some have cilia on apical surface. Functions- Absorption, Secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances. Location- Nonciliated: Line most of the digestive tract (stomach to rectum), gallbladder, & excretory ducts of some glands, Ciliated: Line small bronchi, uterine tubes, & some regions of the uterus. D. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium- Single layer of cells of differing heights with some not reaching free surface. Function- Mucus secretion & propulsion of mucus by cilia. Locations- Nonciliated: male sperm- carrying ducts & ducts of large glands. Ciliated: Line trachea & most of the upper respiratory tract. E. Stratified Squamous Epithelium- Several layers of cells; its apical cells are squamous and its basal cells are cuboidal or columnar. Function- Protects underlying areas from abrasion. Locations- Kerainized Type- Skin's epidermis, NonKeratinized Type- Moist linings of esophagus, mouth, and vagina. F. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium- Typically has two layers of cuboidal cells; rare in the body. Location: Ducts of larger glands (sweat & mammary glands) G. Stratified Columnar Epithelium- Columnar apical layer; limited distribution in the body. Location: Pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts. H. Transitional Epithelium- Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal;cuboidal or columnar basal cells. Functions- Cells flatten to permit urinary bladder dissension, Allows greater volume of urine to flow through tube-like organ, Allows more urine to be stored in bladder. Location- Linings of hollow urinary organs

Give the description, function, and location of the following types of muscle tissues:

A. Skeletal Muscle: Contains long, cylindrical, multinucleate skeletal muscle cells (also called muscle fibers): Striated (banded) appearance reflects myofilament arrangement. Function: Initiates and controls voluntary movement; Voluntary muscle. Location: Found in skeletal muscles attached to bones, skin, or other muscles B. Cardiac Muscles: Cells are striated but generally only have one nucleus; cells branch & fit together tightly at junctions called intercalated discs. Function: Contraction propels blood through blood vessels; involuntary muscle. Location: Walls of the Heart C. Smooth Muscle: Spindle- shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells are closely arranged in sheets. Function: Squeezes substances through hollow organs by alternately contracting & relaxing; involuntary muscle. Location: Walls of hollow organs other than the heart.

Which of the following sdorferous glands secrete containing proteins and fatty acids and can be found in the axillary or anogenital regions?

Apocrine Glands

Explain why Bone Marrow transplants are performed.

Blood stem cells (immature blood cells in the bone marrow) from a donor replace bone marrow in a recipient (patient) that either isn't working property or has been destroyed by chemotherapy or radiation.

Which of the following are hair-like canals connecting lacunae to each other?

Canaliculi

Describe the main functions and distinguishing characteristics of connective tissue.

Connective Tissue Functions: - Binding & Support- Bone & Cartilage - Protection- Bone, Cartilage, & Fat - Insulation- Fat - Transportation - Blood - Storage- Fat Connective Tissue Characteristics: 1. Common Origin- All connective tissue arise from Mesenchyme ( a type of embryonic tissue). 2. Varying degree of Vascularity- From avascular (No blood vessels) to richly vascular (rich supply of blood vessels). 3. Extracellular Matrix- Nonliving material that makes up most of connective tissue; allow connective tissue to bear weight, withstand great tension, & endure physical trauma.

Which is the correct order of epidermal layers (Strata), Starting from the surface and going inward?

Corneum>Granulosum>Spinosum>Basale

Which of the following bone marking is a narrow, prominent ridge of bone?

Crest

Which of the following connective tissue fibers is described as long, thin fibers that allow for stretch?

Elastic

Elastic cartilage:

Forms the epiglottis

Describe Ground Substance. Explain its composition and function

Ground Substance- Unstructured material that fills the space between the cells & contains the fibers. Composition of ground substance-: 1. Interstitial (tissue) fluid- Fluid in spaces between the tissue cells. 2. Cell Adhesion Proteins- Connective tissue "glue"; attaches cells to matrix 3. Proteoglycans- Protein Core+ Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) - Chondroitin Sulfare & Hyaluronic Acid- (GAGs) - Like bottle brushes that trap water to form fluid or gel. Functions of Connective Tissue: - Holds large amounts of fluid & functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients diffuse between blood capillaries & cells.

Recall structural characteristic of hair and hair follicles.

Hair- Flexible strands produced by hair follicles; consist largely of dead, keratinized cells. Hair Follicles- Tube-like folding of the epidermis where hairs develop & into which sebaceous glands open.

Define the following

Hematoma- Blood Body

Describe the hormones that affect bone growth.

Hormone Regulation 1. Infancy & Childhood- Epiphyseal plate activity is stimulated by growth hormones; GH activity is modulated by thyroid hormones 2. Puberty- Testosterone & estrogens take over - Promote initial adolescent growth spurt - Cause masculinization or feminization of specific skeleton parts - Induce epiphyseal plate closure--> long bone growth ends.

Differentiate between thick skin and thin skin. List the location of both

In thick skin they have the layer Stratum Lucidum which is 2 or 3 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes

Hyaline Cartilage would not be associate with:

Intervertebral Discs

A vertebra would be an example of a(n):

Irregular Bone

Dense connective tissue would not be found in:

Lymph Nodes

Describe the main functions & distinguishing characteristic of epithelial tissue.

Main Functions 1. Forms boundaries between different environment. 2. Protect underlying tissue from injury. 3. Absorbs substances (digestive tract) 4. Filter substance (kidney tubules) 5. Exretes substances ( eliminates metabolic waste) 6. Secretes substances ( Hormones, Mucus) 7. Senses stimuli (pressure,. heat, etc) Distinguishing Characteristic 1. Polarity- Top & Bottom surface of cell are different -Apical Surface- Upper free surface -Basal Surface- Lower attached surface 2. Specialized Contacts- Cells are held together in continuous sheets by tight junctions & desmosomes (except for glandular epithelium). 3. Supported by connective tissue- Basal Lamina+ Reticular Lamina= Basement Membrane. 4. Avasular but innervated- No blood vessels; supplied by nerve fibers (Difussion) 5. Regeneration- Rapidly replaces lost cells by division.

Give the description, function, and location of nervous tissue.

Nervous Tissue: Main Component of the nervous system. - Neurons: Generate and conduct nerve impulses - Supporting Cells: Nonconducting cells that support, insulate, & protect neurons Function: Transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the nervous system & from the nervous system to muscles & glands. Locations: Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves

Define the term Osteogenesis.

Ossification (Osteogenesis) - Process of bone formation Resulting in the following processes: - Embryonic bony skeleton formation - Bone growth ( Until early adulthood) - Bone remodeling & repair

Which long bone growth zone demonstrate new bone formation?

Ossification Zone

Explain how parathyroid hormone controls bone remodeling

Parathyroid Hormones (PTH)- Primary hormones controlling bone remodeling ( Increases blood calcium) 1. Low blood Ca2+ levels 2. Parathyroid glands release PTH 3. PTH stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone, releasing Ca2+ 4. High blood Ca2+ levels

List the risk factors for Osteoporosis and the prevention.

Risk Factors - Reduced estrogen levels - Petite body form - Insufficient exercise - Diet poor in calcium & protein - Abnormal vitamin D receptors - Smoking - Some hormones imbalances Prevention - Get plenty of calcium while your bones are still increasing in density. - Avoid excessive intake of carbonated beverages and alcohol; leach minerals from bone. - Get plenty of weight-bearing exercise.

What epithelial cell type is responsible for kidney glomerular filtration?

Simple Squamous

Which stratum is not found in thin skin?

Stratum Lucidum

which epithelial layer is also called the "Prickly" or "Spiny" layer?

Stratum Spinosum

Describe the microscopic structure of short, irregular, and flat bone

Superficial Layer- Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone. Deep Layer- Endosteum-covered spongy bone

Differentiate between Vellus and Terminal hair.

Vellus Hair- Pale, fine body hair of children & women. Teminal Hair- Coarse, longer hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary regions, pubic regions: males-face, chest, arms, & legs

Which of the following is part of the axial skeleton?

Vertebral Column

State Wolff's law. Explain its effects upon different bones and/or bone statement.

Wolff's Law- A bone or remodels in response to the demands placed on it; a bone anatomy reflects the common stressors it encounters - Long Bones- Thickest midway along shaft - Curved Bones- Thickest where they are most likely to buckle ( capped stone) - Trabeculae- Forms trusses along compression lines - Large Projections- Form where heavy, active muscles attach - handedness- Causes the bones of the most used upper limb to be thicker